Ground Improvement (2003) 7, No.
1, 9–23
Stabilising effects of different binders in some
Swedish soils
H. ÅHNBERG,
S.-E. JOHANSSON,y H. PIHL{ and T. CARLSSON§

Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Linköping, Sweden; y Cementa AB, Sweden; {Partek
Nordkalk Oy Ab, Finland; § SSAB Merox AB, Sweden
In Sweden, lime and lime–cement have been used for
several decades as stabilising agents in deep stabilisation
of soft soils. More recently, other types of binder have
come into use, but so far only to a limited extent. In order
to gather experience about the effect of various binders,
laboratory tests have been performed on different types of
soil stabilised with a range of binders. Lime, cement, fly
ash and blast furnace slag in different combinations
together with different admixtures, such as gypsum, silica
fume and calcium chloride, have been used in the
investigations. The variation in strength with type of
binder has been studied, and comparisons have also been
made with results from some previous investigations using
different binders. The tests showed that there is no
optimal, universal binder for stabilisation of the soils.
Whereas some binders are robust, yielding good results in
most types of soil, there are also binders that produce very
good results in certain soils but poor results in others.
Both similarities and differences in effects were found for
different binders.
Introduction
Since the first application of deep-mix columns in 1975, two
types of binder have mainly been used for deep stabilisation
of soft soils in Sweden. During the first 10 years quicklime
alone was used in the process, but since the mid-1980s,
combinations of lime and cement have been increasingly
used. Today, only a few per cent of the production of deep-
mix columns in Sweden is performed with binders other
than the lime–cement combination. However, there is a
potential for other binders to be used. Other types of binder
are increasingly being used internationally, mainly in con-
nection with shallow stabilisation of capping layers and sub-
bases, but also for deep soil stabilisation. Apart from the
possible environmental benefit of reusing industrial by-
products, there could be economic as well as technical
reasons for incorporating a larger number of binders.
In order to study the effects of different binders in the
stabilisation of soft soils, various projects in this area have
been initiated within a comprehensive research programme
run by the Swedish Deep Stabilisation Research Centre (SD).
(GI 140) Paper received 19 November 2001; last revised 2 August
2002; accepted 10 October 2002
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9
En Suède, la chaux et une combinaison chaux-ciment ont
été utilisés depuis plusieurs décennies comme agents
stabilisants pour la stabilisation de sols mous. Plus récem-
ment, d’autres types de liants ont été utilisé, mais de façon
limitée. Dans le but d’acquérir de l’expérience concernant
l’effet de différents liants, un certain nombre d’essais en
laboratoire ont été exécutés sur différents types de sols
stabilisés avec différents liants. La chaux, le ciment, les
cendres, et les scories de haut fourneaux combinés dans
différents mélanges avec du gypse, de la silice et du
chloride de calcium ont éte utilisés dans ces essais. La
variation de la résistance avec le type de liants a été étudié
et des comparaisons ont été faites avec des essais prove-
nant d’études antérieures de différents liants. Les essais
n’ont pas résulté en un liant optimal universel, mais ils
ont démontré que certains liants affichent de bons résultats
dans la plupart des types de sols étudiés alors que certains
autres liants montrent de bons résultats dans certains sols
et des mauvais résultats dans d’autres. Des similitudes
ainsi que des différences se rapportant à l’effet de
différents liants ont été enregistées au cours des essais.
This programme has been set up and funded by different
actors in the market involved with deep stabilisation in
Sweden. There is also interest in this subject in other parts of
Europe. Some experience of the effect of different binders
has recently been gained in an EC-funded (Brite EuRam)
project, EuroSoilStab, involving tests on organic soils stabi-
lised with different types of binder (den Haan, 1998;
Åhnberg and Holm, 1999; Cortellazzo and Cola, 1999; Hebib
and Farrell, 1999; Lahtinen et al., 1999).
In this paper, the results obtained from one of the projects
within the SD research programme are presented. In the
project, different binders have been tested to a varying
extent in three types of soil. The main purpose has been to
study the effect of different binders on the strength of
stabilised soil, but other properties were also determined in
order to demonstrate similarities and differences between
the various materials. The paper describes the measured
increase in unconfined compressive strength, and changes in
water content and consistency limits. Some comparisons are
also made with experience from the tests conducted in
Sweden within the EuroSoilStab project. The aim is not to
pick out any specific binder from the others, but to illustrate
differences and similarities in strength increase between
various combinations of binder and soil. Studies of the more
1365-781X # 2003 Thomas Telford Ltd
H. Åhnberg et al.

