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CEF Books-British-Council-Eaquals-Core-Inventory PDF
CEF Books-British-Council-Eaquals-Core-Inventory PDF
Michael Carrier
Head English Language Innovation
British Council
2 3
Acknowledgements Contents
The British Council and EAQUALS would like to thank the following 1 The CEFR 6
people who contributed to the workshops in this project: 2 Project Aims 8
Mila Angelova, Rachel Bowden, Peter Brown, Lucy Chambers,
3 Project Procedure 9
Alistair Fortune, Tim Goodier, Clare Grundy, Roxane Harrison,
Andrew Hart, Neil Hatfield, Sam Hawes, Nicky Johnson, 4 Project Products 12
Nareene Kaloyan, Hanan Khalifa, Maja Kukoya, Martin Lowder, 5 CEFR-based Scenarios 13
Brian North, Niamh O’Leary, Barry O’Sullivan, Angeles Ortega,
Susan Sheehan, Jana Pirkova, Caroline Preston, Richard Simpson, 6 A Core Inventory: Documentation of Best Practice 18
Howard Smith, Liz Tuck, Marieta Tusheva. 7 Guidelines for Users 20
8 Conclusion 21
Appendices
A Salient Characteristics of CEFR levels – spoken language 23
B CEFR-based Scenarios 26
C Mapping Text Types 36
D Mapping Language Content 38
E Exponents for Language Content 43
4 5
1 The CEFR Advanced
Proficiency
Upper Inter
The CEFR was published in 2001 in English1 and French after a period of development Intermediate
from 1992 to 1996 and piloting from 1997–2000, has been translated into 40 languages Pre-inter
and is now accepted as the international standard for language teaching and learning. Elementary
The CEFR has two main aims: to encourage reflection by users over the way their current Beginners
practice meets the real world language needs of their learners and to provide a set of
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
defined common reference levels (A1-C2) as points of reference to facilitate communication
and comparisons. The CEFR differs from other, national, language frameworks in two ways: The relationship is clearest from B1 to C1. Beginners books are clearly A1. Books labelled
n Firstly it highlights the competences a learner needs (pragmatic, linguistic, sociolinguistic, “elementary” span the content for A1 and A2. The greatest confusion is with books labelled
strategic, intercultural) as a language user and it develops the familiar but inadequate “pre-intermediate” since both schools and publishers use this expression in different ways.
four skills into a richer description of activities the learner undertakes (spoken and Essentially “pre-intermediate” appears to correspond most closely to the more demanding
written: reception, interaction, production and mediation). content of A2, sometimes called A2+. In the analysis in this project, beginners’ materials were
analysed in relation to A1, pre-intermediate materials in relation to A2, and elementary
n Secondly it provides validated, scientifically calibrated descriptors of these different
materials in relation to both A1 and A2.
aspects of its descriptive scheme2, except for intercultural competences and
mediation. The most comprehensive set of CEFR-based descriptors is available
at www.coe.int/portfolio. Consistent coverage for all levels in simplified “I can” form
is provided by the recent EAQUALS revision, also available on www.eaquals.org.
The original CEFR descriptors are presented in “I can” form in the EAQUALS/ALTE
electronic European Language Portfolio on www.eELP.org.
The relevance of the CEFR to language education is firstly that the descriptive scheme
offers a starting point to review curriculum content and secondly that the common reference
levels provide a framework for putting curriculum objectives, entry testing, syllabus definition,
materials organisation, progress testing and certification of proficiency into one coherent
local system that is appropriate to the context, related to real world language ability
and easily communicated, internally and externally.
The CEFR avoids using relative labels like “intermediate” because these mean very different
things in different contexts; neither schools nor publishers use these terms consistently
and they are also employed in different ways in different educational sectors and in relation
to different languages.
The analysis in this project confirms that the relationship between the CEFR levels
and the labels used by EFL publishers is approximately as follows:
1
Council of Europe (2001): Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching,
assessment. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
2
North, B. (2000): The Development of a common framework scale of language proficiency. New York, Peter Lang.
North, B. and Schneider, G. (1998): Scaling descriptors for language proficiency scales. In: Language Testing
15/2: 217–262.
6 7
2 Aims of the Project 3 Project Procedure
The intention of this project is to make the CEFR accessible to teachers and adult learners The Core Inventory was developed through iterative and collaborative processes, exploiting
of General English. It is an attempt to answer the question put by many teachers over expertise from within the two partner organisations, including examination boards that are
the years of what to teach at each CEFR level. It maps the communality of interpretation Associate Members of EAQUALS. The project built on existing work and projects conducted
of the CEFR for English in terms of curriculum content for 16+. As will be explained by both partners and other experts.
in Section 7 the aim is not to tell teachers what to teach or to prescribe a particular The project had five main stages. A series of workshops were held, in the context of an
teaching methodology. The main project aims are outlined below. EAQUALS ‘Special Interest Project’ (SIP). In the workshops practitioners commented on and
To make the CEFR tangible and provide support and guidance for teachers sense-checked the work completed so far and suggested approaches for the successive
and syllabus designers stages.
The question has often been raised as what the CEFR levels mean in terms of classroom Stage 1 Data collection and analysis
aims. The Inventory represents the core of English language relevant at CEFR levels A1 A number of sources were drawn on including:
to C1. It can thus facilitate defining objectives, writing syllabuses and planning courses.
n an analysis of the language implied by CEFR descriptors;
To make the teaching/planning process more transparent
n an analysis of content common to the syllabuses of EAQUALS members whose CEFR
Learners can sometimes find it hard to understand the aim of a particular activity, lesson implementation was a point of excellence;
or indeed course, and its connection to real world needs. The Inventory will assist learners
in the process of realising their language learning ambitions by helping them to focus on n an analysis of content of different series of popular course books;
the different aspects of the language which need to be mastered for progress to be made. n teacher surveys.
It also offers a structure for negotiations between teachers and learners on course content.
The data were analysed to find consensus: points which were common to a strong majority
To provide support for self-directed study (80%) in each of the data sources. This defined the “core.” Other points common to different
The Inventory can be used as a guide to essential language for self-directed study. sources that were considered significant were retained as “less core;” these points are
The Core Inventory has been created with teachers and learners in mind. Each language shown in italics in the lists of exponents in Appendix E.
point appears at the level(s) at which it is considered of most relevance to the learner Stage 2 Creation of the Inventory
in the classroom. What we teach, what learners can do with the language, and what we test Following the analysis of the data collected at Stage 1, examination boards (Cambridge
in examinations are not always identical. The Core Inventory does not aim to provide detailed ESOL, City & Guilds, Trinity) provided further input into which language points they
guidance for course book or examination developers, for who detailed specifications already considered to be most relevant. At this stage content for C1 was discussed in detail.
exist in the series Waystage, Threshold Level and Vantage Level, gradually being updated
by the English Profile project. Stage 3 Writing the exponents
Once the Inventory was finalised, teachers wrote a preliminary version of the exponents
which were refined and revised by project team members at an iterative series of workshops.
Stage 4 Identifying text types
One project member analysed the CEFR descriptors to identify source texts for different
CEFR levels. The results of this analysis can be found in Appendix C.
Stage 5 Writing CEFR-based scenarios
The project team wanted to make explicit the links between real world needs, curriculum
aims and the classroom. The final stage of the project was therefore to brainstorm illustrative
scenarios that are archetypical of the level concerned. The concept will be explained
in Section 5.
8 9
Core Inventory
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 The Inventory represents the core
Functions Directions Describing habits and routines Checking understanding Critiquing and reviewing Conceding a point of English language taught at Common
Describing habits and routines Describing past experiences Describing experiences and events Describing experiences Critiquing and reviewing constructively European Framework of Reference
Giving personal information Describing people Describing feelings and emotion Describing feelings and emotions Defending a point of view persuasively
Describing places Developing an argument systematically
(CEFR) levels A1 to C1 in English. Only
Greetings Describing places Describing hopes and plans
Telling the time Describing things Expressing opinions; language of Developing an argument Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue the features most commonly included
Understanding and using numbers Obligation and necessity agreeing and disagreeing Encouraging and inviting another Expressing attitudes and feelings at each level have been listed. In any
Understanding and using prices Requests Initiating and closing conversation speaker to continue, come in precisely particular context, teachers and syllabus
Suggestions Managing interaction (interrupting, Expressing abstract ideas Expressing certainty, probability, doubt writers would add other language points
changing topic, resuming or Expressing agreement and Expressing opinions tentatively,
continuing) disagreement hedging to this minimal core, based upon an
Expressing opinions Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference analysis of the needs and interests
Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference Expressing shades of opinion and of the learners concerned. Decisions
Interacting informally, reacting, certainty on recycling of language have also been
expressing interest, sympathy, Responding to counterarguments
surprise etc. Speculating and hypothesising about left to teachers and syllabus writers.
Opinion, justification causes, consequences etc. The inventory can also be used
Speculating Synthesising, evaluating and glossing by learners as a guide to essential
Taking the initiative in interaction information language for self-directed study.
Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing info
Grammar Adjectives: common and demonstrative Adjectives – comparative, – use of Adverbs Adjectives and adverbs Futures (revision) Teaching not testing
Adverbs of frequency than and definite article Broader range of intensifiers such Future continuous Inversion with negative adverbials The core inventory has been created
Comparatives and superlatives Adjectives – superlative – use of as too, enough Future perfect Mixed conditionals in past, present with teachers and learners in mind. Each
Going to definite article Comparatives and superlatives Future perfect continuous and future language point appears at the level(s) at
How much/how many and very Adverbial phrases of time, place Complex question tags Mixed conditionals Modals in the past
common uncountable nouns and frequency – including word order Conditionals, 2nd and 3rd Modals – can’t have, needn’t have Narrative tenses for experience, which it is considered of most relevance
I’d like Adverbs of frequency Connecting words expressing Modals of deduction and speculation incl. passive to the learner in the classroom.
Imperatives (+/-) Articles – with countable and cause and effect, contrast etc. Narrative tenses Passive forms, all Language testers should note that
Intensifiers - very basic uncountable nouns Future continuous Passives Phrasal verbs, especially splitting learners are not expected to have
Modals: can/can’t/could/couldn’t Countables and Uncountables: Modals - must/can’t deduction Past perfect Wish/if only regrets
Past simple of “to be” much/many Modals – might, may, will, probably Past perfect continuous
mastery of the language points at that
Past Simple Future Time (will and going to) Modals – should have/might have/etc Phrasal verbs, extended stage. What we teach, what learners can
Possessive adjectives Gerunds Modals: must/have to Relative clauses do with the language, and what we test
Possessive s Going to Past continuous Reported speech in examinations are not always identical.
Prepositions, common Imperatives Past perfect Will and going to, for prediction
Prepositions of place Modals – can/could Past simple Wish
Prepositions of time, including in/on/at Modals – have to Past tense responses Would expressing habits, in the past Development methodology
Present continuous Modals – should Phrasal verbs, extended A number of sources were drawn on,
Present simple Past continuous Present perfect continuous including:
Pronouns: simple, personal Past simple Present perfect/past simple n an analysis of the language implied
Questions Phrasal verbs – common Reported speech (range of tenses)
There is/are Possessives – use of ‘s, s’ Simple passive by CEFR descriptors
To be, including question+negatives Prepositional phrases (place, time Wh- questions in the past n an analysis of content common to
Verb + ing: like/hate/love and movement) Will and going to, for prediction various CEFR-based language school
Prepositions of time: on/in/at syllabuses and popular coursebooks
Present continuous
Present continuous for future
for English, and
Present perfect n a teacher survey.
Questions
Verb + ing/infinitive: like/ Status
want-would like
The Inventory documents current best
Wh-questions in past
Zero and 1st conditional practice, and can be used in conjunction
with databases of learner language like
the forthcoming English Profile.
Discourse Connecting words, and, but, because Linkers: sequential – past time Connecting words expressing Connecting words expressing cause Linking devices, logical markers
Markers cause and effect, contrast etc and effect, contrast etc. Markers to structure and signpost
Linkers: sequential past time Discourse markers to structure formal and informal speech
fromal speech and writing
Linkers: although, in spite of, despite
Linkers: sequential – past time –
subsequently
Vocabulary Food and drink Adjectives: personality, description, Collocation Collocation Approximating (vague language)
Nationalities and countries feelings Colloquial language Colloquial language Collocation
Personal information Food and drink Things in the town, shops and Colloquial language
Things in the town, shops and shopping Things in the town, shops and shopping shopping Differentiated use of vocabulary
Verbs – basic Travel and services Travel and services Eliminating false friends
Formal and informal registers
Idiomatic expressions
The Core Inventory Project has 3 products: this book, an essential guide and a set Scenarios are not a new concept in theoretical and applied linguistics, or language teaching/
of classroom posters. learning, but the word is used in many different senses. There are several points that most
uses of the term in our context have in common. Firstly a scenario suggests a mental
Book
framework, a concept for how the thing in question is “done” in the relevant target language.
