Power System Stability and Control PRABHA KUNDURPOWER SYSTEM STABILITY AND CONTROL P. KUNDUR Vice-President, Power Engineering Powertech Labs Inc., Surrey, British Columbia Formerly Manager Analytical Methods and Specialized Studies Department Power System Planning Division, Ontario Hydro, Toronto and Adjunct Professor Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario Edited by Neal J. Balu Mark G. Lauby Power System Planning and Operations Program Electrical Systems Division Electric Power Research Institute 3412 Hillview Avenue Palo Alto, California McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoCopyrighted Material Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kundur, Prabha. Power system stability and control / Praha Kundur. pom. EPRI Editors, Neal J, Bal and Mark G, Lasby. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-07-035958-X 1. Elecaric power system stability. 2. Electric power systems Control. L Tite, TKIO0S,.K86 1993 621.319-6e20 93-21456 cr Copyright #1994 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America, Except as permitted under the United States ‘Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in # data base or retrieval system, without the price written permission of the publisher. 674910 11 DOCMOCO9HTHS4321 ESBN 0-07-095958-X The sponsoring editor for this book was Harold B. Crawford, and the Production supervisor was Domalid Schmidt Printed and bound by RR. Donnelley & Sons Company. Information contained im this work has been obtained by McGraw- Hill, Inc., from sources believed to be reliable. However, mcither McGraw-Hill nor its awthors nor its editors guarantee the accuracy CopyrightContents FOREWORD PREFACE PART | GENERAL BACKGROUND 1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS 1d Evolution of electric power systems 1.2 Structure of the power system 1.3. Power system control 1.4 Design and operating criteria for stability References INTRODUCTION TO THE POWER SYSTEM STABILITY PROBLEM 2.1 Basic concepts and definitions 2.1.1 Rotor angle stability 2.1.2 Voltage stability and voltage collapse 2.1.3 Mid-term and long-term stability 2.2 Classification of stability 2.3 Historical review of stability problems References vii xix xxi wo BBeuw 17viii Contents PART 11 EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND MODELLING 3 > SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE THEORY AND MODELLING 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.9 Physical description 3.1.1 Armature and field structure 3.1.2. Machines with multiple pole pairs 3.1.3 MMF waveforms 3.1.4 — Direct and quadrature axes Mathematical description of a synchronous machine 3.2.1 Review of magnetic circuit equations 3.2.2 Basic equations of a synchronous machine The dg transformation Per unit representation 3.4.1 Per unit system for the stator quantities 3.4.2 Per unit stator voltage equations 3.4.3 Per unit rotor voltage equations 3.4.4 Stator flux linkage equations 3.4.5 Rotor flux linkage equations 3.4.6 Per unit system for the rotor 3.4.7 Per unit power and torque 3.4.8 Alternative per unft systems and transformations 3.4.9 Summary of per unit equations Equivalent circuits for direct and quadrature axes Steady-state analysis 3.6.1 Voltage, current, and flux linkage relationships 3.6.2 Phasor representation 3.6.3 Rotor angle 3.6.4 Steady-state equivalent circuit 3.6.5 Procedure for computing steady-state values Electrical transient performance characteristics 3.7.1 Short-circuit current in a simple RZ circuit 3.7.2 Three-phase short-circuit at the terminals of a synchronous machine 3.7.3 Elimination of de offset in short-circuit current Magnetic saturation 3.8.1 Open-circuit and short-circuit characteristics 3.8.2 Representation of saturation in stability studies 3.8.3 Improved modelling of saturation Equations of motion 45 46 46 49 49 53 56 59 67 75 75 76 77 78 78 79 83 83 84 88 93 93 95 98 99 100 105 105 107 108 110 110 112 117 128Contents 3.9.1 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4 3.9.5 References Review of mechanics of motion Swing equation Mechanical starting time Calculation of inertia constant Representation in system studies 4 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE PARAMETERS 4.1 Operational parameters 4.2 Standard parameters 4.3. Frequency-response characteristics 4.4 Determination of synchronous machine parameters References 5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE REPRESENTATION IN STABILITY STUDIES 5.1 Simplifications essential for large-scale studies Sd 5.1.2 Neglect of stator py terms Neglecting the effect of speed variations on stator voltages 5.2 Simplified model with amortisseurs neglected 5.3. Constant flux linkage model 53.