general mechanical behaviour of different stabilised soils Organic soils are often considered more difficult to stabilise
and studies of influencing soil parameters and chemical than clays. They usually demand larger quantities of binder
reactions of the binders have commenced in other projects in order to achieve satisfactory results. The organic soil was
and will be reported at a later date. a gyttja from Holma Mosse in the eastern part of Sweden.
This soil had previously been investigated in the EuroSoil-
Stab project.
The Holma gyttja, gyttja 1, is a clayey gyttja with a water
Tests performed content of 220% and a liquid limit of 170%. The organic
content is 10%. The properties of the gyttja are shown in
Choice of soils Table 1.
The type of soil can greatly influence the results of Investigations of the chemical properties and other soil
stabilisation. Soils that could be expected to give varying parameters that may be of importance for the stabilisation
results with the different binders were therefore sought in results are being performed in a related project within the
order to obtain a large variation in stabilisation effects. Three same research programme. The results from these investiga-
types of soft soil were chosen for the investigations. tions will be published at a later stage.
Two of the soils in the investigations were soft clays, clay
1 and clay 2. They have fairly similar geotechnical properties
according to the routine investigations, but originated from Choice of binder
two different parts of Sweden. Experiences from different There are many binder materials that possess hardening
applications of deep stabilisation have shown that in some properties and which could potentially be used for the
areas, for example west of Stockholm and on the eastern stabilisation of soils. In this project the traditional binders
coast, there are layers of clay in which pure lime gives very cement and quicklime, which are most commonly used in
poor stabilising results. However, deep stabilisation of the Sweden, were chosen. In addition binders based on ground
soft clays along the west coast of Sweden most often granulated blast furnace slag or fly ash, which are more widely
produces good results, including relatively high strengths used for soil stabilisation in other countries, were included.
with both lime–cement and pure lime. Investigations on Apart from these, several other materials were used at
clays from different areas, stabilised in the laboratory with percentages of 2–33% of the total binder content, together
the same type and amount of lime, have shown that there with different combinations of the main binders. Among
can be more than a tenfold difference in strength 28–91 days these were mineral additions and admixtures commonly
after stabilisation (Åhnberg and Pihl, 1998). Clay 1 was taken used to improve the hardening or setting properties of
at Linköping in the eastern part of Sweden. This is a post- concrete. These were silica fume, alumina cement, calcium
glacial clay deposited during periods of sedimentation in chloride and gypsum. Certain tests were also performed with
alternating lake and brackish sea water. Clay 2 was taken at the addition of a secondary product from lime production,
Löftabro on the Swedish west coast; it is a marine post- kiln dust, mixed with lime. Also included in the investiga-
glacial clay containing occasional shells. tions were tests with water-glass—that is, sodium silicate—as
The geotechnical properties of the two clays are similar, admixture. Water-glass was tested mainly as an activator for
although the Löftabro clay has a somewhat higher water the cement reactions, but is also expected to affect the
content and lower shear strength than the Linköping clay. mixing ability of the soils since it is commonly used also as
Both clays are high-plastic, with liquid limits around 70% a peptising agent.
and organic contents around 1%. The bulk densities are just The different composite binders together with mineral
above 1:5 t=m3 . The properties of the clays are shown in additions or admixtures are shown in Table 2. A total binder
Table 1. quantity corresponding to 100 kg=m3 was used in most of
The third soil chosen for the tests was an organic soil. the tests, but some tests were also performed with a higher
quantity of 150 kg=m3 .
The main type of cement used was the currently dominant
standard cement in Sweden, a Portland-limestone cement
Table 1. Properties of the test soils designated CEM II/A-LL 42·5 R (CEN, 2000). The limestone
Holma exchange is approximately 15%. Only a year before the start
Linköping Löftabro Mosse of the investigations, the main Swedish cement producer
clay 1 clay 2 gyttja 1 changed the composition of the standard cement for con-
Depth: m 3–6 2–5 3–5 struction purposes in Sweden from ordinary cement to
Density: t/m3 1·55 1·52 1·23 limestone cement. Because of this, certain comparative tests
Specific gravity: t/m3 2·72 2·73 2·36 were performed with ordinary Portland cement, CEM I 42·5 R,
Plastic limit: % 24 23 64 which had earlier been used in numerous stabilisation
Water content: % 78 89 220 projects. Another cement used was SH Portland cement, CEM
Liquid limit: % 70 66 170 I 52·5 R, which is more fine-grained and hardens more
Undrained shear 15 8 5
rapidly than standard cement. An even more fine-grained
strength} : kPa cement or microcement, ultra-fine Portland cement, CEM I
Sensitivity 20 25 10 52·5 R LA SR, was also included in the investigations. The
Organic content: % 1·0 1·0 10·3 mean particle size of this cement is 0·005 mm compared with
Chloride content: % 0·01 0·38 ,0·01
0·01 and 0·03 mm for the SH cement and the standard
cement respectively. The compositions of the different ce-
Carbonate content: % 1·1=1·0 (CaCO3 =MgCO3 ) 8·4=,0·5 0·6
Sulphide content: % 0·05 0·18 0·2
ments are shown in Table 3.
The main type of lime used was the quicklime normally
pH 7·6 8·7 8·5
used in deep stabilisation, CL90-Q (CEN, 1998). This
Clay content: % 63 72 80
‘standard’ quicklime is relatively highly burnt and because
}
Determined by fall-cone tests. of this is also labelled lime HB. To study the relevance of the
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 Stabilising effects of binders in Swedish soils

Table 2. Types of binder

Additional Binder ratio : %
Binder 1 Binder 2 binder/admixture by weight Abbreviation
Lime HB (std) l
Lime LB llb
Cement (std) c
Cement SH c2
Cement ordinary c3
Cement ultra-fine c0:005
Cement (std) Lime (std) 50 : 50, 75 : 25 cl
Cement (std) Slag 50 : 50, 25 : 75 cs
Cement SH Slag 50 : 50 c2 s
Cement (std) Fly ash 50 : 50, 75 : 25 cf
Cement (std) PFBC ash 50 : 50 cpf
Slag Lime (std) 50 : 50, 75 : 25 sl
Slag Lime (std) Fly ash 33 : 33 : 33 slf
Lime (std) Kiln dust 70 : 80, 80 : 20 lk
Cement (std) Lime (std) Kiln dust 33 : 33 : 33 clk
Cement (std) Alumina cement 95 : 5 cal
Lime (std) Silica fume 90 : 10 lsi
Cement (std) Silica fume 90 : 10 csi
Cement (std) Lime (std) Silica fume 45 : 45 : 10 clsi
Cement (std) Slag Silica fume 45 : 45 : 10 cssi
Lime (std) CaCl2 (salt) 98 : 2, 95 : 5 lsa
Cement (std) CaCl2 98 : 2, 95 : 5 csa
Cement (std) Slag CaCl2 42·5 : 42·5 : 5 cssa
Cement (std) Fly ash CaCl2 42·5 : 42·5 : 5 cfsa
Cement (std) Lime (std) Water-glass 42·5 : 42·5 : 5 clwa
Cement (std) Slag Water-glass 42·5 : 42·5 : 5 cswa
Lime (std) Gypsum 80 : 20 lg
Cement (std) Gypsum 80 : 20 cg
Cement (std) Slag Gypsum 40 : 40 : 20 csg
Cement (std) Fly ash Gypsum 40 : 40 : 20 cfg
Slag Lime slaked Gypsum 33 : 33 : 33 sl2 g

Table 3. Chemical composition and specific surfaces of binders and admixtures

Specific
surface:
CaO:% SiO2 : % Al2 O3 : % Fe2 O3 :% MgO:% K2 O:% Na2 O: % SO3 : % m2 =kg Blaine
Lime (std) 93·0 1·4 0·6 0·3 1·0 ,0·1 ,0·1 ,0·1 661
Lime slaked 72·7 1·4 0·6 0·3 1·1 ,0·1 ,0·1 ,0·1 –
Lime LB 92·5 1·8 1·0 0·4 1·5 0·2 ,0·1 0·2 –
Cement (std) 61·4 19·9 3·6 2·6 2·8 1·0 0·2 3·3 466
Cement SH 62·3 20·4 4·2 2·4 3·3 1·3 0·3 3·4 534
Cement ordinary 61·8 19·7 4·2 2·6 3·4 1·3 0·3 3·4 358
Cement ultra–fine 64·2 22·5 3·4 4·4 0·8 0·6 0·1 2·5 330
Slag 32·1 35·2 13·6 0·2 16·8 0·6 0·6 1·8 476
Fly ash 5·9 54·4 30·5 5·5 1·8 1·2 0·5 0·5 465
PFBC ash 21·8 32·4 18·2 6·7 11·8 1·7 0·8 7·8 470
Alumina cement 38·3 2·5 43·5 13·11 0·7 0·1 ,0·1 0·1 301
Silica fume 0·6 90·3 1·6 3·9 1·2 1·6 0·5 0·2 –
Gypsum 26·2 1·5 1·2 13·5 0·5 0·2 0·1 18·9 698
Kiln dust 56·1 3·7 2·3 1·4 1·4 1·6 0·7 3·1 480
Water-glass ,0·01 53·7 ,0·01 ,0·01 ,0·01 0·1 28·6 ,0·1 –
Salt 23·6 ,0·01 ,0·01 ,0·01 1·2 ,0·01 7·1 4·0 –