This provides the most comprehensive version of the Core Inventory and includes core
Language users and language learners have scripts and schemata for scenarios they
and less core language points plus a mapping of text types across levels. This gives
are familiar with. Secondly, there is a strong association with real world language use rather
users of the Inventory the widest possible choice when designing a syllabus or course.
than exercises or pedagogic tasks, a sense that a scenario provides a meaningful context
As mentioned above illustrative scenarios are also provided for each level and an extensive
for simulated yet realistic language use by the learner. In a real-world derived scenario,
set of language exponents exemplify the language points.
simulations replace mere role-plays as we move from fictional personalities in artificial
Essential guide situations to real people acting as themselves in real contexts. Finally and fundamentally
This contains a short listing of “core” functions, grammar, lexis, discourse markers, topic a scenario suggests a holistic setting that encourages the integration of different aspects
areas and text types for levels A1 to C1, accompanied by a brief summary of the project of competence in real (istic) language use. Properly conceived scenarios automatically
aims and guidance. It fits onto one A3 sheet and can be used by learners as a guide create an appropriate background to support learning and teaching where the main
to essential language for self-directed study. It is produced on the previous pages and can consideration is that of authenticity of situations, tasks, activities, texts and language data.
be downloaded separately from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ and www.eaquals.org. CEFR-based scenarios are frames that in the context of a set of defined real world variables
Classroom posters (domain, context, tasks, types of language activity and texts involved) integrate holistically:
Posters have been designed for each of the 5 CEFR levels from A1 to C1. Each poster n “Can-Do” descriptors (as objectives);
includes “Can do” descriptors for activities and strategies, core language points with n quality criteria (for evaluation);
exponents, and qualitative criteria. The posters make the content of the Inventory easily
n aspects of competence, from strategic, through pragmatic to linguistic
accessible to teachers and learners and provide a focus point for classroom discussions on
course content and planning. They can be ordered from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ (as enabling objectives).
from January 2011. The CEFR-based scenario concept is relevant to both teaching/learning and to assessment.
The scenario template has two pages with a fixed format for page one (overview) and
a variable one for page two (implementation). This is because the latter will vary substantially
depending on the educational context and on whether the scenario informs a series
of teaching and learning activities, perhaps concluding with an assessment, or just
an assessment.
The significant point about CEFR-based scenarios is that they offer teachers and learners
a way of keeping in mind both the macro vision of successful real communication and the
micro focus on specific practice points. Scenarios are a tool for defining, teaching and/or
assessing the competences needed to perform real world tasks. They are not necessarily
an extended communicative activity in the classroom, which one works towards or back
from as for example in the many variations of a task-based approach. The tasks listed at the
top (after domain and context) are real life tasks, not pedagogic tasks and so they may not
take place in the classroom at all. It is desirable, however, that for the sake of more effective
learning real life tasks and pedagogic tasks be as closely related as possible.
An example scenario is given below; other illustrative scenarios for levels A1 to C1
are included in Appendix B.
12 13
14
SCENARIO: BUSINESS MEETING
DOMAIN CONTEXT TASKS ACTIVITIES TEXTS
Occupational Organisation: Multinational Attending meeting Listening as member of live Sustained monologue
corporation Contributing opinion on other audience PowerPoint presentation
Location: Office proposal Spoken Production Formal discussion
Persons: Colleagues Making own proposal Spoken Interaction
LEVEL B2 COMPETENCES
CAN-DOS* Follow the discussion on matters related to his/her field, and STRATEGIC Intervene appropriately, using a variety of expressions to do so.
understand in detail the points given prominence by the Follow up what people say, relating contribution to those of others.
speaker.
Overcome gaps in vocabulary with paraphrases and alternative expressions.
Contribute, account for and sustain his/her opinion, evaluate
Monitor speech to correct slips and mistakes.
alternative proposals, and make and respond to hypotheses.
Give clear, detailed descriptions and presentations on a wide
range of subjects related to his/her field of interest.
Develop a clear argument, expanding and supporting his/
her points of view at some length with subsidiary points and
relevant examples.
CRITERIA* PRAGMATIC Functional Expressing abstract ideas
APPROPRIATENESS Can express himself / herself appropriately in situations and Giving precise information
avoid crass errors of formulation. Speculating
Developing an argument
Justification
COHERENCE Can use a variety of linking words efficiently to mark clearly Discourse Formal Speech Markers
the relationships between ideas. Complex sentences
Addition, sequence and contrast
(although; in spite of; despite; on the one hand…)
Summarising
FLUENCY Can produce stretches of language with a fairly even tempo; LINGUISTIC Grammatical Modals of deduction in the past
although he/she can be hesitant as he/she searches for All passive forms
patterns and expressions, there are few noticeably long
All conditionals
pauses.
Collocation of intensifiers
Wide range of (complex) NPs
RANGE Has a sufficient range of language to be able to give clear Lexical Work-related collocations
descriptions, express viewpoints and develop arguments Extended phrasal verbs
without much conspicuous searching for words, using some
complex sentence forms to do so. Phonological Intonation patterns
* Taken verbatim from the CEFR. Portfolio or school’s adapted descriptors might be used. Overview: Angeles Ortega. Implementation: Howard Smith
SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION
Competence(s) Learning context Activity Materials
Formal speech markers. Classroom – Watch TV business reality show discussion – discuss which contestant they Recorded/online episode
Engage Intervene appropriately, using a variety of expressions to do so. whole class find more persuasive – analyse language to identify features marking formal of reality show.
discussion, relating contribution and persuasion.
Follow up what people say, relating contribution to those of others. /group discussion
Grammar: conditionals Classroom – Play online ‘Tycoon”-style game collaboratively either groups with individual Online/downloaded
Speculating group/whole class PCs or projected onto board – discussing strategy between ‘turns’. ‘Tycoon” game.
Developing an argument (Data-projector/IWB)
Justifying
Lexis: work/business related collocations Home/self-study Web-quest – Note lexis and collocation; listen to business news/transcribe Webquest directing
Phonology: Intonation and learn a short stretch of speech learners to sites including
business training sites
Discourse: Intervention/reaction language and business news radio.
Discourse markers Classroom - groups ‘Just a minute’ style discussion/game – learners assigned discourse markers Discourse markers on
and try to include them unobtrusively into rapid discussion on a variety of cards.
topics.
Passive forms Home Grammar activity – practise form and function of passive Grammar activity
Study Passive forms Classroom - pairs Business news article, rewritten with all passives made active – learners Article (rewritten)
Business/work related lexis reconstruct original text.
Discuss reasons for opting for passive over active form.
If clauses/conditionals Classroom Language analysis followed by micro-discussions of possible consequences Situation>decision cards
Speculating of various business decisions – invented or based on
real business scenarios.
Justifying
Extended phrasal verbs Home/Self study Exercise introducing and practising phrasal verbs in a business context Exercise/dictionary
Discourse markers Home Classroom Listen to business news and note language features in context – peer teach Radio/internet
Formal speech markers connection
Intonation Classroom Text from business press – mark ideas for opinion and fact. Text (opinion piece) from
Giving opinion persuasively Guided discovery – tonality/tonicity business press.
Mark up text with tone units/tonic stresses and practise reading aloud.
Intonation Home Classroom Devil’s advocacy: Mini-presentations – learners write mini-presentation at Laptop/desktop
Activate Giving precise information home advocating an point of view – computer and data-
Deliver presentation using PowerPoint and answer questions. projector
Being persuasive
Presentation software
Developing an argument
Responding to contributions
All Groups (classroom) Meeting simulation, either completely imaginary or ‘pseudo-real’ (e.g. meeting Role cards (if appropriate)
to make suggestions re: college’s social programme or canteen) Agenda
Computer/projector
All Real world Participate in a real meeting (either in learners’ own working environment or (report could take
e.g. a ‘college council’) and report back. the form of a further
Report could take the form of a further presentation or a formal written presentation or a formal
report. written report
Possible activities brainstormed into a familiar lesson-planning model – in this case Jeremy Harmer’s Engage – Study- Activate (See Harmer How to Teach English Longman 1998). This model chosen in part due to its
resemblance to the CEFR general competences: savoir être, savoir, savoir faire (pp. 11-12, 101-130) Though any model familiar to teachers could be used, e.g. ARC (Scrivener Learning Teaching Macmillan 1994); PPP;
Jane Willis’ TBL framework (Willis A Framework for Task Based Learning Longman 1996) Stages can then be fitted into normal lesson planning.
15
This is the rationale behind the layout.3 To emphasise the importance of real world The diagram below illustrates some ways in which activities might be sequenced.
orientation of the CEFR’s action-oriented approach, the top row of the scenario first page The variants illustrated in the diagram do not correspond to the particular illustrative
shows the real world variables: domain, context, tasks, activities and texts. The domains scenarios provided in Appendix B.
are those listed in the CEFR and illustrated in detail in CEFR Table 5: personal, public,
occupational, educational. The contexts (CEFR 4.1.2-5) are defined in terms of the persons Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
and places involved, thus comprising relevant features of the specific physical environment
and the language users’ mental contexts and interrelationships, both of which will have
Activity 1 Activity 1 Assess 1 Activity 1
an effect on the characteristics of the texts to be understood, (co-)produced and processed.
The tasks are selected from the vast array of those the language user will have to tackle
“in order to deal with the exigencies of the situations which arise in the various domains”
(CEFR 4.3). Activities and texts are those included and described in detail in CEFR Activity 2 Activity 2 Assess 2 Activity 1 Assess 1
Chapter 4. Working from real world use helps to identify the relevance of all these variables
to the learners in question. If there is a problem identifying a context, for example, this
is an indication that the subject of the scenario may not be a real world scenario at all,
Activity 3 Activity 3 Assess 3 Activity 1
but a pedagogic task or game that would not occur in reality. Real world
The left hand column of page one of the scenarios then lists CEFR-based descriptors
relevant to them: first “Can-Do” descriptors for communicative language activities (derived
from CEFR Chapter 4) and then descriptors for aspects of quality (derived from CEFR Activity 4 Activity 3 Assessment
Chapter 5), the latter being combined into a convenient number of criteria. The examples Real world
all show published CEFR descriptors, but these might very well be the adapted, simplified
versions found in the checklists for the EAQUALS/ALTE European Language Portfolio (ELP)
and in school curricula elaborated from CEFR/ELP descriptors. Assessment Assessment
The right hand side of page one lists aspects of competences. CEFR-based descriptors
for strategies provided in the EAQUALS descriptor bank and reproduced in the appendices
may be useful as a starting point, but there may well be other strategies relevant to the
scenario in question. Underneath strategic competences come pragmatic (functional and The number of activities in different scenarios will vary considerably depending on the
discourse) and linguistic (grammatical, lexical and phonological/orthographic). Again a CEFR- orientation of the scenario and the type of tasks it implies. The diagram illustrates some
based scenario developer may find the Core Inventory useful as a starting point in identifying possible variants, very many others are possible. Assessment might be conducted in a single
appropriate entries here. task at the end of the module, or in mini-tasks during the module. Peer and self-assessment
The CEFR-based scenarios provided in Appendix B are given purely for the purpose might be employed as well as teacher assessment. There might in fact be no teaching
of illustration. An attempt has been made to provide scenarios that are felt to be in some module; the scenario may be used only as the starting point to design an assessment task.
way archetypical for the different levels in that they involve salient features of the level The CEFR-based scenario concept offers a means to:
concerned (cf CEFR Section 3.6), that are of different types and so can provide illustrations ■■ Work top down from real world contexts to identify the competences needed to be
of variations for the second page (Implementation). Some of these implementations are successful in them, plus criteria to judge that success. Both the communicative language
in order of pedagogic sequence, others ordered by content, others following a real-world activities listed and the aspects of competence needed to be successful in them suggest
action sequence, still others are in the order in which they were brain-stormed. The intention classroom activities. These in turn suggest specific lessons or lesson sequences
is to demonstrate that whilst there is a logic to standardising the form of the first page (=modules), with self-study and project tasks.
(Objectives overview) used in an educational institution, flexibility with different formats
■■ Review existing classroom activities and resources in the light of the needs of real world
for the scenario implementation will encourage experimentation and perhaps a link
activities, in a bottom-up process.
to pedagogic structures that may be familiar to learners from their specific pedagogic
culture or training. ■■ Integrate practice activities and assessment tasks into a coherent module.