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 Classical model Constant flux linkage model including the effects of subtransient circuits Summary of simple models for different time frames 5.4 Reactive capability limits S41 5.4.2 References Reactive capability curves V curves and compounding curves AC TRANSMISSION 6.1 Transmission lines 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 Electrical characteristics Performance equations Natural or surge impedance loading Equivalent circuit of a transmission line Typical parameters 128 128 132 132 135 136 139 139 144 159 161 166 169 169 170 174 179 184 184 188 190 191 191 196 198 199 200 200 201 205 206 2096.1.6 6.1.7 6.1.8 6.1.9 6.1.10 6.1.11 6.1.12 Contents Performance requirements of power transmission lines Voltage and current profile under no-load Voltage-power characteristics Power transfer and stability considerations Effect of line loss on V=P and Q-P characteristics Thermal limits Loadability characteristics 6.2 Transformers 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 Representation of two-winding transformers Representation of three-winding transformers Phase-shifting transformers 6.3. Transfer of power between active sources 6.4 Power-flow analysis 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 64.5 6.4.6 64.7 References Network equations Gauss-Seidel method Newton-Raphson (N-R) method Fast decoupled load-flow (FDLF) methods Comparison of the power-flow solution methods Sparsity-oriented triangular factorization Network reduction POWER SYSTEM LOADS 7.1 Basic load-modelling concepts TAA TAQ Static load models Dynamic load models 7.2, Modelling of induction motors. 721 7.2.2 7.23 7.24 725 7.2.6 Equations of an induction machine Steady-state characteristics Alternative rotor constructions Representation of saturation Per unit representation Representation in stability studies 7.3 Synchronous motor model : 7.4 Acquisition of load-model parameters TAL 74.2 743 References Measurement-based approach Component-based approach Sample load characteristics 2u1 211 216 221 225 226 228 231 232 240 245 250 255 257 259 260 264 267 268 268 269 271 271 272 274 279 279 287 293 296 297 300 306 306 306 308 310 312Contents 8 EXCITATION SYSTEMS 8.1 Excitation system requirements 8.2 Elements of an excitation system 8.3. Types of excitation systems 8.3.1 DC excitation systems 8.3.2 AC excitation systems 8.3.3 Static excitation systems 8.3.4 Recent developments and future trends 8.4 Dynamic performance measures 8.4.1 Large-signal performance measures 8.4.2 Small-signal performance measures 8.5 Control and protective functions 8.5.1 AC and DC regulators 8.5.2 Excitation system stabilizing circuits 8.5.3 Power system stabilizer (PSS) 8.5.4 Load compensation 8.5.5 Underexcitation limiter 8.5.6 Overexcitation limiter 8.5.7 Volts-per-hertz limiter and protection 8.5.8 Field-shorting circuits 8.6 Modelling of excitation systems 8.6.1 Per unit system 8.6.2 Modelling of excitation system components 8.6.3 Modelling of complete excitation systems 8.6.4 Field testing for model development and verification References 9 PRIME MOVERS AND ENERGY SUPPLY SYSTEMS 9.1 Hydraulic turbines and governing systems 9.1.1 — Hydraulic turbine transfer function 9.1.2 Nonlinear turbine model assuming inelastic water column 9.1.3 Governors for hydraulic turbines 9.1.4 Detailed hydraulic system model 9.1.5 Guidelines for modelling hydraulic turbines 9.2 Steam turbines and governing systems 9.2.1 Modelling of steam turbines ~ 9.2.2 Steam turbine controls 9.2.3. Steam turbine off-frequency capability xi 315 315 317 318 319 320 323 326 327 327 330 333 333 334 335 335 337 337 339 340 341 342 347 362 372 373 377 377 379 387 394 404 417 418 422 432 44410 Contents 9.3 Thermal energy systems 449 9.3.1 Fossil-fuelled energy systems 449 9.3.2 Nuclear-based energy systems 455 9.3.3 Modelling of thermal energy systems 459 References 460 HIGH-VOLTAGE DIRECT-CURRENT TRANSMISSION 463 10.1 HVDC system