requirement for hard-burned lime, which is normally in- slaked lime, CL70-S, was used when the effect of gypsum was
cluded in the specifications for limes to be used in deep investigated. In order to study the influence of particle size
stabilisation, a soft-burned lime, lime LB, was also used. on the stabilisation effect, two types of more coarsely ground
Since problems with inhomogeneous mixing normally arise standard lime were also used. The maximum particle sizes of
when using quicklime together with dihydrate gypsum, a these two types were 2 mm and 4 mm, compared with
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H. Åhnberg et al.
0·1 mm for the standard lime. The compositions of the
different types of lime are shown in Table 3.
The slag used was a ground granulated blast furnace slag
with a glass content of 99%. This binder has been used only
to a very limited extent for deep stabilisation of soils in
Sweden (Jelisic and Leppänen, 1999). Its composition is
shown in Table 3.
The ashes used were a pure coal fly ash from pulverised
coal combustion and a combined cyclone/bed ash from the
combustion of coal and dolomite in a pulverised fluid bed
combustion (PFBC) plant. The fly ash was of Class F (ASTM,
1994), thus having pozzolanic properties. Fly ash has not yet
been used for deep stabilisation purposes in Sweden, but a
number of lime–fly ash test columns have been installed in
a research project (Holm and Åhnberg, 1987). The composi-
tion of the ashes is shown in Table 3.
The other materials, which were used in smaller quanti-
ties, were of varying compositions. The kiln dust was a fine-
grained material collected in a filter from the flue gases of
the lime kiln. It contained mainly calcium carbonate dust,
fuel ash and some calcium oxide. The alumina cement was a
ciment fondu: that is, a cement produced from limestone and
bauxite. High-alumina cements of this type are highly reac-
tive cements based on calcium aluminates instead of calcium
silicates, which are the basis of Portland cements. The
constituents are mainly CA (monocalcium aluminate) to-
gether with secondary phases of C12 A7 , C2 S and different
ferrites. The silica fume was a by-product from the manufac-
ture of ferro-silicon alloys. The silica fume contains very fine
spherical grains of amorphous silicate. The mean particle
size was less than 0·0002 mm and the silicate content 90%.
The gypsum used in the investigations was a ferrous
dihydrate gypsum derived as a secondary product from the
manufacture of titanium dioxide. Apart from dihydrate
gypsum, it contained iron hydroxides and titanium hydro-
xides. The contents of SO3 and CaO were therefore relatively
low. The water-glass was a hydrous sodium silicate contain-
ing 54% SiO2 and 29% Na2 O. The salt used contained 70% of
CaCl2 . See Table 3.
Preparation of samples
Combinations of binders were mixed prior to being mixed
with the soil. They were then mixed with soil for 5 min.
Directly afterwards, the mixtures were gradually filled into
50 mm dia. plastic tubes using a compaction pressure of
100 kPa on approximately every 30 mm layer of mixture, in
accordance with the common procedure used in Sweden
(Carlsten and Ekström, 1995). The gyttja mixture developed
a sticky consistency, preventing the use of the standard
compaction device. The mixtures were therefore filled into
the sample tubes using light hand pressure. The mixtures in
the tubes were given a height of about 0·15 m. Each batch of
mixed soil contained a volume large enough to prepare six
to eight samples. The tubes were sealed with rubber lids and
stored in a climate room at a temperature of 88C. This
corresponds to the mean ground temperature in Sweden.
The samples were stored in the same compartment seven
days to one year after mixing.
Testing
To investigate the strength increase of the samples,
unconfined compression tests were performed 7, 28, 91 and
364 days after mixing. Duplicate tests were performed 28
and 91 days after mixing, whereas only single tests were
performed after one week and one year. However, in cases
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of clearly dubious results, any spare samples were used for
a control test.
The unconfined compression tests were performed with a
rate of 1·5%/min on specimens with a height-to-diameter
ratio of 2. Before strength testing, the specimens were cut
and smoothed to form parallel end surfaces. The end plates
were lubricated with grease in order to minimise friction at
the end surfaces.
The densities and water contents of the samples were
determined in connection with the unconfined compression
tests. This was done mainly in order to check the homo-
geneity and uniformity of samples prepared in the same
way, but also to investigate the changes and differences in
water content and density when using different binders.
Test results and discussion
Change in density and water content
When adding a stabilising agent to a soft soil, a certain
increase in density and decrease in water content can be
expected. The extent of this change depends on the amount
and type of binder used. Neglecting the effects of certain
structural changes caused by the initial chemical reactions,
the change in density can roughly be estimated from the
specific densities of the added binders. In the gyttja, adding
a binder quantity of 100 kg=m3 would change the density
from 1:23 t=m3 of the original undisturbed soil to a maxi-
mum density of about 1:28 t=m3 when using the different
composite binders and to a slightly higher density when
using pure cement. However, when preparing the specimens
by layer-wise compaction, a certain amount of air-filled
pores and larger pockets of air will be entrapped. Adding
binders corresponding to 100 kg=m3 changed the density to
1:27 t=m3 as a mean. This indicates a low quantity of air
pockets in the mixed gyttja samples, which was also estab-
lished by visual inspection of the samples (Fig. 1(a)). The
corresponding mean measured densities in the stabilised
clay 1 and clay 2 were 1:55 t=m3 and 1:52 t=m3 respectively,
compared with the calculated densities of 1:58–1:60 t=m3
and 1:55–1:57 t=m3 . The measured mean densities are the
same as those of the original undisturbed clays, indicating a
larger volume of air pockets in the stabilised clay samples.
Later on, the procedure for filling tubes with stabilised clay
was slightly modified, in order to produce more homoge-
neous samples. However, in order to allow for comparisons
between all the different types of stabilised sample, the
Fig. 1. Samples of stabilised soil: (a) stabilised gyttja; (b) stabilised clay