The illustrative scenarios provided in Appendix B show only a few of the many variations ■■ Develop a tasks specification for a test, with the assessment procedure, assessment
possible. In most cases, more and/or more detailed processes, tasks and activities can conditions, marking and grading procedures etc. specified on the second page.
be derived from those presented. It is a very flexible yet unifying concept that facilitates top-down planning of objectives
and bottom-up linking of enabling competences to real world needs.
3
Ortega Calvo, Ángeles (2010), “¿Qué son en realidad los niveles C? Desarrollo de sus descriptores en el MCER y el
PEL”, en Ortega Calvo (ed.) Niveles C: Currículos, programación, enseñanza y certificación, Madrid: IFIIE - Ministerio de
Educación, pp. 21-85
16 17
6 A Core Inventory: Documentation Future
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
18 19
7 Guidelines for Users 8 Conclusion
The Core Inventory is intended as a reference work not as a practical tool. The aim was The Core Inventory is not seen as the definitive analysis of the needs of learners of English.
to provide a simple overview of the apparent consensus on what constitutes the most It is selective, not comprehensive; it is based on experience and consensus, not data-based
important content for teaching and learning at each level. More detailed, comprehensive analysis of the language that learners actually use. Nevertheless, the British Council and
specifications are already available for levels A2 (Waystage) B1 (Threshold Level) and EAQUALS hope that it will be of assistance in helping ELT practitioners engage with the CEFR
B2 (Vantage Level).4 In a few years the English Profile project will also provide a detailed and to adopt its “action-oriented approach” of working from an analysis of learners’ real
analysis of learner language at the different CEFR levels, which may then stimulate a new world needs to learning-focused classroom practice.
round of reflection. CEFR descriptors can be used for signposting in curriculum aims, syllabuses, cross-
The Inventory of an overlapping consensus is, by definition, not complete. The degree of referenced resources lists, weekly/monthly plans, classroom displays, lesson aims, evaluation
consensus is also noticeably greater at levels A1 to B2 than at C1. Indeed detailed analysis checklists, report cards, personal profiles, certificates etc. Within a class, such signposting
of both syllabus and course book content at C1 revealed that content was dictated to a far can help to set priorities, explain syllabus choice and lesson relevance, select appropriate
greater extent by context, learning purpose and the preferences of the author than was communicative tasks and assess progress. Various forms of such signposting are common
the case at lower levels. Syllabuses for C2 showed even less consensus, except as regards in EAQUALS member institutions and British Council teaching centres. Sometimes there
preparation for the CPE examination. The C levels are generally accepted to be the levels is an aims box on the whiteboard for each lesson. Sometimes there are displays of the main
most in need of more detailed definition, and it is here that the English Profile project aims of the level – as in the poster produced in this project. Sometimes there are checklists
is focusing its efforts. The level of consensus was greatest at B1 reflecting the influence for teachers to use for planning and for continuous assessment. Sometimes there are report
of Threshold Level, which was originally published in 1976. cards, profiles or certificates given to learners. What all approaches have in common is that
A consensus core is also, by definition, inadequate to meet the needs of any particular group the signposting provided by the descriptors allows learners to be treated as partners in
of learners. It may give a point of reference, but an analysis of the needs of the learners the learning process. As well as defining real world outcomes, the approach can be used
in question should give the basis for actual teaching. This needs analysis operates at two to give context, to show why one is learning particular language or focusing on particular
levels: at a more macro level in the definition of curriculum objectives and at a micro level aspects of language use. In this way it can help to provide a genuinely communicative,
in relation to needs of a particular class, both in terms of what language learners need competence-focused teaching approach: an “action-oriented approach.”
for what they want to do, and what language they need to address significant gaps in their
developing repertoires.
The message therefore is: this inventory may be a convenient tool, but it is to be used
with care. Some points of good practice and tempting pitfalls to avoid are listed below:
Do Don’t
Consciously identify real world learners’ Teach obscure corners of the language just
needs and derive teaching content from “because they are there”
genuine real world contexts
Brainstorm your own CEFR-based scenarios Dress up pedagogic activities as real world
with colleagues and students scenarios
Supplement the points in the Inventory with Think you only have to teach what is in
things you know the learners in your context the Inventory or that you must teach
need everything that is in the Inventory
Adapt the exponents to your own context by Cut and paste lists and exponents
changing names, place names, activities etc. uncritically into your syllabus
Give learners language exponents in a Make learners learn lists of exponents
context whenever possible
4
van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Waystage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Threshold 1990, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Vantage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
20 21
Appendices Appendix A: Salient Characteristics
(CEFR Section 3.6, simplified)
A Salient Characteristics of CEFR levels – spoken language 23
B CEFR-based Scenarios 26
It cannot be overemphasized that Level C2 is not intended to imply native-speaker
C Mapping Text Types 36 competence or even near native-speaker competence. Both the original research
D Mapping Language Content 38 and a project using CEF descriptors to rate mother-tongue as well as foreign language
competence (North 2002: CEF Case Studies volume) showed the existence of ambilingual
E Exponents for Language Content 43 speakers well above the highest defined level (C2). Wilkins had identified a seventh level of
“Ambilingual Proficiency” in his 1978 proposal for a European scale for unit-credit schemes.
Italics in the text below represents direct citation of CEFR descriptors.
C2
Level C2, labelled, ‘Mastery’ is intended to characterise the degree of precision,
appropriateness and ease with the language which typifies the speech of those who have
been highly successful learners. Descriptors calibrated here include: convey finer shades
of meaning precisely by using, with reasonable accuracy, a wide range of modification
devices; has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms with awareness
of connotative level of meaning; backtrack and restructure around a difficulty so smoothly
the interlocutor is hardly aware of it.
C1
Level C1 was labelled Effective Operational Proficiency. What seems to characterise
this level is good access to a broad range of language, which allows fluent, spontaneous
communication, as illustrated by the following examples: Can express him/herself fluently
and spontaneously, almost effortlessly. Has a good command of a broad lexical repertoire
allowing gaps to be readily overcome with circumlocutions. There is little obvious searching
for expressions or avoidance strategies; only a conceptually difficult subject can hinder
a natural, smooth flow of language.
The discourse skills characterising the previous band continue to be evident at Level C1,
with an emphasis on more fluency, for example: select a suitable phrase from a fluent
repertoire of discourse functions to preface his remarks in order to get the floor, or to gain
time and keep it whilst thinking; produce clear, smoothly‑flowing, well-structured speech,
showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices
B2+
This band represents a strong Vantage performance. The focus on argument, effective
social discourse and on language awareness which appears at B2 continues. However,
the focus on argument and social discourse can also be interpreted as a new focus
on discourse skills. This new degree of discourse competence shows itself in conversational
management (co-operating strategies): give feedback on and follow up statements and
inferences by other speakers and so help the development of the discussion; relate own
contribution skilfully to those of other speakers. It is also apparent in relation to coherence/
cohesion: use a variety of linking words efficiently to mark clearly the relationships between
ideas; develop an argument systematically with appropriate highlighting of significant points,
and relevant supporting detail. Finally, it is at this band that there is a concentration
of items on negotiating.
22 23
B2 predictable everyday situations, provided the other person helps if necessary; deal
Descriptors calibrated at Level B2 represent quite a break with the content so far. with everyday situations with predictable content, though he/she will generally have
For example at the lower end of the band there is a focus on effective argument: account to compromise the message and search for words; plus significantly more ability to sustain
for and sustain his opinions in discussion by providing relevant explanations, arguments monologues, for example: express how he/she feels in simple terms; give an extended
and comments; explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and description of everyday aspects of his environment e.g. people, places, a job or study
disadvantages of various options; develop an argument giving reasons in support experience; describe past activities and personal experiences; describe habits and routines;
of or against a particular point of view; take an active part in informal discussion in familiar describe plans and arrangements; explain what he/she likes or dislikes about something.
contexts, commenting, putting point of view clearly, evaluating alternative proposals A2
and making and responding
Level A2 appears to reflect the level referred to by the Waystage specification. It is at this
to hypotheses.
level that the majority of descriptors stating social functions are to be found, like use simple
Secondly, running right through the level there are two new focuses. The first is being able everyday polite forms of greeting and address; greet people, ask how they are and react to
to more than hold your own in social discourse: e.g. understand in detail what is said to him/ news; handle very short social exchanges; ask and answer questions about what they do at
her in the standard spoken language even in a noisy environment; initiate discourse, take his work and in free time; make and respond to invitations; discuss what to do, where to go and
turn when appropriate and end conversation when he/she needs to, though he/she may not make arrangements to meet; make and accept offers. Here too are to be found descriptors
always do this elegantly; interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular on getting out and about: the simplified cut-down version of the full set of transactional
interaction with native speakers quite possible without imposing strain on either party.
specifications in “The Threshold Level” for adults living abroad, like: make simple transactions
The second new focus is a new degree of language awareness: correct mistakes if they have in shops, post offices or banks; get simple information about travel; use public transport:
led to misunderstandings; make a note of “favourite mistakes” and consciously monitor buses, trains, and taxis, ask for basic information, ask and give directions, and buy tickets;
speech for it/them; generally correct slips and errors if he/she becomes conscious of them. ask for and provide everyday goods and services.
B1+ A1
This band seems to be a strong Threshold performance. The same two main features at Level A1 is the lowest level of generative language use - the point at which the learner
B1 continue to be present, with the addition of a number of descriptors which focus on the can interact in a simple way, ask and answer simple questions about themselves, where they
exchange of quantities of information, for example: provide concrete information required live, people they know, and things they have, initiate and respond to simple statements
in an interview/consultation (e.g. describe symptoms to a doctor) but does so with limited in areas of immediate need or on very familiar topics, rather than relying purely on a very
precision; explain why something is a problem; summarise and give his or her opinion about finite rehearsed, lexically organised repertoire of situation-specific phrases.
a short story, article, talk, discussion interview, or documentary and answer further questions
of detail; carry out a prepared interview, checking and confirming information, though he/she
may occasionally has to ask for repetition if the other person’s response is rapid or extended;
describe how to do something, giving detailed instructions; exchange accumulated factual
information on familiar routine and non-routine matters within his field with some confidence.
B1
Level B1 reflects the Threshold Level specification and is perhaps most categorised by
two features. The first feature is the ability to maintain interaction and get across what you
want to, in a range of contexts, for example: generally follow the main points of extended
discussion around him/her, provided speech is clearly articulated in standard dialect; express
the main point he/she wants to make comprehensibly; keep going comprehensibly, even
though pausing for grammatical and lexical planning and repair is very evident, especially
in longer stretches of free production. The second feature is the ability to cope flexibly with
problems in everyday life, for example cope with less routine situations on public transport;
deal with most situations likely to arise when making travel arrangements through an agent
or when actually travelling; enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics.
A2+
This band represents a strong Waystage (A2+) performance. What is noticeable here
is more active participation in conversation given some assistance and certain limitations,
for example: understand enough to manage simple, routine exchanges without undue effort;
make him/herself understood and exchange ideas and information on familiar topics in
24 25
26
SCENARIO: ON HOLIDAY A1
DOMAIN CONTEXT TASKS ACTIVITIES TEXTS
Personal Places: airports, hotels, shops, restaurants, Getting information to book a trip Listening to announcements Sustained monologue:
Public public transport, entertainment Travelling & instructions description
People: officials, hotel/shop & other personnel, Contracting and using services (e.g. hire Reading instructions/for information & Transactions, conversations
other travellers/holidaymakers & pick up car; check in at hotel) orientation Forms, postcards
Finding your way Spoken Production Notices, instructions, brochures
Socializing Spoken Interaction
Written Production
LEVEL A1 COMPETENCES
CAN-DOS* Can understand questions and instructions addressed carefully and STRATEGIC Establish contact with people using simple words, phrases and
slowly to him/her, and follow short, simple directions. gestures
Can understand numbers, prices and times. Ask someone to repeat what they said more slowly
Can ask for and give personal information (address, telephone Invite help with gesture when you don’t know the word
number, nationality, age, family, and hobbies).
PRAGMATIC Functional Understanding and using numbers
Can handle numbers, quantities, cost and time.
Understanding and using prices
Can ask and answer simple questions, initiate and respond to
Greetings
simple statements in areas of immediate need or on very familiar
topics. Giving personal information
Understanding simple directions
and instructions
Discourse Connecting words (and, but,
because)
LINGUISTIC Grammatical Simple verb forms
CRITERIA* Questions
Present simple
Interaction Can interact in a simple way but communication is totally
dependent on repetition, rephrasing and repair. I’d like
Prepositions and prepositional
phrases
Coherence Can link words or groups of words with very basic linear Lexical Nationalities and countries
connectors like “and” or “then”. Personal information
Things in the town, shops and
Range Has a very basic repertoire of words and simple phrases related to shopping
personal details and particular concrete situations.