configurations and components 464 10.1.1 Classification of HVDC links 464 10.1.2 Components of HVDC transmission system 467 10.2. Converter theory and performance equations 468 10.2.1 Valve characteristics 469 10.2.2 Converter circuits 470 10.2.3 Converter transformer rating 492 10.2.4 Multiple-bridge converters 493 10.3. Abnormal operation 498 10.3.1 Arc-back (backfire) 498 10.3.2 Commutation failure 499 10.4 Control of HVDC systems 500 10.4.1 Basic principles of control 500 10.4.2 Control implementation 514 10.4.3. Converter firing-control systems 516 10.4.4 Valve blocking and bypassing 520 10.4.5 Starting, stopping, and power-flow reversal 521 10.4.6 Controls for enhancement of ac system performance 523 10.5 Harmonies and filters 524 10.5.1 AC side harmonics 524 10.5.2. DC side harmonics 527 10.6 Influence of ac system strength on ac/dc system interaction 528 10.6.1 Short-circuit ratio 528 10.6.2 Reactive power and ac system strength 529 10.6.3. Problems with low ESCR systems 530 10.6.4 Solutions to problems associated with weak systems 531 10.6.5 Effective inertia constant 3532 10.6.6 Forced commutation 532 10.7 Responses to de and ac system faults 533 10.7.1 DC line faults 534 10.7.2. Converter faults 535 10.7.3. AC system faults 535Contents 10.8 10.9 Multiterminal HVDC systems 10.8.1 MTDC network configurations 10.8.2 Control of MTDC systems Modelling of HVDC systems 10.9.1 Representation for power-flow solution 10.9.2 Per unit system for de quantities 10.9.3 Representation for stability studies References 11 CONTROL OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER 11.1 Active power and frequency control 11.1.1 Fundamentals of speed governing 11.1.2 Control of generating unit power output 11.1.3. Composite regulating characteristic of power systems 11.1.4 Response rates of turbine-governing systems 11.1.5 Fundamentals of automatic generation control 11.1.6 Implementation of AGC 11.1.7 Underfrequency load shedding Reactive power and voltage control 11.2.1 Production and absorption of reactive power 11.2.2 Methods of voltage control 11.2.3. Shunt reactors 11.2.4 Shunt capacitors 11.2.5 Series capacitors 11.2.6 Synchronous condensers 11.2.7 Static var systems 11.2.8 Principles of transmission system compensation 11.2.9 Modelling of reactive compensating devices 11.2.10 Application of tap-changing transformers to transmission systems 11.2.11 Distribution system voltage regulation 11.2.12 Modelling of transformer ULTC control systems Power-flow analysis procedures 11.3.1 Prefault power flows 11.3.2 Postfault power flows References xiii 538 539 540 344 544 566 S77 581 581 582 592 595 598 601 617 623 627 627 628 629 631 633 638 639 654 672 678 679 684 687 687 688 691xiv Contents PART Ill SYSTEM STABILITY: physical aspects, analysis, and improvement 13 12 SMALL-SIGNAL STABILITY 699 12.1 Fundamental concepts of stability of dynamic systems 700 12.1.1 State-space representation 700 12.1.2 Stability of a dynamic system 702 12.1.3 Linearization 703 12.1.4 Analysis of stability 706 12.2 Eigenproperties of the state matrix 707 Eigenvalues 707 Eigenvectors 707 Modal matrices 708 Free motion of a dynamic system 709 Mode shape, sensitivity, and participation factor 714 Controllability and observability 716 The concept of complex frequency 717 Relationship between eigenproperties and transfer functions 719 Computation of eigenvalues 726 12.3 Small-signal stability of a single-machine infinite bus system 727 12.3.1 Generator represented by the classical model 728 12.3.2 Effects of synchronous machine field circuit dynamics 737 12.4 Effects of excitation system 758 12.5 Power system stabilizer 766 12.6 System state matrix with amortisseurs 782 12.7 Small-signal stability of multimachine systems 792 12.8 Special techniques for analysis of very large systems 799 12.9 Characteristics of small-signal stability problems 817 References 822 TRANSIENT STABILITY 827 13.1 An elementary view of transient stability 827 13.2 Numerical integration methods 836 13.2.1 Euler method 836 13.2.2 Modified Euler method 838 13.2.3. Runge-Kutta (R-K) methods 838 13.2.4 Numerical stability of explicit integration methods 841 13.2.5 Implicit integration methods 342Contents 13.3. Simulation of power system dynamic response 13.3.1 Structure of the power system model 13.3.2 Synchronous machine representation 13.3.3. Excitation