mode of preparation was not changed until all the test series
had been completed. An example of the distribution of air
pockets in a stabilised clay sample is shown in Fig. 1(b).
In both clays, the measured densities of the lime-stabilised
samples were somewhat higher than the mean densities of
all samples, whereas the densities of the cement-stabilised
samples were somewhat lower. The lime-stabilised soils are
affected by a higher degree of structural change caused by
flocculation of the clay particles as ion exchange processes
take place during and shortly after mixing. Mixing and
compaction were more easily performed than in the cement-
stabilised soils, which exhibited a stickier, less easily com-
pacted behaviour. No significant differences in density were
measured for the different composite binders in the stabi-
lised clay or gyttja samples.
The densities achieved in the preparation of the samples
can be expected to affect the results of the strength tests. A
higher density will normally give a higher strength when
using a certain type of binder. However, if unevenly dis-
tributed, the air pockets will lead to non-representative low-
strength measurements and a larger scatter.
The water content decreases when dry binders are added
to the soil. The water content after stabilisation depends on
the amount and type of binder used. The decrease in water
content is caused both by the larger quantity of solid
particles introduced in the soil and by the amount of water
bound by the hydration products as the binders react with
water. The measured water content is to some extent also
affected by the drying out/evaporation of water during
mixing. The larger part of the decrease in water content
occurs during the first week after stabilisation, but a
continued decrease is normally noticeable for up to at least
one month after mixing. The water content of the stabilised
soil could roughly be calculated as
 
wN
rsoil  ax
wN þ 1
wstab ¼   (1)
1 wL and wP was considerably less.
rsoil þ (1 þ a)x
wN þ 1
where rsoil is the bulk density of the unstabilised soil (t=m3 );
200
180
160
140
Measured water content: %
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20
Fig. 2. Estimated plotted against measured water contents 28 days after mixing. For abbreviations see Table 2, column 5
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Stabilising effects of binders in Swedish soils
wN is the natural water content of the unstabilised soil (as a
decimal number); x is the amount of dry binder added to
the soil (t=m3 ); and a is the content of non-evaporable water
of the hydration product with respect to dry binder weight
(as a decimal).
The non-evaporable water content, a, of the main binders
can be assumed to be approximately 0·23 in a hydrated
cement and somewhat lower in a hydrated slag (Cesareni
and Frigione, 1968; Taylor, 1997). A non-evaporable water
content of approximately 0·20 for hydrated slag was used in
the calculations. In the lime- and fly-ash-stabilised soils,
where pozzolanic reactions take place, the water bound by
the hydrated CaO can be calculated as approximately 0·30
and 0·02 respectively of the dry binder weight. The water
contents estimated in this way agree fairly well with those
measured in the stabilised soil samples 28 days after mixing
(Fig. 2).
As a rule, the strength of a soil stabilised with a specific
binder increases with decreasing water content. However,
there is no unique correlation between the water content
and strength of stabilised soils, as this varies with the soil as
well as with the type of binder used. Just as in natural soils,
the behaviour of the stabilised soil is affected not only by its
water content but also by its liquidity or consistency index.
The water content after stabilisation can be calculated from
the quantity of binder used, but the liquid limit and
plasticity limit will change to varying degrees depending on
the effect of the binder. The plasticity limit normally in-
creases after stabilisation. The liquid limit of Swedish soft
clays most often increases after stabilisation. In some high
plastic and organic soils, such as the gyttja and peat from
the test site at Dömle in the EuroSoilStab project, the liquid
limit decreases after stabilisation. The measured changes in
water content and consistency limits in the stabilised
Linköping clay and Holma gyttja are shown in Fig. 3. The
measured changes in the Löftabro clay were principally the
same as in the Linköping clay, but the scatter in measured
As in natural soils, a decrease in water content from
around the liquid limit towards the plasticity limit is accom-
panied by an increase in strength. Different investigations
l – 100 kg/m3 1:1
c
cl
cs
cf
sl
l – 150 kg/m3
c
cl Holma gyttja
cs
cf
sl
1:1
Löftabro clay
Linköping clay
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Estimated water content: %
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H. Åhnberg et al.

250 Gyttia: Holma

wL

200
wP

w
150
w: %

Clay 1: Linköping
100
wL

w
50 wP

wP wL w
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time: days

Fig. 3. Range of measured w, wL and wP in Linköping clay and Holma gyttja before and after mixing with different binders

have shown the remoulded shear strength in natural clays to
be about 200 kPa at a water content equal to the plastic limit,
decreasing to about 2 kPa at the liquid limit (Wood, 1990).
By definition, the fall cone shear strength is 1·6 kPa when
the liquidity index (IL ) is 1 (Karlsson, 1981). Measured shear
strength, evaluated from the unconfined compression tests
as quc =2, is shown as a function of IL of the three stabilised
soils in Fig. 4. For comparison, the approximate linear
relation for the remoulded strength of a soil,
cu ¼ 2 3 100(1 IL ) , suggested by Wood (1990) on the basis of
data collected by Mitchell (1976), is also shown in the
diagram. The scatter in results is considerable, but the trend
for the stabilised soils agrees quite well with that reported
for natural remoulded soils. The tests on stabilised soils
were performed on unconsolidated but not remoulded
samples. The remoulded strength of stabilised soils is
normally not determined. The sensitivity of stabilised soil is
most often low, but these strengths would lie somewhat
below the line of remoulded natural soils. However, the
results show that the approach used in describing the
consistency of natural soils can also in principle be applied
to unconsolidated stabilised soils.
The relation between the consistency limits and the
strength is to a large part governed by the relation between
w and wP . In Fig. 5, the measured shear strength is shown as
a function of w=wP . There is a large scatter, especially at
ratios lower than 1, but at water contents well above the
plastic limit the scatter is smaller. A similar increase in
strength with decreasing w=wP ratio was measured, regard-
less of the type of binder and the type of soil. Measurement

Plastic limit Liquid limit

1000

100

Natural remoulded clays

(Wood, 1990)
quc /2: kPa

10 l-100-Clay 1 14-100
llb-100 lsa95/5-100
c-100 c2l50/50-100
c2s50/50-100 skf-100
l-150 lg80/20-100
c3-100 cfg-100
c005-100
cl50/50-100
c2-100
c2kel-100
Remoulded clay 1,
cf50/50-100
cs50/50-100
cpf50/50-100
sl50/50-100
clay 2 and gyttja 1
sk2g-100 cg80/20-100
csg80/20-100
1 c-100-Clay 2 cf50/50-100
cs50/50-100 sl50/50-100
lsa98/2-100 lg80/20-100
l-100
c-100-Gyttja 1 c2-100
c3-100 ck50/50-100
cs50/50-100 sk50/50-100
cksi-100 cal95/5-100
cg80/20-100 sk2g-100
csa98/2-100 cf50/50-100
skf-100
0.1
⫺1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
lL

Fig. 4. Strength plotted against liquidity index of the different stabilised soils and the corresponding remoulded soils. Approximate relation for natural
remoulded clays from Wood (1990). Abbreviations represent binder type: (see Table 2, columns 4 and 5; quantity kg=m3 )
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 Stabilising effects of binders in Swedish soils