This is a sequence of assessed tasks related to a sequence of tasks associated with being on holiday. The precise order of activities is left to the teacher or learner. Susan Sheehan
LEVEL A2 COMPETENCES
CAN-DOS* Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple STRATEGIC Skim to identify relevant texts, sections of texts.
and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters Scan for specific services/information (e.g. times, prices).
to do with work and free time.
Ask for clarification about key words or phrases not understood using
Can identify specific information in simpler written material he/she stock phrases.
encounters such as letters, brochures and short newspaper articles
Use an inadequate word from repertoire and use gesture to clarify.
describing events /advertisements, prospectuses, menus, reference
lists and timetables. PRAGMATIC Functional Describing places
Can ask and answer questions and exchange ideas and information Describing activities
on familiar topics in predictable everyday situations. Describing past experiences
Can discuss everyday practical issues in a simple way: what to do, Suggestions
where to go and make arrangements to meet.
Agreeing and disagreeing
Can make and respond to suggestions.
Can agree and disagree with others. Discourse Managing interaction
Simple connectors “and” “but” and “because”
CRITERIA* LINGUISTIC Grammatical Present simple
FLUENCY Can make him/herself understood in short contributions, even Prepositional phrases (time, place and
though pauses, false starts and reformulation are very evident. movement)
Prepositions of time (at/on/in)
Questions
RANGE: Can communicate what he/she wants to say in a simple and direct
exchange of limited information on familiar and routine matters. Can Zero and 1st conditionals
use basic sentence patterns and communicate with memorised Could (possibility)
phrases, groups of a few words. Has sufficient vocabulary to Modals: should
conduct everyday discussion involving familiar situations and
Past simple
topics.
ACCURACY It is usually clear what he/she is trying to say. Lexical Things in the town
Travel and services vocabulary
COHERENCE Can link groups of words with simple connectors like “and, “but” and
“because”.
INTERACTION Can use simple techniques to start, maintain, or end a short turn in
conversation.
SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION
The educational context is an intensive course in a region where the language is spoken.
Activities are presented in a possible order; however, other sequencing is clearly possible.
3 Scan for specific services /information (e.g. Classroom– Teacher 2 Search reading activity Authentic leaflets, brochures, adverts etc
times, prices) Information-gap group work for tourist and cultural offers
Things in the town vocabulary
Travel and services vocabulary
Describing places
Describing activities
Managing interaction
4 Suggestions Classroom– Teacher 1 Presentation + practice Coursebook
Simple connectors “and” “but” and Homework Completing dialogues
“because”
Agreeing and disagreeing
5 Skim to identify relevant texts, Homework/ computer room alone Web search List of suggested information sites
sections of texts Google and other search engines
Describing activities
6 Questions Homework Preparing questions Students think up the questions and write
Things in the town vocabulary Classroom Sharing and correcting questions them down. No specific material
Travel and services vocabulary Out on the town Role-playing rehearsals
Ask for clarification about key words Collecting information from information
or phrases not understood using stock services and venues
phrases. - Face to face
Use an inadequate word from repertoire - Telephone
and use gesture to clarify.
7 All Search reading activity Websites and infos identified and collected
Classroom– Teacher 1 Relating offers found by students
Small group discussion – consensus task
29
30
SCENARIO: ONLINE FORUM B1
DOMAIN CONTEXT TASK ACTIVITIES TEXTS
Occupational/ Setting: Work/domestic Reading online comments/conversation Participating in online discussion/debate Messageboard/blog posts
Personal Location: home/office Contributing to online discussion Written production
People: online acquaintances Giving/responding to feedback
LEVEL B1 COMPETENCES
CAN-DOS* Can read columns/blogs and other entries in which someone takes STRATEGIC dentify unfamiliar words from the context on topics related to his/
a stand on a current topic or event and understand the overall her field and interests.
meaning of the text. Identify key points and ideas in a text on a familiar topic and avoid
Can guess the meaning of single unknown words from the context being distracted by subsidiary points.
thus deducing the meaning of expressions if the topic is familiar. Intervene in a (written) discussion on a familiar topic.
Can understand, in private letters, those parts dealing with events, Ask someone to clarify or elaborate what he or she has just said.
feelings and wishes well enough to correspond regularly with a pen
Correct slips and errors if he/she becomes conscious of them or
friend..
if they have led to misunderstandings
Can write simple connected texts on a range of topics within his/
her field of interest and can express personal views and opinions. PRAGMATIC Functional escribing experiences and events
Can write personal messages to friends or acquaintances asking for Expressing opinions: language of agreeing
or giving them news and narrating events. and disagreeing
Managing interaction
CRITERIA* Discourse Connecting words expressing cause and
effect, contrast etc
APPROPRIATENESS Is aware of the salient politeness conventions and acts LINGUISTIC Grammatical Comparatives and superlatives
appropriately. Conditionals, 1st and 2nd
COHERENCE Can link a series of shorter, discrete simple elements into a Modals – might, may, will,
connected, linear sequence of points. Modals – should have, might have etc
Range of verb forms (past, present and
future)
Reported speech
RANGE Has enough language to get by, with sufficient vocabulary to Lexical Collocation and lexis related to familiar
express him/herself on topics such as hobbies and interests, work, topics and interests
travel, and current events.
COMPREHENSION Can identify the main conclusions in clearly signalled argumentative
texts.
Can recognise the line of argument in the treatment of the issue
presented, though not necessarily in detail.
ACCURACY Can express the main point he/she wants to make comprehensibly
with reasonable precision. Communicates with reasonable accuracy
in familiar contexts; generally good control though with noticeable
mother tongue influence. Errors occur, but it is clear what he/she is
trying to express.
* From the CEFR. Portfolio or school’s adapted descriptors might be used. Overview & Implementation: Howard Smith
SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION
Activities were brainstormed in the order shown and assigned to a stage of the process. See below for suggestions on sequencing.
Possible teaching sequence, envisaged as extending over a number of lessons though could be compressed / reduced.
1 Introduction of topic – introducing message board/blog posting – identifying key lexis – finding appropriate site – analysing discourse features – analysing language features
2 Lexis and grammar – working on lexis and structure
3 Reading skills – text comprehension work
4 Writing skills – writing accurately and fluently – managing interaction
5 Extension and report – extending language work into the real world and reporting back (note: activities labelled 5 above could be alternatives for an extension activity or could complement each
31
LEVEL B2 COMPETENCES
CAN-DOS* Can give a clear, prepared presentation, giving reasons in support STRATEGIC Plan what is to be said and the means to say it, considering the
of a product and giving the advantages and disadvantages of effect on the recipient/s.
various options. Use circumlocution and paraphrase to cover gaps in vocabulary
Can take a series of follow up questions with a degree of fluency and structure.
and spontaneity which pose no strain for either him/herself or the Use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to
audience. gain time whilst formulating what to say.
Can account for and sustain own opinions by providing relevant Follow up what people say, relating contribution to those of others.
explanations, arguments and comments.
CRITERIA* PRAGMATIC Functional Discourse
FLUENCY Can communicate spontaneously, often showing remarkable Explaining a rationale
fluency, ease of expression and fairly even tempo in longer, Developing an argument
complex stretches of speech. Giving precise information
He/she can be hesitant as he/she searches for patterns and Responding to counterarguments
expressions but there are few noticeably long pauses.
Synthesizing, evaluating information
Persuading
COHERENCE Can use a limited number of linking expressions to mark clearly the Discourse Complex sentences
relationships between ideas. Summarising your case
Can respond appropriately to questions. Connecting words expressing cause and
effect, contrast, etc.
RANGE Has a sufficient range of language to be able to give clear LINGUISTIC Grammatical Phonological
descriptions, express viewpoints and develop arguments without Passive forms
much conspicuous searching for words, using some complex
Conditional forms
sentence forms to do so.
Complex noun phrases
Collocation of intensifiers
ACCURACY Shows a relatively high degree of grammatical control. Does not Lexical Various collocations
make mistakes which lead to misunderstanding. Giving emphasis
Has a clear, natural, pronunciation and intonation. Intonation patterns
* Taken and adapted from the CEFR. Overview & Implementation: Nareene Kaloyan
SCENARIO IMPLEMENTATION
This scenario can be implemented in at least 3 ways leading up to one of the following:
1 Classroom activity. Simulating the popular TV programme Dragon’s Den. Each person/team presents their idea to the rest of the class who take the role of the panel of experts/investors.
2 Assessment task. A dossier and/or presentation to a panel of examiners e.g. the school’s centre manager, academic manager and a teacher.
3 Real task. Entering a competition to win some real money to realise the project. This is often done in sixth form or business colleges.
The enabling activities below are presented in the order in which they were brainstormed. The teaching sequence will depend on the context. For the competition/ assessment task there may
be no teaching involved. The students might receive some limited support or advice in a tutorial or two with their teacher.
LEVEL C1 COMPETENCES
CAN-DOS Can follow most lectures with relative ease, even when not clearly SOCIO-CULTURAL Knowledge of scientific contents
structured and when relationships are only implied and not
signalled explicitly.
SOCIOLINGUISTIC Conventions of format & style of academic genres
Can take detailed notes during a lecture on topics in his/her field
of interest, recording the information so accurately and so close to Register
the original that the notes could also be useful to other people. STRATEGIC Inferencing: Use contextual, grammatical and lexical cues to infer
Can understand in detail lengthy, complex texts likely to be attitude and intentions in other authors.
encountered in academic life, identifying finer points of detail Planning: Prepare an outline, integrating points from different sources.
including attitudes and implied as well as stated opinion, provided Relate own contribution skilfully to those of other authors.
he/she can reread difficult sections.
Editing: Drafting and redrafting
Can summarise long, demanding texts. Can write clear, well-
structured texts of complex subjects, underlining the relevant PRAGMATIC Functional Defining & describing in detail
salient issues, integrating sub-themes, developing particular points Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing info
expanding and supporting points of view at some length with Developing an argument systematically
subsidiary points, reasons and relevant examples, and rounding off
with an appropriate conclusion. Exemplifying
Speculating and hypothesising about causes,
consequences, etc
CRITERIA Discourse Paraphrasing & summarising
ACCURACY Consistently maintains a high degree of grammatical accuracy; Formal logical markers
errors are rare and difficult to spot. Spelling is accurate, apart from Complex sentences
occasional slips of the pen. Addition, sequence & contrast (moreover,
consequently . . . )
COHESION Can produce clear, well-structured texts, showing controlled use of LINGUISTIC Grammatical Mixed conditionals
organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices. Layout, All passives
paragraphing and punctuation are consistent and helpful.
Modals in the past
RANGE Can select an appropriate formulation from a broad range of Lexical Topic-related collocations
language to express herself / himself clearly, without having to Greek/Latin derived technical words
restrict what she/he wants to say.
PRECISION Can pass on detailed information reliably. Can qualify opinions and Orthograph Greek/Latin derived technical words
statements precisely. Abbreviations, acronyms & symbols
Collect Find sources ■■ Listen to (15’-20’) lecture by teacher on evaluating sources and content, and take notes Classroom Browsers
data ■■ Web-quest for more info on sources and referencing formats (BSI, APA, MLA) Pairs General & subject
Groups encyclopaedias
Read about topic ■■ Reading comprehension and efficiency cues Academic
Whole class
Listen to lectures on ■■ Practise to improve reading efficiency (anticipation, reading speed, timed reading) publications
topic Self-access centre
■■ Practise to improve reading comprehension (markers, increase vocabulary range) Online/live lectures
Take notes Library
■■ Read about topic (5 sources from books, journals, dissertations, other) and make notes, copy Reading exercises
Make notes quotes, take references following formats. Practise quoting and referencing Home
Reference skills
Copy quotes ■■ Listen to (45’- 60’) lecture on topic by guest lecturer / online and take notes exercises
Take references ■■ In pairs compare and improve notes Data projector
■■ Rewrite outline on feedback from sources, peers and teacher
Produce Write draft ■■ Analyse essays/papers for type text related format/discourse/syntax/lexis patterns Classroom Sample essays
paper First editing ■■ Practise sentence-clause structure & paragraphing (divide into paragraphs; expand paragraphs Pairs Revising checklists
Redraft from topic sentences), paraphrasing, summarising (samples and exercises) Groups Correction codes
Second editing ■■ Write rough draft following outline (synthesize, cite and personal thesis). Topic sentences + Whole class Advanced grammars
supporting points for Intro-Body-Conclusion. Peer check for logical gaps and general errors.