system representation 13.3.4 Transmission network and load representation 13.3.5 Overall system equations 13.3.6 Solution of overall system equations 13.4 Analysis of unbalanced faults 13.4.1 Introduction to symmetrical components 13.4.2 Sequence impedances of synchronous machines 13.4.3. Sequence impedances of transmission lines 13.4.4 Sequence impedances of transformers 13.4.5 Simulation of different types of faults 13.4.6 Representation of open-conductor conditions 13.5 Performance of protective relaying 13.5.1 Transmission line protection 2 Fault-clearing times 3 Relaying quantities during swings 4 Evaluation of distance relay performance during swings 5 Prevention of tripping during transient conditions 6 Automatic line reclosing 7 Generator out-of-step protection 13.5.8 Loss-of-excitation protection 13.6 Case study of transient stability of a large system 13.7 Direct method of transient stability analysis 13.7.1 Deseription of the transient energy function approach 13.7.2 Analysis of practical power systems 13.7.3 Limitations of the direct methods References 14 VOLTAGE STABILITY 14.1 14.2 Basic concepts related to voltage stability 14.1.1 Transmission system characteristics 14.1.2 Generator characteristics. 14.1.3 Load characteristics 14.1.4 Characteristics of reactive compensating devices Voltage collapse 14.2.1 Typical scenario of voltage collapse 14.2.2 General characterization based on actual incidents xv 848 848 849 855 858 859 861 872 872 877 884 884 885 898 903 903 911 914 919 920 922 923 927 934 941 941 945 954 954 959 960 960 967 968 969 973 974 975xvi 15 16 14.2.3 Classification of voltage stability 14.3. Voltage stability analysis 14.3.1 Modelling requirements 14.3.2 Dynamic analysis 14.3.3 Static analysis 14.3.4 Determination of shortest distance to instability 14.3.5 The continuation power-flow analysis 14.4 Prevention of voltage collapse 14.4.1. System design measures 14.4.2 System-operating measures References SUBSYNCHRONOUS OSCILLATIONS 15.1 Turbine-generator torsional characteristics 15.1.1 Shaft system model 15.1.2 Torsional natural frequencies and mode shapes 15.2. Torsional interaction with power system controls 15.2.1 Interaction with generator excitation controls 15.2.2 Interaction with speed governors 15.2.3 Interaction with nearby de converters 15.3 Subsynchronous resonance 15.3.1 Characteristics of series capacitor-compensated transmission systems 15.3.2 Self-excitation due to induction generator effect 15.3.3 Torsional interaction resulting in SSR 15.3.4 Analytical methods 15.3.5 Countermeasures to SSR problems 15.4 Impact of network-switching disturbances 15.5 Torsional interaction between closely coupled units 15.6 Hydro generator torsional characteristics References MID-TERM AND LONG-TERM STABILITY 16.1 Nature of system response to severe upsets 16.2 Distinction between mid-term and long-term stability 16.3 Power plant response during severe upsets 16.3.1 Thermal power plants 16.3.2 Hydro power plants Contents 976 977 978 978 990 1007 1012 1019 1019 1021 1022 1025 1026 1026 1034 1041 1041 1047 1047 1050 1050 1052 1053 1053 1060 1061 1065 1067 1068 1073 1073 1078 1079 1079 1081Contents 16.4 Simulation of long-term dynamic response 16.4.1 Purpose of long-term dynamic simulations 16.4.2 Modelling requirements 16.4.3 Numerical integration techniques 16.5 Case studies of severe system upsets 16.5.1 Case study involving an overgenerated island 16.5.2 Case study involving an undergenerated island References 17 METHODS OF IMPROVING STABILITY 17.1 Transient stability enhancement 17.1.1 High-speed fault clearing 17.1.2 Reduction of transmission system reactance 17.1.3 Regulated. shunt compensation 17.1.4 Dynamic braking 17.1.5 Reactor switching 17.1.6 Independent-pole operation of circuit breakers Single-pole switching Steam turbine fast-valving Generator tripping Controlled system separation and load shedding High-speed excitation systems Discontinuous excitation control Control of HVDC transmission links 17.2 Small-signal stability enhancement 17.2.1 Power system stabilizers 17.2.2 Supplementary control of static var compensators 17.2.3 Supplementary control of HVDC transmission links References INDEX xvii 1085 1085 1085 1087 1088 1088 1092 1099 1103 1104 1104 1104 1105 1106 1106 1107 1107 1110 1118 1120 1121 1124 1125 1127 1128 1142 1151 1161 1167