1000
l-100-Clay 1 14-100
llb-100 lsa95/5-100
900 c-100 c2l50/50-100
c2s50/50-100 slf33/33/33-100
l-150 lg80/20-100
c3-100 cfg40/40/20-100
800 lg80/20-100 cg80/20-150
c005-100 c2-100
cl50/50-100 c2lel33/33/33-100
cf50/50-100 cpf50/50-100
700 cs50/50-100 sl50/50-100
sl2g33/33/33-100 cg80/20-100
csg80/20-100
c-100-Clay 2 cf50/50-100
cs50/50-100 sl50/50-100
600 lsa98/2-100 lg80/20-100
l-100
quc : kPa

c2-100-Gyttja 1 c-100
c3-100 ck50/50-100
500 cs50/50-100 sk50/50-100
cksi45/45/10-100 cal95/5-100
cg80/20-100 sk2g33/33/33-100
csa98/2-100 cf50/50-100
400 skf33/33/33-100

300

200

100

0
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
w/wP

Fig. 5. Measured shear strength plotted against w=w P of the different types of stabilised soil. Abbreviations represent binder type: (see Table 2, columns 4
and 5; quantity kg=m3 )

of the plastic limit becomes more laborious and difficult to
perform when the strength increases. A relatively large
scatter can therefore be expected when the plastic limit
becomes higher than the water content.
Unconfined compressive strength
The unconfined compression tests were performed in
order to study differences in strength level and rate of
strength increase between different types of binder, rather
than to find the optimal binder composition for the three
soils. The optimal binder composition found for one soil
would not be directly applicable to another soil as it varies
considerably with the soil type.
As a certain scatter in results can be expected, the tests at
28 days and 91 days were duplicated. Triple tests or double
tests were in some cases performed at 364 days when
abnormal stress–deformation curves or otherwise unexpect-
edly low strengths were registered. The calculated coefficient
of variation of the measured strengths of samples containing
binder quantities corresponding to 100 and 150 kg=m3 was
6–9% and 3–9% respectively, with the lowest scatter for
results from tests on gyttja 1 and the highest for tests on clay
1. About 5% of the measured values 28 days after mixing
exceeded scatters of 14%, 11% and 7% of the mean
strengths of the stabilised clay 1, clay 2 and gyttja 1
respectively. A large part of the most deviating results could
be discovered early in the unconfined tests, when a jagged
stress–deformation curve was registered, indicating severe
inhomogeneities caused by the air pockets in the samples.
Outliers of this type were not included in calculating the
mean values presented in the different figures in the paper.
Main binders
The binders can be expected to act somewhat differently
depending on the type of binder reactions that take place in
the soil. Processes such as ion exchange, cement reactions
and pozzolanic reactions proceed to varying extents and at
different rates depending on the type of binder used. These
processes are also affected by the chemical constituents of
the soil and by the temperature.
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Results from unconfined compression tests on samples
with the six main binders or binder combinations of cement
(c), cement–slag (cs), cement–fly ash (cf), cement–lime (cl),
slag–lime (sl) and lime (l) respectively are shown in Fig. 6.
Comparisons between different compositions of binders
within each category of main binder or binder combination
show that their effectiveness largely follows the same
pattern in the different soils. However, there are a number
of exceptions.
The ‘new’ limestone cement, c, was somewhat more effec-
tive than the previous standard cement, c3, in the Linköping
clay but not in the gyttja. The limestone interground with
the cement clinker is softer and becomes finer after grinding
than ordinary cement. The specific surface is also higher
than that of ordinary cement: see Table 3. This makes the
cement more reactive, which can be expected to produce an
earlier strength increase through accelerated hydration of
the alite and aluminate phases. As the limestone is finer, it
can to some extent also act as a filler between clinker grains.
Apart from these effects, the limestone is also known to have
certain chemical effects on the hydration process. Different
investigators have shown that monocarbonate is formed and
that there are indications that the persistence of ettringite on
behalf of monosulphates is sustained (Klemm and Adams,
1990; Taylor, 1997). In the organic soil, on the other hand,
the exchange of part of the ordinary cement (15%) was not
compensated by these effects.
The rapid cement, c2 , is a more finely ground cement with
a specific surface larger than that of the limestone cement, c,
and can thus be expected to be more reactive. In construc-
tion works, it is normally used where there are demands on
faster hardening. In the marine Löftabro clay, clay 2, as well
as in the gyttja, the strength increase with this binder was
somewhat larger than with the limestone cement. However,
the opposite effect was observed in the Linköping clay, clay
1. The rapid cement did not exhibit the same behaviour in
the stabilised soils as is normal for hydrated cements, where
there is a more rapid increase in strength during the initial
period after mixing.
With time, the strengths normally converge towards the
same level. However, the differences in strengths in the
15
H. Åhnberg et al.

2000
7 days Clay 1, 28–91 days 100 kg/m3
28 days
Clay 2, 28–91 days cl sl
91 days l
365 days Gyttja 1, 28–91 days
1500

c cs cf
quc /2: kPa

1000

500

0
cs 0

cl 0

sl 5
c

05

l
llb

l2

l4

4
0

cf 5
cp /50

cf 0
5

cl 5
c 50

c 25

sl 0
f3 /25

3
2

cs c3
c

/5

2
/7

llb
/5

/2

/5

/3
0/

5/
c0

0/

5/

/
50
50

25

50

75

50

75

50

75

33
2 l5

2 l7
f5

f7
2s

3/
cp
c

sl
Stabilising agent

Fig. 6. Measured mean unconfined compressive strength in clay 1, clay 2 and gyttja 1 stabilised with different binders. Abbreviations represent binder type:
see Table 2, columns 4 and 5