Final version Self-access centre Dictionaries
Improve organization, sentence-clause structure, sub-themes, examples
Library Subject dictionaries
■■ Write second draft on peer feedback. Enrich description (modifiers, specific lexis); Provide
transition (addition, sequence & contrast markers; formal logical markers); Adapt register Home Style Manuals
(passives, modals, conditionals); Extend support (quotes, footnotes, endnotes, bibliographies) E-mail communication Word processor
Self assess with revising checklist E-mail
■■ Type final version. Focus on accuracy (correction codes). Check with dictionaries and advanced
grammars Teacher one-to-one feedback
■■ Brainstorm general and specific aspects to improve along the DRAW process
35
Appendix C Mapping Text Types A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
Produced by Brian North from analysis of CEFR descriptors: copyright withheld Spoken Sources
for a forthcoming publication. interlocutor
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 3rd party interaction topic main points modified complex
directions A to B detailed
technical instructions telephone complex outside area directions A to B detailed
menus simple
lectures, talks, presentations outline essentials nonstandard
maps, tourist leaflets & posters*
advertisements simple
film visual/action idiomatic
timetables simple
shows, drama idiomatic
reference lists (Yellow pages etc)
webpages, catalogues
TV news reports events
brochures and leaflets
TV interviews
guides short
TV documentaries visual/action
TV current affairs
forms, invoices
TV talk shows
correspondence: formal letters basic
official documents short
radio news main points
technical texts (e.g. contracts)
radio documentaries
wide range of radio broadcasts
factual descriptions visual too events
newspaper & magazine articles events main point
narratives
factual texts, articles and reports
lengthy complex texts, reports etc.
recorded passages short, slow
highly specialised sources
recorded audio materials simpler standard
* CEFR= simple informational material
argumentative texts conclusion
reviews, editorials, commentaries
narratives
anecdotes, jokes simpler
fiction simplified
literature standard
messages on postcards
short text message/Twitter
correspondence: informal letters short,simple
personal descriptions feel, wish feel, wish literary
36 37
Appendix D Mapping Language Content Discourse Functions
Initiating and closing conversation
Produced from main project sources (descriptor analysis, analysis of CEFR-based syllabi, Checking understanding
course books, examination content) Managing interaction (interrupting,
changing topic, resuming or continuing
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
Taking the initiative in interaction
Functions / Notions
Encouraging and inviting another
Numbers speaker to continue, come in
Prices Interacting informally, reacting,
expressing interest, sympathy, surprise
Telling the time
Directions Discourse Markers
Greetings Connecting words, and, but, because
Giving personal information Linkers: sequential - past time first, finally subsequently
38 39
Present Perfect Pronouns
Present Perfect Personal - subject
Present Perfect / Past Simple Possessives
Present Perfect Continuous Possessive adjectives
Gerund & Infinitive Use of ‘s, s’
I’d like Possessive pronouns
Gerunds Prepositions and prepositional phrases
to + infinitive (express purpose) Common prepositions
Verb + to + infinitive Prepositional phrases (time &
movement)
Conditionals
Prepositional phrases (place & time)
Zero and 1st conditional
2nd and 3rd conditional Articles
Mixed conditionals Definite, indefinite
40 41
Wide range such as extremely, much
too
Appendix E Exponents
Collocation of intensifiers
Lexis
for Language Content
Nationalities and countries Content given in italics was considered less “core” in the analysis
Personal information
Food and drink
Things in the town, shops and shopping
Travel and services vocab
A1
Verbs, basic
Clothes
2 Functions/notions 8 Giving personal information
Colours 3 Understanding and Using Numbers n My name is Carlos.
Dimensions n We have three cats and one dog. n I am from the north of China.
Ways of travelling
n My father is 45 years old. n I live in Beirut.
Objects and rooms
Adjectives: personality, description,
n There are 500 people in our village. n I have two sisters and one brother.
feelings
Contrasting opinions - on the one hand
4 Understanding and Using Prices 9 Describing habit and routines
… n How much does the room cost? n My brother goes to work at 8 o’clock.
Summarising exponents; briefly, all in all, 45 Euros per night.
n I get the bus to college every day.
Collocation
n The train ticket to York is 7 pounds
Colloquial language n I always go swimming on Tuesdays.
50 (pence).
Approximating (vague language)
n I spend about 50 dollars a day.
46 Discourse markers
Differentiating to choose the best in
context 47 Connecting words (and, but, because)
5 Telling the time
Approximating (vague language) n She lives in Switzerland and she goes
n What’s the time? A quarter to seven.
Eliminating false friends skiing a lot.
Formal and informal registers n Do you have the time please?
n I don’t like Indian food but I like Chinese.
Idiomatic expressions
n Can you tell me the time, please?
Topics n I go to bed early because my job starts
It’s 9.45. (nine forty-five) at 7.00.
Family life
Hobbies and pastimes
n The train leaves at three o’clock.
55 Verb forms
Holidays 6 Directions 56 To be (including questions
Work and Jobs
n The hotel is on the left. and negatives)
Shopping
n Go to the end of the street and n We are from South America.
Leisure activities
Education
turn right. n No I’m not tired.
Film n Where is the supermarket? n France is a wonderful country.
Books and literature It’s straight ahead.
n I am a psychology student.
News, lifestyles and current affairs
7 Greetings
Media n Are you French? No I’m not.
n Hi John, how are you today?
Arts
57 Have got (British)
Scientific development n Good evening, Mr Jones.
n Have you got any money?
Technical and legal language
n This is Mary. Pleased to meet you. n I’ve got all of his CDs
n We’ve got lots of time.
42 43
58 Imperatives (+/-) 73 Future 124 Pronouns n It starts at 6 o’clock.
n Sit down, please. 74 Going to 125 Simple personal n They lived there for ten years.
n Go away! n We are going to make a pizza this n I bought a dictionary. n My sister is coming on Tuesday.
evening. n They live in Newcastle.
n Don’t talk to the driver.
134 Articles
n They’re going to visit London tomorrow. n Sorry, I dropped it..
n Don’t spend too much money.
135 Definite, indefinite
n Are you going to study this weekend? 126 Possessives
59 Questions n She has a dog, but I don’t have a pet.
85 I’d like 127 Possessive adjectives
60 Questions n I’d like an apple juice, please.
n I’d like a cup of coffee. n This is my seat.
n Is she from Egypt? n Your jacket is on the chair.
n I’d like to go home. n Is this your pen?
n Do you like dancing? n I live by the sea.
n That’s our house.
n What is your name? 86 Verb + -ing like/hate/love
140 Determiners
n I love swimming. 128 Possessive ‘s
n Why are we waiting?
n It’s Mary’s turn to buy coffee. 141 Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of)
n I don’t like waiting for buses.
n What time is it? n I need a lot of sleep.
n I hate being late. n The girl’s hair was bright red.
n How much does it cost? n Do you have any cheese?
n I like sitting in the sun and doing nothing. n This is the students’ room.
n When did you arrive? n I’d like some vegetables, please.
103 Modals 129 Possessive pronouns
63 Present 144 Adjectives
n This is my laptop.
104 Can/can’t (ability)
64 Present simple 145 Common
n I can’t swim. n That is her coat.
n She eats fruit every day. n She is wearing a red skirt.
n He can speak Spanish, French and Italian. n No. It’s mine.
n We go to the beach on Sundays. n That’s a beautiful phone.
n She can play chess. n Is that their car?
n They live near Edinburgh.
146 Demonstrative
105 Can/could (functional) 130 Prepositions and prepositional
65 Present continuous n This pizza is really good.
n Can/could I use your phone? phrases
n Ibrahim is studying medicine at Bristol n What did that man say?
131 Prepositions, common
University. n Can/could I have a retunr?
n He is sitting at the table. n Those oranges look very nice.
n John’s working in France now. n Can I help?
n We went to Sardinia last year. n These people want to talk to us.
n It’s raining again. 121 Nouns
n He comes from Scotland 149 Comparative, superlative
n How much/many and very common
66 Past n She’s taller than Michelle.
countable and uncountable 132 Prepositional phrases
67 Past simple (time and movement) n I am better at writing.
n How much money do you have?
n After the meal we went to a club. n The holidays begin in July.
n Tom is the oldest in the class.
n How many sisters do you have?
n She fell and broke her leg. n They like to play football in the evening.
n Do you like cheese? 151 Adverbs
n I lived in Paris for 6 months. n On Tuesdays she goes to college.
n I bought an apple and some bread. 152 Adverbs of frequency
68 Past simple (to be) 133a Prepositions of place
n We always go shopping on Saturdays.
n It was very good. n Mira has very short hair. n Our shop is on the High Street.
n We sometimes meet Susan here.
n I moved to Madrid when I was 15. 123 There is/there are n They live in Reading.
n I never go to the gym after work.
n There’s a bank near the station. 133a Prepositions of time, including
n We were happy there.
n There are a lot of seats at the front. in/on/at
n I’ll see you in December.
n Is there a supermarket near here?
44 45
160 Intensifiers
161 Very basic (very, really)
n I work in a factory.
46 47
59 Questions 75 Present continuous for the future 88 Verb + to + infinitive n I must phone her tonight. It’s her
60 Questions (arrangements) n She wants to go home now. birthday.
n Nareene’s playing basketball tonight. n I forgot to lock the door.
n Did you pass your driving test? 113 Have to
n I’m seeing him at 11.00 this morning. n They hope to arrive at 9 o’clock. n Students have to fill in a form if they
n Have you seen my new car?
76 Future time (will & going to) want to leave early.
n Is Sasha arriving today? 89 Conditionals
n I’m going to see John on Saturday n I have to go to Madrid tomorrow.
61 Wh-questions in the past 90 Zero and first conditional
( . . . already decided) I’ve got a job interview.
n Where did she go to university? n If I stay in the sun I get a headache.
n I’ll tell him about the party ( . . . you are 115 Should
n If I eat eggs I feel sick.
n How did they travel? deciding as you speak) n You should stay in and study tonight.
n If I fail my exams, my father will be angry.
n When did it happen? n A: I am going to lose my match. You’ve got an exam on Friday.
B: No you won’t. I’ll help you. n I’ll stay in if it rains this afternoon.
63 Present n You shouldn’t drink so much cola.
64 Present simple 80 Present Perfect 94 Phrasal Verbs It’s bad for your teeth.
n Do you like British food? 81 Present perfect 95 Phrasal verbs, common 121 Nouns
n He has lost his wallet. n He got up at 6 o’clock.
n The plane lands at six. 122Countable and uncountable,
n Have you got your results yet? n Put your coat on, it’s raining. much and many
n I love this programme.
n The plane takes off in few minutes. n She has eight chairs in her lounge.
n Have you ever been to Greece?
65 Present continuous
n How much furniture does he have?
n I am staying with Hilary at the moment. n They’ve gone to Italy on holiday. 103 Modals
n I need some help/advice.
n What is he wearing? n Have they come back form the 105 Can/could
supermarket? n Could I use your computer? n Would you like a piece of cake/cup
66 Past Yes. Of course you can. of tea?
n She hasn’t been to school this week.
67 Past simple n I need as much information as possible.
n This could be England’s best chance.
n He gave me a nice present. n I’ve known him for 5 years/since 2005.
n Can I have some more spaghetti, please? 126 Possessives
n She bought some flowers for her mother. 84 Gerund and infinitive
106 Modals: Possibility 128 Use of ‘s and s’
n I began to play chess when I was 5. 86 Gerunds
n I’ll meet you outside Mary’s house.
n Walking is the best exercise. 107 Might, May
68 Past continuous n She might come. I don’t know. n That’s John’s car.
n He goes jogging every morning.
n I was living in Spain when I met her.
n John may know the answer n The children’s clothes are all dirty.
n It was raining, so we decided to 86b Verb + -ing/infinitive to your question.
get a taxi. (like / want - would like 129 Possessive pronouns
n I love playing tennis. 108 Possibly, probably, perhaps n That’s not our ball, it’s theirs.
69 Used to ■■ I’ll probably see you later.
n I hate washing up. n It always wags its tail when it’s happy.
n She used to be a ballet dancer.
n I enjoy dancing ■■ Lionel Messi is probably Argentina’s most
n He used to wear glasses but now n Is Heather a friend of yours?
famous footballer.
n Would you like to go to the cinema?
he uses contacts. 130 Prepositions and prepositional
n I want another drink. ■■ Perhaps she’s late.
73 Future phrases
87 To + infinitive (express purpose) 111 Modals: Obligation & Necessity
74 Going to 132 Prepositions of time: on/at/in
n I go jogging to get fit. 112 Must/mustn’t n He was born on Christmas Day.
n He’s going to buy a car next year.
n They are going to Scotland to see n You must get to work on time.
n I’ll read the book during the holidays.
n She’s going to have an operation the Loch Ness monster.
n I must go to bed. I’m really tired.
in October. n The train arrives at 17.15.
n I went to the post office to buy stamps.
n You mustn’t smoke here.
48 49
133 Prepositional phrases (place, time 149 Adjectives – comparative, – 166 Lexis 178 Adjectives: personality, description,
and movement) use of than feelings
169 Food and drink
n He went inside the building. n This book is more interesting than these n Pedro is a quiet and serious boy.
n I love strawberries and cream.
n We walked along the beach. ones. n She is tall, blonde and wears very
n Let’s get some fish and chips.
n They arrived at the station in the middle n My sister is much older than me smart clothes.
of the night. 170 Things in the town, shops and
150 Adjectives – superlative, – n I am very happy with my new job,
shopping
134 Articles use of definite article but my boss is very strict.
n Keep left.
138 With countable and uncountable n The fastest mammal in the world
n Insert exact money. 189 Topics
nouns is the cheetah.
n Do you know where the post office is? 191 Hobbies and pastimes
n She has blonde hair. n Maths is the most difficult subject for me.
I want to buy some stamps. 192 Holidays
n I love pizza, but the pizzas at Gino’s 151 Adverbs n Where can I buy some coffee beans? 193 Work and jobs
are not very good.
152 Adverbs of frequency 194 Shopping
n I’ve got bad news for you. 171 Travel and services vocabulary
n Have you ever been to the
n A return ticket to Brighton, please. 195 Leisure activities
n Everybody wants coffee. United States?
n Can you tell me the way to IKEA? 196 Education
140 Determiners n He often visits his family.
n What time do you close?
141 Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of) n He usually stays here with us.
n I don’t have any money. n I’m looking for the bus station.
n He always carries a bag.
n He spends a lot of time in his garage. n She hardly ever leaves her room. 177 Objects and rooms
153 Simple adverbs of place, manner n The fruit is in a bowl in the dining room.
n Can I have some water, please?
and time n The kitchen is the warmest room
142 Wider range (e.g. all, none, not (any), n There’s water everywhere. in the house.
enough, (a) few)
n He quickly opened the door. n The tools are in the garage.
n I am going to have a party for
a few friends. n I am going to London tomorrow.
n We don’t have enough eggs to make 154 Adverbial phrases of time, place
our cake. and frequency including word order
n He went home yesterday.
n None of my friends are going to the club.
n They were here today.
144 Adjectives
160 Intensifiers
146 Demonstrative
161 Very basic (very, really)
n Those children over there are very noisy.
n She was left very unhappy.
n These shoes are killing me. n I am really sorry for losing your book.
n He left for the city on 19th February. 162 Basic (quite, so, a bit)
That night the volcano erupted. ■■ The water is quite cold.
147 Ending in ‘-ed’ and ‘-ing’ ■■ I am so happy with my new flat.
n The film was really boring.
■■ It is getting a bit cold now. I want
n Her story was really amusing. to go home.
n The journey was really exciting.
50 51
B1 41 Checking understanding
From speaker’s point of view
46 Discourse Markers
48 Linkers: sequential – past time (later)
n Is that clear? n He finished the e-mail and then went out
2 Functions/ notions n Well, actually . . .
n Do you follow me?
for a while.
19 Describing places n Well not really.
n Later, he looked at it again, to see
n Cairo is the capital city of Egypt. It is n Do you know what I mean?
n I’m sorry but I think you’re wrong. if he had missed anything important.
on the banks of the River Nile. It has n Do you understand?
a population of more than 10 million n I see what you mean but . . . n After that, he changed the text a little.
From listeners point of view
people. Cairo has a rich history. 33 Talking about films and books n Finally he spellchecked it and sent it.
The famous pyramids and the sphinx n I’m sorry, did you say “. . .”?
■■ Meryl Streep was brilliant.
are located just outside the city. 49 Connecting words expressing cause
n Is this what you are saying? . . .
■■ It was difficult to follow. and effect, contrast etc.
20 Describing past experiences and n I’m not sure I understand. Are you n On the other hand, we could stay
■■ It was set in Chicago.
storytelling saying that . . . ? at home and watch television.
n Last year we went to Thailand for our ■■ It was about a woman who went
n Do you mean . . . ? n However, this depends on the number
holidays. We visited many interesting around the world.
places. I went scuba-diving while my 42 Managing interaction (interrupting, of people you’ve invited.
■■ If you like action movies you will like
boyfriend went on an elephant ride. this one changing topic, resuming or continuing) n Therefore, it is cheaper to take the bus.
We also tried lots of different kinds Interrupting
■■ It had a happy ending. 52 Markers to structure informal spoken
of food. We had a great time. n Sorry, to interrupt you but . . .
■■ I think you should read this book. discourse
21 Describing feelings, emotions, n I have a question. ■■ Right.
■■ I liked this book because . . .
attitudes ■■ Really?
n Could I interrupt here?
n He felt a little nervous about the exam. 39 Discourse Functions
n Do you mind if I say something? ■■ Well, anyway . . .
n I’m fed up with this British food. n 40 Initiating and closing conversation
■■ Oh I know.
Initiating: n Could I just say something?
n We should all use public transport
■■ Yes, I suppose so.
as much as possible. n Hi! My name’s Paula. What’s your name? n Sorry, I just wanted to say . . .
■■ I know how you feel
n I’m sorry to hear that. n Excuse me- can I talk to you for Changing the topic
a minute? ■■ You know, I don’t like her either.
n Anyway, . . .
29 Expressing opinions
n Excuse me, please. Have you got n By the way, there’s something else I 59 Questions
n I think England will win the World Cup
a minute? wanted to tell you. 61 Wh-questions in the past
n I don’t think he is old enough
n Excuse me, please. I wonder if you could Resuming a conversation n Who did you see at the party?
to get married.
help me.
n Anyway, . . . n How long have you been studying
n In my opinion, it’s too expensive.
n Let me introduce myself. n Anyway, what was I saying? English?
31 Expressing agreement/ disagreement n Guess what! n What were we talking about? n Why did you get the tattoo?
n I think so too.
n You will never believe what n To get back to what I was saying . . . n What happened then?
n You’re right I saw yesterday Continuing
n What have you been doing since you
n Exactly! Closing: n Anyway, . . . left school?
n Yes, I agree. n It’s been nice talking to you. Bye. n So, as I was saying . . .
62 Complex question tags
n Okay, . . .
n I think you are absolutely right. n I’m sorry. I’ve got to go now. n He hasn’t come home yet, has he?
n So do/am I. n Must go – see you later. n He built the house himself, didn’t he?
n Neither do I. n See you later. Take care.
52 53
55 Verb forms n They had already paid by the time 89 Conditionals 106 Modals: Possibility
66 Past I asked for the bill. 90 Zero and first conditional 109 Might, may, will, probably
67 Simple past n Ahmed had just arrived. ■■ If you heat water, it boils. n I might be half an hour late.
n When he fell, he cut his leg ■■ If you press this button, it switches off. n Petra will probably be late too.
73 Future
■■ If we don’t tell him, he’ll be angry. She’s usually late.
n I went to London on Sunday and 76 Future time (will & going to)
someone stole my camera. (Prediction) ■■ What will he do if he doesn’t find a job? n We may go to Egypt this year.
n They had so much fun that they forgot n If they continue to play this badly, ■■ We’ll go swimming if the water is n Are you going to have a party in your
to check what the time was. Liverpool are going to lose the cup. warm enough. new flat? I don’t know. I may, I may not.
n Spurs will probably win the league 110 Must/can’t (deduction)
68 Past continuous 91 Second and third conditional
this season. n Mohamed can’t be at home yet, I saw
n It happened while I was watching n If I won the lottery I’d buy a big house
television yesterday. n Look at those clouds. It’s going to rain. in the countryside. him leave just a few minutes ago.
n I was coming home from work when n He will pass his driving test eventually. n What would you do if they asked you n I don’t believe it. It can’t be true.
the car in front of me suddenly stopped. to work in America? n That must be Brigitte’s father. She told
77 Future continuous
n Car “A” was coming from a side street. n I’ll be working late tomorrow. n I would have told Jim, if I had seen him. me he was coming.
The driver wanted to turn left. The other n You’ve just walked all the way from
n He’ll be arriving on the last train n If we hadn’t gone out last night, we
car was coming along the road. It was Oxford Street. You must be tired.
from Manchester. wouldn’t have missed them.
moving really fast. The driver of car “A”
didn’t see it. They hit each other. n My girlfriend would have killed me 111 Modals: Obligation & Necessity
80 Present Perfect
if I’d forgotten her birthday. 114 Must/have to
69 Used to 81Present perfect
94 Phrasal Verbs n I really must lose some weight before
■■ They used to live in Portugal. n She’s just gone to the shop.
the holiday.
■■ I used to have a really nice wallet, n I’ve started but I haven’t finished it yet. 96 Extended phrasal verbs
but I lost it. n He turned the jobs down. n Passengers must not put their feet
n He still hasn’t arrived. on the seats.
■■ When I went to primary school I used n They made the story up.
to walk to school with a friend, but my 82 Present perfect, past simple n I can’t come tonight because I have
n She switched the light on.
mother used to collect me in the n I’ve been to Thailand twice. I went to meet my cousin.
afternoons. there in 2003 and 2007. Have you 97 Passives n I have to make an appointment this
■■ I never used /didn’t use to like olives, been there? 98 Simple passive week. It hurts!
but now I love them. n He’s won every match so far. n The lock was broken.
116 Ought to
70 Would expressing habit in the past n He won every tournament last year. n The trees were damaged by the storm. ■■ I really ought to spend less money.
■■ Every night I would tell my little brother
n I’ve had about 9 cars. n Rome wasn’t built in a day. ■■ You ought to inform the police.
a story and he would fall asleep in
the middle. n We went out together for six months. ■■ My parents will be worried. I ought
100 Other verb forms
■■ During the summer holiday we would n When I was at school I studied French
to phone.
101 Reported speech (range of tenses)
get up early and go to the beach. for about 5 years. 117 Need to
n She said she liked brown bread.
n I have studied French since I was ■■ I need to get back to work.
71 Past perfect n He asked if she wanted to go home.
n The train had left when I got to the
14 years old. ■■ Do you really need to wear such
n John told them the machine
station. old jeans?
83 Present perfect continuous was working.
n When I got home, Joan had already n How long have you been playing tennis? ■■ Do we need to buy tickets before we
n She explained that she’d lost my
cooked supper. get on the train?
n It’s been raining non-stop for two telephone number.
days now.
n He’s been working on the report
all morning.
54 55
118 Modals: Past 155 (Adjectives and) adverbs ■■ The maths test was unbelievably easy. 189 Topics
119 Should have, might have/etc. n She’s a good singer. She sings really well. ■■ That’s much too difficult for a B1 test. 195 Leisure activities
n We had a great time in Crete. You should n The instructions were not very clear. 196 Education
166 Lexis
have come with us.
n My mother has been working too 197 Film
170 Things in the town, shops
n The letter should have come yesterday. hard recently. and shopping 198 Books and literature
n They might have arrived already. n This cheese is a bit hard. n It fits really well but do you think 199 News, lifestyles and current affairs
n She might have gone home. it suits me?
156 Adverbial phrases of degree/extent, 200 Media
probability n I need to get some toothpaste from
134 Articles
■■ The water was extremely cold. the chemist’s in the shopping mall.
138 With countable and uncountable
nouns ■■ He speaks very quickly. n Can you hold on while I get a magazine
■■ He speaks too quickly. from this newsagent?
n Don’t go in the water. It’s freezing.
n I would like milk in my tea. ■■ There will probably be some speeches 171 Travel and services vocabulary
after the meal. n I’m sorry, we don’t accept cheques.
n He was wearing black jeans.
■■ He’ll definitely win. Do you have a debit or credit card?
140 Determiners n You need to check in at least two hours
157 Comparative and superlative form
143 Broad range (e.g. all the, most, both) of adverbs before departure.
■■ All the seats are taken.
■■ Paula got ready more quickly than n The gate number will be announced
■■ We haven’t got enough paper the others. on the monitor in the departure lounge.
for everyone. ■■ Jenson Button was faster in practice.
179 Contrasting opinions
■■ Several people are waiting. ■■ I’m afraid he’s getting worse. (on the one hand…)
144 Adjectives ■■ The person who most frequently got ■■ On the one hand, he is good with people.
ill was Angela. On the other hand he does not think
148 Collocation of adjective before he speaks.
n I didn’t want to wake him from his ■■ Stig worked the hardest.