stabilised soils found after 28 days were the same or even
larger after 3 months. This observation that a finer, normally
more reactive cement does not always exhibit a higher short-
term strength when used for stabilisation of soils also
applied to the ultra-fine cement, c0:005 . This cement did not
produce any better effect than the c2 cement in the clay, and
showed a considerably slower strength increase up to 28
days in the stabilised gyttja. The ultra-fine cement was
intended to act more effectively by mixing in a larger
number of cement grains in the soil. However, this cement is
based on a somewhat less reactive type of clinker, and the
increased number of grains with a high specific surface did
not compensate for the lower reactivity.
In the various composite binders, the use of c2 instead of c
in cement–slag in equal proportions resulted in a lower
strength in the Linköping clay and about the same or a
somewhat higher strength in the gyttja. Increased replace-
ment of cement by slag in the proportion 25 : 75 proved to
give considerably lower strength, especially in the short
term. This is in accordance with the normally slow hydra-
tion properties of slag. In concrete, since hydrated slag
cement is a denser product, which consists of a larger
amount of Si in relation to Ca compared with ordinary
cement, the hydration reactions are slower but may even-
tually lead to higher final strengths.
The tests with different combinations of cement–fly ash as
binders showed that the combinations with PFBC ash, cpf,
were more effective than those containing ordinary coal fly
ash, cf. Increasing the proportion of cement to 75 : 25 instead
of 50 : 50 yielded higher strengths and strength increases,
which continued for a longer period of time. The same
pattern could be observed for all three soils. Fly ash is a
pozzolanic material that together with water and CaO, from
cement for example, acts as a hydraulic cement. The
addition of fly ash to cement normally increases the work-
ability of concrete. A lower water=soil ratio can be used,
which means that strengths in the same order as with pure
cement are obtained. However, in stabilisation of soils, the
same water content is used. Apart from having a drying-out
effect, the fly ash contributed very little to the strength
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increase from pozzolanic reactions when used in equal
proportions, but quite considerably when used in the
proportion 75 : 25. When replacing 50% of the cement by fly
ash, a reduced amount of Ca(OH)2 is produced. After ion
exchange and absorption in the clay, this leaves only a
limited amount for pozzolanic reactions with minerals in the
fly ash competing with those of the clay particles.
In the combinations of cement–lime, the rapid cement, c2 l,
gave about the same or higher strength than the limestone
cement, cl, when used in equal proportions to the lime. At
the higher proportion of cement to lime of 75 : 25, c2 in
exchange for c had the opposite effect. A higher proportion
of cement had no positive effect in the gyttja, but a clearly
positive effect in the Linköping clay. The relatively low
strength obtained when using the higher proportion of lime
is not surprising in view of the very limited effect of pure
lime in this clay: see the right-hand side of Fig. 6.
The effect in Linköping clay was also somewhat different
from that in the other soils when using slag–lime, sl, as
binder. A higher ratio of slag to lime yielded significantly
higher strength 28 days after stabilisation in the Löftabro
clay and the gyttja, but about the same strength after 91
days. The opposite behaviour was observed in the Linköp-
ing clay. The lime is obviously effective in both the Löftabro
clay and gyttja, and here it contributes considerably to the
long-term strength increase. The replacement of part of the
slag and lime by fly ash, slf, had a small positive effect on
the short-term strength in the gyttja, but the increase with
time was more pronounced for the pure slag–lime mixtures.
The tests on samples with different types of pure lime as
binders were performed only for the two clays, as pure lime
is not normally used in organic soils. The hard-burned lime,
l, gave about the same or somewhat higher strength than the
soft-burned lime, llb . This was found for both the standard,
finely ground lime and the coarser limes, l4 and llb4 . The
result was somewhat unexpected as soft-burned lime, being
less dense and having a higher specific surface, is normally
classified as being more reactive than hard-burned lime. The
larger grains of up to 2 mm and 4 mm in the coarser limes,
l2 and l4 respectively, could be clearly observed in the
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stabilised samples, indicating that they had not been broken
down in the mixing process to any larger extent. The
coarseness of these binders had a positive effect on the
short-term strength of the stabilised compound. This indi-
cated a benefit from a changed structure with coarser grains
in the samples. As the short-term strength of lime-stabilised
clay is less dependent on the amount of binder used, the
uneven distribution of lime did not reduce the strength to
any large degree. However, the diffusion of CaO and the
pozzolanic reactions with time became more effective for the
finely ground, more evenly distributed lime in the Löftabro
clay. In the Linköping clay the lime reactions were generally
retarded, and the strength of the samples stabilised with the
coarser lime was higher at all times.
When comparing the different binder groups, it can be
seen that the strength levels of the three soils are fairly
similar for the binders containing cement, fly ash and, to a
certain extent, slag. For lime as a binder, alone or in
combination with slag, the achieved strength varies consid-
erably between the different soils. Most noticeable is the
poor effect of lime in Linköping clay. Lime is the one binder
that acts mainly by pozzolanic reactions with minerals in the
soil, or in other binders, to build up strength. One or more
constituents in the Linköping clay obviously hinder or
severely retard these reactions. Also the other binders
ideally generate pozzolanic reactions with the soil, but to a
much lower extent. The different cement reactions are
instead to a large degree dependent on the composition of
the pore water.
It should also be noted that the different binders often
interact, yielding somewhat higher strengths with mixed
binders than the expected strengths from interpolating
between the corresponding measured strengths using the
separate binder ingredients respectively.
Cement–fly ash in equal proportions gave a relatively
high strength after only one week, but subsequently showed
a slow increase with time. The strength increase is here
largely governed by the relatively fast cement reactions, and
the pozzolanic reactions can involve silicates and aluminates
in fly ash itself instead of the less easily accessible compo-
nents in the soil. The increase in strength was in general
relatively slow in the lime-, slag–lime- and cement–lime-
stabilised soils, but much faster in the cement- and cement–
slag-stabilised soils. A relatively slow strength increase can
be expected with binder combinations using a large part of
lime, as the strength is then governed mainly by the
relatively slow pozzolanic reactions that take place in the
soil. The fastest strength increase and highest strength after
28 and 91 days were obtained with the binder combination
cement–slag. The measured one-year strength, however,
was only slightly higher and in several cases even lower
than the 91-day strength, and seemed more affected by
scatter than the other types of stabilised sample. After one
year, regardless of the short-term strength, the strength level
was about the same for the most effective binders in each
group. The exception was slag–lime in equal proportions,
which had yielded still higher strengths. The one-year
strength, however, is not to be regarded as a final strength.
A continued increase in strength at various rates, depending
on the binder used, can be expected.
Admixtures
The admixtures CaCl2 (sa), water-glass (wa), gypsum (g)
and kiln dust (k), as well as the supplementary cementing
materials alumina cement (al) and silica fume (si), were
tested to a varying extent together with the main binders.
The admixture CaCl2 (sa) is well-known to accelerate both
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Stabilising effects of binders in Swedish soils
the setting and the hardening of hydrated cement. On the
other hand, the effect of the salt normally decreases with
time, and the final strength can in some cases be reduced
(Taylor, 1997). In the stabilised soils, it turned out that the
salt had a positive effect only in the Linköping clay and then
only in combination with cement or lime, but not together
with cement–slag or cement–fly ash: see Fig. 7. In the latter
cases the strength was reduced instead. The effect of the salt
improved with time.
The addition of alumina cement (al) to the standard cement
had a certain positive effect on the strength of the two
stabilised clays. The alumina cement contains large amounts
of highly reactive CA (monocalcium aluminate). However, a
significant impact on the strength of the stabilised clays was
not observed before 91 days had passed. As the hydration
products of alumina cements sometimes lose strength with
time, depending on temperature and moisture conditions
(Robson, 1962), the long-term strength increase of this
additive should normally also be checked.
Silica fume (si) showed both negative and positive effects,
depending on the type of main binder. A mostly positive
effect was measured in cement–lime-stabilised clays and in
cement-stabilised gyttja. Silica fume is a pozzolanic material,
just like fly ash, consisting of very fine silica grains. It acts
by being distributed in between larger cement grains, where
it can normally speed up the reactions and improve the
long-term strength by forming a denser product. The silica
fume had a mostly negative effect when used together with
cement–slag.
Water-glass (wa), or sodium silicate, has been considered
for use as a peptising agent to improve the mixability of the
soil in situ and in this way increase the homogeneity and
strength of stabilised soils. The water-glass should be mixed
with the soil before the binder is added. It is important that
this admixture in itself does not have a negative effect on
the hydration processes. Sodium silicate is sometimes used
in applications where a reduction in the bulk density is
desired, and may thereby have a certain negative effect on
strength. Different investigations have shown that sodium
silicates can increase the strength and durability of sandy
and silty soils, but they only increase the short-term strength
of clays stabilised with cement, lime or lime-fly ash (Hurley
and Thornburn, 1972). The water-glass proved to have only
a small, though mostly negative, effect on the cement–lime-
stabilised soils. Sodium silicate is often used in alkali-
activated slag cements to obtain rapid hardening and high
strength properties in concrete. However, it proved to have
a clearly negative impact on the cement–slag-stabilised soils.
The gypsum (g) had the widest range of effects, varying
from large decreases to large increases in strength, depend-
ing on the soil and main binder. Very large strength
increases compared with those for binders without admix-
tures were measured in lime- and slag–lime-stabilised
Linköping clay, but the effect of lime in this clay was
extremely poor. The stabilising effect of gypsum mostly
decreased with time in the other two soils, and small to very
large negative effects were measured after 91 days. When
high contents of gypsum are added the gypsum dissolves,
and after saturation of the pore water a precipitation of
secondary gypsum can occur in the soil. Interlocking of
these gypsum crystals has a stabilising effect on the soil.
Different investigations have also shown that the addition of
gypsum increases the rate of hydration of alite in cement
(Taylor, 1997). However, the addition of gypsum leads to
the formation of ettringite and consequently a certain
expansion of the stabilised materials. Delays in the formation
of ettringite may occur if the alumina available for early
17
H. Åhnberg et al.