■■ Even though he earns very little
deep sleep. ■■ Marie did the worst in the exam. he is always very generous.
n The student produced some really ■■ Paulo did the best at maths. ■■ Mind you, he is still very fit.
high quality work.
160 Intensifiers 181 Collocation
n We couldn’t get to work because
of the heavy snow. 163 Broader range of intensifiers n I’m going to take a quick shower.
(such as too, so enough)
n There was a strong smell of coffee n Its midnight but I still feel wide awake.
■■ He’s a really good driver.
in the room. n There’s a good chance he’ll be late.
■■ Do we have enough cake to go round?
151 Adverbs ■■ He came back so suddenly. 182 Colloquial language
154 Adverbial phrases of time, place ■■ She’s so intelligent it’s scary. n That’s a really cool top you’re wearing.
and frequency including word order n My boss is nice but he talks really posh.
■■ The ball was just too fast.
n We usually go abroad in summer. n The kids had a brilliant time at the zoo.
■■ He’s quite good at science.
n I have never been abroad.
56 57
B2 27 Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing
information
n Fantastic idea!
n Brilliant!
n To sum up, the government will need
2 Functions/ notions ■■ He was born in a little village in the
to cut spending for the next five years. n Great!
North East of Estonia on the 22nd
20 Describing experiences n Whatever.
of October, 1928. n All in all, it was a miserable performance.
n I was walking the dog in the park when
■■ My degree was in economics, n To be fair, it was his own fault for parking n That’s ridiculous!
I heard a loud crash. I looked in the
direction of the noise and saw that specialising in finance. where he shouldn’t have. n How’s that possible?
a huge tree had fallen down. There were ■■ You need to place the pizza dough in n In short, they were better than us n Really?
some people screaming and calling a warm bowl, cover it with a cloth or at promoting their ideas
place it somewhere warm, leave it to rise n No way! I don’t believe it.
for help and some children were trapped
under one of the fallen branches. for 30 minutes or until it doubles in size. 28 Speculating
33 Critiquing and reviewing
n I wonder if John will be going to the
21 Describing feelings and emotions 24 Expressing abstract ideas n I think that ‘Treasure Island’ is still popular
party.
n Corruption is widespread in that part with children even though the language
n He was furious when he saw that his new
of the world. n If she got the nomination, she could is rather dated.
bicycle had been damaged.
probably win if she gathered enough
n There is little respect for human rights n In spite of its popularity I feel that ‘The
n She screamed in anger at how stupid support from the community.
during war time. Beach’ is a very overrated book which
her brother had been.
n What do you think would happen if they appeals mainly to gap-year students.
n Heather was delighted with her shot n Education is the way out of poverty did discover oil there?
for many young people. n The film was a bit disappointing, really.
and her face glowed with pride.
n What if Teresa hadn’t turned up?
n The best part was when …..
n Why should we suffer just because 25 Expressing certainty, probability, doubt
our neighbours like loud parties? 29 Expressing opinions n It was really good when ….
■■ I’m absolutely certain it’s going to rain.
n If I were you, I’d just say no.
n I don’t think it’s right for passengers ■■ It’s impossible to get him out of bed 34 Developing an argument
to put their feet on the seats. before 10 o’clock. n From her point of view, we have to do
n To begin with it’s a bigger problem
this as soon as possible
■■ He’s probably gone to the library. than you think.
22 Describing hopes and plans
n The way I see it is that you’ll have to
n I am having a meeting with my boss ■■ We’re definitely not going to Spain n As far as I am concerned this has
this year. study very hard.
on Friday. nothing to do with the issue.
■■ Are you sure we will arrive in time? n I feel we should do it.
n How are you going to get to France? n The way I see it, the family is more
n I really don’t think it’s a good idea. important.
n How long are you going to Jamaica for? 26 Generalising and qualifying
I’d love to see the photos when you ■■ On the whole I think it is a good idea. 31 Expressing agreement/ disagreement n That’s the reason I don’t want to work
get back. ■■ Generally speaking, the teachers are n That’s just what I was thinking. there anymore.
n I’ll call you soon. very helpful n You know, that’s exactly what I think. In academic discourse style:
n I am going to go around the world ■■ More often than not he shops in the n One reason why…
n I totally agree.
when I’ve saved enough money High Street. n Another argument for/against . . . is . . .
n That’s a good point.
■■ Taking into consideration the cost of
n I hope to get a job in Australia next year. n X maintains that . . .
travel, you might not want to buy a flat n No I’m afraid I can’t agree with you there.
n I’ve always wanted to visit the Taj Mahal. so far away. n Y states that . . .
n You can’t be serious!
23 Giving precise information ■■ We’ll stay for a week or two, depending n It could be argued/asserted that . . .
n Don’t be silly!
■■ I’ll meet you at 2pm in the children’s on the cost. n In conclusion . . .
section of Waterstones in Oxford Street. ■■ Provided that there is no rain, the n That’s ridiculous.
39 Discourse Functions
■■ In my job I mainly have to deal concert will go ahead as planned. 32 Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference
41 Checking understanding
with clients, particularly arranging n Why ask me?
and following up on orders. From speaker’s point of view
n Thank gooodness ■■ Are you following me?
58 59
■■ Let me know if you have any questions? n Pilar, would you like to kick off? Invitation in one-to-one interaction n Consequently, he moved to London
■■ Does that make sense? n Shall we begin? n Don’t you agree?
to be closer to his family.
From listener’s point of view During the meeting n Is that okay with you? 50 Linkers: although, in spite of, despite
■■ If I understood/understand you correctly, n In spite of her illness during the course,
n Jenny, can tell us how the n How about you?
there are no planes at all on Saturday. Human Resources reorganisation she managed to qualify successfully.
n What do you reckon/think?
■■ Do you mean I can’t talk to the boss is coming along? n Despite the rain we all had a great time.
right now? Invitation in group interaction
n How does that affect your n Although I was very young at the time,
■■ Are you trying to say you don’t want department, Rosa? n What do you think, Mario? I remember what happened quite clearly.
to go out with me anymore? n Let’s hear what Gabriella has to say.
n Let’s move on, shall we? 53 Discourse markers to structure formal
■■ Let me see whether I’ve understood
Keeping interaction participants on topic n James might have something to say speech
you correctly.
n We don’t have time to go into that matter
on this. n To begin, I would like to introduce
■■ So what you‘re really saying is . . . my colleagues.
right now. n Fiona knows a lot about this.
■■ Am I right in assuming . . . n Furthermore, I believe that the best way
n Let’s get back to the issue under n Hey, you did something like that,
42 Managing interaction (interrupting, discussion, shall we? didn’t you? forward is to provide more training.
changing topic, resuming or continuing) n hat’s another topic, really. n Moreover, the idea that depression can
45 Interacting informally, reacting,
Interrupting only be cured by medication is now
n Can we keep to the point, please. expressing interest, sympathy, surprise
■■ Actually, . . . being challenged.
n Wow, that’s fantastic.
n Let’s not get distracted.
■■ I’m sorry but . . . n Consequently, we have to be prepared
n Really? Tell me more.
n Taking initiative in non-control situation for a fall in profits next year.
■■ Just a minute!
n Tell me all about it.
■■ Yes, I know, but . . . ! n I’d like to say a few words here. n Regarding our position on nuclear
n I don’t believe it! power, that has not changed.
■■ Hang on! n Yes, I think I can contribute to this point.
n Oh wow! n Additionally, we will also provide support
■■ Hold on! n My expertise in this area might help
to clarify the situation. n Oh you poor thing. throughout the process.
■■ Changing the topic
n That’s awful. What a shame! n In conclusion, we have agreed to give
n Perhaps, I could say something here.
■■ Oh, by the way . . . £3,000 to the charity.
■■ That reminds me . . . 44 Encouraging and inviting another 46 Discourse Markers
speaker to continue, come in. 55 Verb forms
■■ This has nothing to do with what we are 48 Linkers: sequential – past time
talking about but . . . To continue (subsequently) 67 Simple past (narrative)
n Carry on. n Subsequently, he went on to be one n To help pay for his keep and to help
■■ On another subject..
of our best salesmen. his family, Andrew, who was still only
■■ Talking about holidays, did you know that n Go on.
15 years old, began working ten-hour
I’m off to Florida next week? n Following this he decided to leave
n Really? days at a Kensington hotel washing
the country.
■■ Before I forget . . . dishes and cleaning the kitchen.
n Mmm…mmm….
49 Connecting words expressing cause He earned just 6 pounds per week.
Resuming n Don’t stop. and effect, contrast etc. The harsh working conditions and the
■■ Anyway, I was telling you about John’s cruelty of the kitchen staff had a strong
n Tell me more… n I know it would be good fun to watch
party . . . influence on his later political outlook,
n What makes you say that?
the late-night film. Nevertheless, I think
■■ To get back to what I was saying . . . we should all get an early night before and informed his work when he began
n What makes you think that? the big event tomorrow. his literary career, particularly the novel
43 Taking the initiative in interaction that made him famous, ‘Working Boy’.
n I’m all ears. n I would like to tell you more. However,
Control and delegation at start
n I’m listening. that is as much as I am allowed to reveal 68 Past continuous (narrative)
n Andre, would you like begin?
at this time. n Antonio was walking away from the
crowd when the trouble started. He was
60 61
trying to get home but the buses were n Will you be using the car tomorrow? tomorrow. to be compulsory, has now been
not running. He was just crossing the n She wished she hadn’t hurt his feelings.
dropped from the syllabus.
78 Future perfect
bridge to safety when he heard the n She told us all about her new boyfriend,
sound of breaking glass. He was telling n I’d better go and collect the girls. 94 Phrasal Verbs
They’ll have finished school by now. whom none of us knew anything about.
himself not to get involved when 96 Extended phrasal verb
a bottle smashed right beside him. n I’ll call you at six. Will you have arrived n They ran quickly through the streets,
n Let’s splash out on a bottle of
by then? all of which were covered in a thick
69 Used to (narrative) champagne. blanket of snow.
n We used to play at the park at the edge n She won’t have left by then. n Watching that programme has put me
of the town. 118 Modals
79 Future perfect continuous off chicken.
119 Modals of Deduction and Speculation
70 Would expressing habit in the past n Julia will have been studying Economics n I’ll take you up on that offer.
n You shouldn’t have read her journal.
n Every autumn we would steal apples for 5 years when she graduates next
97 Passives It should be private.
from their garden. We would eat year.
the sour fruit and come home holding 99 All passive forms n You should have asked her earlier.
n You’ll have been travelling for 4 days
our stomachs. when you get to Bangkok. You’d better n I’m being eaten alive by these It’s too late now.
book a hotel and have a couple of mosquitoes. n He shouldn’t have any problem doing
71 Past perfect
days rest. n I wasn’t told about the new rules. such a simple task. (Assumption)
n When I’d climbed to the top of the hill,
I looked back down and saw something 80 Present Perfect n I thought that I was being followed. n The plane should have arrived by
I hadn’t seen before. n Did you think that you were being
now. (Assumption)
83 Present perfect continuous
n He had broken the vase when he n You’ve been spending a lot of time criticised? n I knew we might have to pay to get in.
had come in through the window. on the Internet recently. n The new treatment for malaria has been n You shouldn’t have shouted at him.
n He had had a terrible day up until that n They’ve been working very hard to get found to be very effective. He might have hit you.
point. building completed on time. n The weather could have been better
100 Other verb forms
n Honestly, we haven’t been wasting but we still had a good time.
72 Past perfect continuous 101 Reported speech (range of tenses)
n I was tired. I’d been working for our time. n She said she’d been waiting for ages. n You could have told me!
sixteen hours. n Have you been seeing Julie behind
n I knew we’d be late. 120 Modals: can’t have, needn’t have
n They had been driving so fast that the my back?
n She thought she could do it all herself. n It can’t have been John you saw,
police had difficulty stopping them. 89 Conditionals because he was with me.
n They reported that the volcano might
n Had they been waiting long? 92 Mixed conditionals n What can he have done with the keys?
erupt at any time.
n If I had studied harder, I’d be at He can’t have lost them again.
73 Future n They said it should be fun.
university now. n You needn’t have bothered getting
76 Future time (will & going to) n I told her I had to go.
(Prediction) n If I’d got that job I applied for I’d be here on time. He’s always late.
n You will succeed where I have failed. working in Istanbul. 102 Relative clauses
134 Articles
n I’ve lost the books that I borrowed from
n Here comes the bus now. We aren’t n I would have driven you to the match
the library. 139 With abstract nouns
going to be late after all. if I didn’t have so much work. ■■ History tended to be uninteresting
n Where is the man that sells second-hand when I was at school.
n Don’t worry. He’ll be here on time. n If I wasn’t working in July, I would have
suggested we go camping in France. records?
■■ The early history of Scotland is full
77 Future continuous (Prediction) n The children he played with thought of betrayal.
n This time next year, I’ll be working 93 Wish
he was much younger.
n I wish I was rich. ■■ Happiness in marriage is something
in Japan and earning good money.
n This is my cousin Verena , who teaches you have to work at.
n I’ll be visiting my mum on Thursday. n I wish today wasn’t Monday. music. ■■ Education is not compulsory in many
Can you come another time? n I wish I wasn’t going into hospital developing countries.
n Shelly and Byron’s poetry, which used
62 63
■■ The education I received was first-rate.
64 65
30 Expressing shades of opinion n What are you trying to say? n There are several reasons for this: one . . n He’s not Roger Federer but he is a very
and certainty . , two . . . , and finally . . . good tennis player.
n Absolutely!
n There’s no doubt about the fact that
n The main reason for this . . . is/may be . . . 37 Defending a point of view persuasively
there is going to be inflation. n I don’t believe it.
n Some people might argue that . . . n I know this may not be a popular
n No, I’m absolutely sure. I mean look n That’s amazing!
However . . . conclusion, but it seems to me we have
at the figure for X. n Oh, you poor thing. to face (facts/ the fact that . . . )
n Opponents of this idea try to suggest
n I may be wrong, but I think higher n You can say that again! n I do appreciate that what I proposed
that . . . However . . .
inflation is almost certain. may be expensive/painful/a surprise to
33 Critiquing and reviewing n It’s clear that . . .
n I have a feeling there may be some people, but I really am convinced
n The (report) highlights some important n No one would dispute that . . .
a problem here. the evidence shows we need to . . .
issues but it does not, to my mind,
n I suppose that could be an option. get to the bottom of the problem. n It is generally accepted that . . . n I recognise that this may . . . , but . . .
n I rather doubt that he’ll come. n It’s an excellent summary, but I think n All the evidence/data indicates/suggests n But one should not lose sight of the fact
it would be improved by a deeper that . . . that . . .
n It’s not something I feel strongly about
consideration of X. n Thus to conclude, the central issues are . n But surely one still needs to take X into
n Well one option/possibility might be
n The (report) sets out to do X, and it does . . /the key point is . . . account
to go earlier.
parts of this well, but it seems to me n In conclusion, before we . . . we need
n I really think that the people who produce 38 Responding to counterarguments
to lack . . . to . . .
our food should not be exploited. But the n What you say may be true in some
n The good/best thing about (the report) is 35 Conceding a point contexts, however in this case….
problem is that sometimes fair trade
goods are more than double the price. that it is so concise. It really hits the nail n I see what you mean, but . . . n You may be right, but I still think
When this is the case I tend to buy the o n the head.
n I take your point. I agree we need . . . / that . . ..
cheaper product. I am not proud of this, n Well, it starts well, but then after x pages/
It’s certainly true that . . . n Whilst it may indeed be true that . . . ,
but I am sure there are many other in the section on X, I had the impression
n I have to admit that . . . I still think . . .
people exactly like me. that it . . .
n It is true that . . . n There is no evidence to show that ….
n I thought the meeting was a missed n The plot involves the disappearance
opportunity to actually do something of a sacred sword and introduces us n Though I hate to say it, I think you are n On the contrary, . . .
good for a change. But I know that when to various levels of castle intrigue. right that . . . n I think you have misunderstood the point
it comes to environmental issues, Stephenson weaves his usual magic by I was making . . .
n That may be true, but . . .
governments tend to talk a lot and make giving us snippets of information here
grand promises, and then go back and and there, now from the royal chambers, n I can see where you are coming from
36 Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue
carry on just the same as before. If they now from the castle kitchens. The master but there are problems with your
n The main point I’d like to emphasize here
really wanted to make a difference they of gothic science fiction has provided analysis of the situation.
is the fact that parents have an important
wouldn’t just set so-called ‘green us with a real page-turner. The only role to play in a child’s education n In some circumstances, I would agree
objectives’ but would pass laws which criticism that might be levelled here is with you entirely, but in this case . . .
n 75% of those interviewed said that
would have an immediate impact on that the author assumes that the reader
public transport was not as safe. Yes, n Even so, he still has a long way to go
the environment.. is already familiar with characters and
75% think public transport is now more before he is suitable management
the world they inhabit. To get the most
32 Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference dangerous. material.
out of this book one needs to have
n To be honest, I simply don’t care. n After turning the whole house upside- n No matter how you look at it, he made
read the previous books in the series.
n Why bother? down, the police found nothing. a mistake.
34 Developing an argument Absolutely nothing.
n It’s not such a big issue. systematically n All the same, she deserves another
chance.
n I don’t really mind/have an opinion, n It is frequently argued that . . . , however
one way or the other. n X is clearly a topic of concern to many
people nowadays
66 67
46 Discourse Markers 55 Verb forms n In the summer we went to Devon for ■■ This time next year I’ll be sun bathing
54a Markers to structure and signpost 66 Narrative tenses for experiences, years. My Dad would ask us to navigate. on my yacht in Antibes. I’ll be mixing with
informal speech and writing including passive It was a way of keeping us quiet. We celebrities from all over the world. I’ll be
n We’ve a bit more money coming in than
would watch out for named pubs and driving a look-at-me car and going to
67 Simple past (narrative)
we had last year. Mind you, we’ll still read the road signs. Usually we counted fancy restaurants.
n I went home that evening in a very cars too. I would count VWs; my more
need to be careful with the heating bills. sombre mood. I tried to relax. I made ■■ At the speed things are moving, the case
sophisticated brother counted Jags. will have expired before it is brought
n He’d spent all his money without myself a cup of coffee and turned on I would usually win.
realising. So, he couldn’t afford a taxi the television. But I just could not get the to court.
and had to walk home. incident out of my mind. The more 71 Past perfect (narrative) ■■ At the end of next year, I’ll have been
I thought about things, the more certain n When he returned to the UK things were working here for 5 years!
n Then guess what happened?
I was that something just didn’t make very different. Maria had given up her
n On top of that his girlfriend was really sense. I decided to go back over job in the library and gone back to 89 Conditionals
angry with him. everything the next day. university. Reza had finally left home and 92 Mixed conditionals in the past, present
had moved in with a rather odd group and future
54b Markers to structure and signpost 68 Past continuous (narrative)
formal speech and writing – especially of postgrads who had very strict house ■■ If she had taken her studies more
n They were late as usual, hoping the rules about everything from the storage seriously last year, she’d have more job
logical markers
guests would be a little late. Miriam was of food to when guests were allowed to opportunities now.
n The pound is not as strong as it was two still in the kitchen preparing enormous
years ago. Moreover, the cost of flights visit. Brigitte seemed to have completely ■■ If Lola had given me the information
bowls of salad. Her father was tidying disappeared. Just six months before they
has gone up . . . away all his papers which were usually earlier, she’d be coming with us on
had been inseparable. Although he had holiday.
n Profits are likely to fall this year. scattered over every available space known that it couldn’t last, it surprised
Consequently, we need to prepare our in the dining room. John was keeping him just how quickly things had changed. ■■ If I were rich, I would have bought that
shareholders for some bad news. a lookout at the front gate, kicking painting we saw yesterday.
pebbles along the path. 72 Past perfect continuous (narrative)
n He was warned many times about the ■■ If Nareene didn’t come with us
n Whoever it had been must have had
dangers of mountain climbing in winter. 69 Used to (narrative) to Glastonbury, everyone would
Nevertheless, he continued to tackle a key. So if his parents had been visiting be disappointed.
n That bit of the coastline used to be much
some of the toughest peaks. their friends in Lyon, and his sister had
less busy than it is these days. Lisa and 93 Wish/if only & regrets
been out celebrating the end of term
n Despite the clear danger that was her brothers loved exploring the coves
with her boyfriend, then there was only ■■ I wish I’d studied a bit harder.
pointed out to him, he insisted on and beaches for miles in both directions.
one person who would have been able
continuing so he is at least partly They used to get up really early, run ■■ You wish you’d kept your mouth shut,
to get into the house that night.
responsible for what happened. down the rocky path that led to Shell Bay don’t you?
and go for a swim before breakfast. 76 Futures (revision) ■■ If only he’d take more care of his health.
n The cost of fuel has gone up. Therefore
Yes, those days were fun. ■■ My brother and his girlfriend are getting
it is hardly surprising that there has been ■■ If only I had behaved a bit better,
n I had a proper tricycle when I was married in August. They’re not going
an increase in the use of public she might have given me a chance.
a small child. It had a boot and I used to go on honeymoon. They’re going
transport.
to do up the flat they bought with the ■■ If only the sun would come out!
to keep all sorts of toys in it. We used
n Whereas that is the case in Brazil, in money they’ll save. They’ll probably have
to go all over the place, using the trike 94 Phrasal Verbs
Columbia it is more a question of . . . some kind of reception or party for the
as a mobile base.
wedding but I don’t think it will be a very 96 Extended phrasal verbs (splitting)
n Certainly the car is here to stay, but the
n 70 Would expressing habit in the past grand affair. ■■ The policeman broke the fight up
question is to what extent it will be the
(narrative) very quickly.
same concept of car. ■■ Oh no. Another goal for United! Barça
n My grandmother used to live by the is going to lose. ■■ She talked me into going to her parents’
n The policy was correct is so far as it was
seaside and we would go there every place for the weekend.
applied; the problem is that it wasn’t ■■ I just got a phone call from Raoul. He’s
Easter. My Dad would drive, my mother
applied systematically. in a taxi. He’s going to get here in about ■■ I can’t make anything out; it’s really dark.
would navigate and we would sit in the
back fighting. five minutes. ■■ She knew that her mother had put John
up to it.
68 69
97 Passives 166 Lexis 186 Eliminating false friends, e.g.
99 Passive forms, all 181 Collocations, e.g. ■■ In the chemistry class they performed
■■ He’ll be given a warning. ■■ It’s there in black and white. an interesting experiment (as opposed
to experience which is French for
■■ You’ll be being transferred to your new ■■ He was in excruciating pain. experiment)
job tomorrow.
■■ The suspense is palpable. ■■ Different languages = different false
■■ The seats will all have been taken by friends
■■ I did physics at university.
the time we get there!
■■ The situation is untenable. 187 Formal and informal registers, e.g.
■■ He’s going to be given an award.
■■ It’s a no go area. ■■ Mr. John Wilson passed away peacefully
■■ He ought to be sacked for behaviour at his home in Nottingham last week.
like that. 182 Colloquial language, e.g.
■■ John Wilson died in his sleep last week
■■ Having been beaten so many times, ■■ I am absolutely knackered.
■■ John kicked the bucket a few days back.
he decided to fight back. ■■ She was gobsmacked when he turned
■■ He might have been hurt. up at the party. 188 Idiomatic expressions, e.g.
■■ The whole thing was a cock-up from ■■ I wish I could remember her name.
118 Modals in the past It’s on the tip of my tongue.
beginning to end.
■■ You shouldn’t have told her.
■■ He tried to flog me an old banger. ■■ Everybody wants work with Marion.
She’ll be very upset.
She really is the flavour of the month.
■■ I should have warned him about the 183 Approximating (vague language), e.g.
■■ If you want a shoulder to cry on,
traffic, but I forgot. ■■ There will be about 30 odd people –
I’ll always be here for you.
■■ You might have told me it was her well 30 to 40.
birthday. I felt embarrassed I didn’t take ■■ I think he an accountant or something 189 Topics
a present. like that. 198 Books and literature
■■ He can’t have got my message. ■■ The book is sort of similar to his first one. 199 News, lifestyles and current affairs
He would never be this late.
■■ Can you pass me the thingummyjig for 200 Media
■■ You needn’t have bought any potatoes. taking nails out? 201 Arts
We had some.
■■ All the painting stuff is in the garage. 202 Scientific development
■■ I don’t think anyone could have done
184 Differentiated use of vocabulary, e.g. 203 Technical and legal language
anything. He had decided.
■■ She was really upset when she failed her
■■ Things might have turned out differently,
exams. I think she is still in shock.
if she had asked first.
■■ It’s not that I don’t like her; I detest her.
151 Adverbs
■■ It’s really good. It’s concise, focused,
159 Inversion (negative adverbials) readable.
■■ Little did I know that he had already left
■■ I wouldn’t say she’s antisocial, just
the company.
a bit shy.
■■ It wasn’t bad, just a bit disappointing.
70 71
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