reactions is limited. If the formation of ettringite has been
delayed, part of the formed cementing structure may be
broken down. In order to maintain the high strengths, it is
further important that the formed ettringite remains stable
without large decreases in pH of the stabilised soil.
Although the kiln dust (k) from lime production has
certain cementing properties, it was expected to serve
mainly as a filler that could be conveniently added to lime.
The results showed that at least about the same strength was
obtained when kiln dust was added to lime compared with
using lime alone. The kiln dust had almost no effect when
used together with lime–cement, except in the Linköping
clay after 28 days or more. The good effect in lime is in
accordance with the observation that the effect of lime is
usually rather insensitive to the range of quantities used.
Most often a larger quantity of lime is used than is needed
for starting the immediate reactions and the initial strength
increase. However, an effect of the larger quantity can as a
rule be observed with time after mixing.
When considering the different admixtures intended for
acceleration of the hydration reactions, the cost of the
material and of handling and mixing the extra material
should be included. Taking into account also the scatter in
results, an improvement of about 20% could in most cases
be regarded as a minimum effect from a cost–benefit aspect.
This limit is marked in Fig. 7. For the kiln dust, which is
mainly a low-cost filler, an equal effect could be regarded as
sufficiently good. Disregarding the results from pure lime or
slag–lime in the Linköping clay, as these two main binders
yielded insufficient strength to be considered in this type of
soil, this limits the number of admixtures of interest. None
of the admixtures appeared to have a generally positive
effect on the measured strength. Admixtures of possible
interest are CaCl2 together with cement in soils of the
lacustrine Linköping clay type, or silica fume together with
cement–lime in a marine Löftabro clay type. Gypsum might
give an increase in short-term strength together with cement
or slag–lime in a Holma gyttja-type soil, or together with
lime in a Löftabro-type clay. The kiln dust could be
economical to use together with lime in clay or together with
lime–cement in a lacustrine Linköping-type clay. However,
neither gypsum nor kiln dust would probably be considered
in the investigated types of soil, as the increased strength
levels with the admixtures are markedly lower than those
obtained with the other main binders. In all three soils the
different admixtures tested had a significant negative impact
on strength when mixed in together with cement–slag and
cement–fly ash.
In general, the stabilising effects of the different admix-
tures increased with time except for gypsum, which showed
a decreasing effect with time for most of the binders.
This was not in accordance with expectations based on
experience of cement hydration. However, several of the
accelerators yield an increased short-term strength by
increasing the heat evolution at early stages and thus
accelerating the alite and aluminate hydration reactions. In
the laboratory, a large part of the generated heat vanishes
during the mixing procedure or relatively soon after the
samples have been put into the temperature-controlled
storage compartment (88C). This will not be the case in the
field, where the surrounding soil has an insulating effect
and increased temperatures prevail for a long period of time
(Åhnberg et al., 1989).
Order of strength
An attempt to place the main binders, without admix-
tures, in an approximate ranking order relating to strength
after 28 days is shown in Fig. 8. There is a large scatter in
the figure, depending on the difference in effects in the
different types of soil, but it nevertheless provides a general
idea of the relative short-term stabilising effects of different
types of binder. The left side of the diagram, showing the
highest measured strengths, is dominated by binder combi-
nations containing cement, and the right side is clearly
dominated by binders containing lime in different combina-
tions.
The relative stabilising effects vary with time, and the
ranking order consequently also changes with time in favour
of binder combinations containing lime or pozzolanic mate-
rials. For comparisons of the relative stabilising effects at

4
c
cs
Clay 1 ⫺g
cf
cl
Clay 2
c2 l Gyttja 1
sl ⫺k
l
quc(binder ⫹ admixture)/quc(binder)

3
⫺sa (2%) ⫺sa (5%) ⫺al ⫺si ⫺wa

0
d
d
% 1d
a 5d
2% 7d

sa %- d
2% 91d

5 5d
5% 7d

sa %- d
5% 91d

5% d
5% -7d

d
d
10 5d

5 -7d

w 5% d
d
g -33 5d
g -33 -7d

20 % d

- d

% d
d

k % d
% 1d

d
10 -7
10 28
2 8

5 8

al 365

al -28

5% 1

8
5% -91

g -33 -28

3% 1

30 -7
k 365

30 -28

65
10 -9
w -36
sa %-
sa -2

sa -36
sa %-
sa -2

al %-9

si -36

w %-2

20 -36

-3 -9

30 -9
si %

w 5%

20 %

k 0%
si %-

-3
si %

20 %
-
2

3
sa

al

a
a
a

k
g

Admixture

Fig. 7. Measured effects of admixtures on strength of stabilised soils at different times after mixing. Total binder quantity corresponding to 100 kg=m3 . For
abbreviations see Table 2, columns 4 and 5. sa ¼ salt; al ¼ alumina cement; si ¼ silica fume; wa ¼ water-glass; g ¼ gypsum; k ¼ kiln dust.
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 Stabilising effects of binders in Swedish soils

1000
100 kg/m3 28 days Clay 1
Clay 2

800 Gyttja 1

600
quc: kPa

400

200

0
0

25

c
0

25

50
25

l4

llb
0

25

50

50

3
2
c
/5
/5

/2

/5

/7

/5

/3
5/

0/
5/

c0

5/

5/

0/

0/
50
50

75

50

25

50

33
2 l7

2 l5
7

5
2s
cs

cl

sl

cl

cs

sl

3/
f

cf

cf
cp

cp
c

f3
c

sl
Stabilising agent

Fig. 8. Main binders arranged in approximate order of measured strengths after 28 days for the three soils. For abbreviations see Table 2, columns 4 and 5

different ages of the samples, the ranges of measured binder in Swedish organic soils within the EuroSoilStab
strengths at different times after mixing are shown in Fig. 9 project (Åhnberg et al., 2000). Fig. 10 shows the results from
with the binders arranged in the same order as in Fig. 8. The tests on stabilised Dömle peat and Dömle gyttja 28 days
binders yielding higher initial strengths show relatively after stabilisation with a binder quantity corresponding to
narrow ranges of measured strength at the different times 200 kg/m3 and the binders in the same order as in Figs 8
after mixing, whereas those with the lowest short-term and 9. A cement–lime combination of 80 : 20 in the EuroSoil-
strength in many cases show increased ranges with time, Stab project has here been approximated to the 75 : 25
depending on the type of soil. In the one-year tests, a combination in the present project. The effects of the binders
number of results show lower values than after 91 days, tested in the EuroSoilStab project generally coincide with the
indicating irregularities in the samples, which appear to pattern in the present project. However, the level of strength
become more important as strength and also brittleness obtained with a certain binder depends on the type of soil.
increase. To achieve about the same level of strength in the Dömle
The results in the present investigation can be compared organic soils as in the present soils, twice as large a quantity
with the results from tests performed with the same types of of binder was required. The maximum strength obtained

2000 Clay 1-7d

Clay 1-28d 100 kg/m3
Clay 1-91d
Clay 1-365d
Clay 2-7 days
Clay 2-28 days
Clay 2-91 days
1500 Clay 2-365 days
Gy-7 days
Gy-28 days
Gy-91 days
Gy-365 days
quc: kPa

1000
1 year

91 days

500
28 days

7 days

0
0

25

l4

l
llb
0

cf 5
5

05

50
cp /25
50

cl 5

cf 0

cs 0

sl 5
0

33
2
c
/5
/5

/2

/2

/5

/5

/7

/5
5/

5/

c0

0/
0/

/
50
50

75

75

75

50

50

25

50

33
2 l7

2 l5
f7

f5
2s
cs

cl

sl

3/
cp
c

f3
c

sl

Stabilising agent

Fig. 9. Approximate range of measured strength at different times after mixing with the main binders. For abbreviations see Table 2, columns 4 and 5
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H. Åhnberg et al.

1500
Present investigation 28 days
Dömle peat-200 kg/m3 - EuroSoilStab
Dömle peat-200 kg/m3 (series II)- EuroSoilStab
3
Dömle gyttja-200 kg/m - EuroSoilStab

1000

Clay 1, clay 2 and gyttja 1 - 100 kg/m2

quc: kPa

500

0
25
25
0

c
0

25

cl 5

sl 0
cp /25

cf 0

3/ 4

l
llb
50

cs 0

sl 5
0

3
2
c
/5
/5

/2

/5

l
/5

/7

/5

/3
5/
5/

5/

c0

0/
0/
50
50

75

75

50

50

25

50

33
2 /7
2 l7

2 l5
7

f5
2s
cs

cl
cf
c

c
c

f3
c

sl
Stabilising agent

Fig. 10. Effects of binders in the present project compared with results obtained in the EuroSoilStab project, 28 days after mixing. EuroSoilStab data from
Åhnberg et al. (2000). For abbreviations see Table 2, columns 4 and 5

after 28 days with a binder quantity of 100 kg=m3 was about
300 kPa in the peat, but less than 25 kPa in the gyttja.
Strength increase with time
As can be seen in Fig. 9, the strength increase with time
varies strongly with the type of binder. There are also large
variations in the strength increase with time between differ-
ent soils: see Fig. 11. For the binders containing cement,
there is a marked increase in strength for the first 1–3
months after mixing, after which the strength increase levels
out or continues at a slower rate. In the lime-stabilised soils,
there is a steadier, almost constant increase with time.
However, the time after which the effect of binders contain-
ing lime surpasses those of the other binders varies consid-
erably in the different soils.
A normalisation of the measured strength at different
times after mixing to that measured after 28 days showed
that the ratio of 7-day strength to 28-day strength varied
from 0·1 in the slag–lime-stabilised gyttja to almost 1 in the
lime-stabilised Linköping clay (Fig. 12). The corresponding
ratios for 91 days and one year vary from 1·1 to 5·5 and 1·1
to 12·3 respectively. The smallest variation is found for the
cement- and cement–fly-ash-stabilised samples. In cement-
stabilised samples, quc7d was 0:4–0:7 quc28d , quc91d was 1·2–
1·4 quc28d , and quc364d was 1:4–1:9 quc28d . This is in the same
order as the correlations recommended by the Deep Mixing
Association of Japan in 1994 (Porhaba et al., 2000): that is,
qu7 ¼ 0:64–0:67 qu28 and qu91 ¼ 1:20–1:33 qu28 .
Strains at failure
The measured strains at failure varied with the type and
strength of the stabilised soil. A scatter in measured failure
strains was observed, especially at lower strength levels, but
no significant variation with type of binder was seen.
The strains at failure decreased rapidly with increasing
strength at unconfined compressive strengths lower than
about 200 kPa: see Fig. 13. At higher strengths, the mean
strains at failure were almost constant: 0·7–1·0% in the two
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stabilised clays, and somewhat larger in the stabilised gyttja,
1·1–1·7%. The relatively distinct changes from large failure
strains to limited failure strains probably reflect a transition
from contractive to dilatant behaviour as the strength of the
stabilised soils increases.
The presented strains refer to total measured strains. A
certain allowance for embedment errors was made by
substituting measured initial strains at increasing tangent
moduli with strains estimated by back-extrapolating a
straight stress–strain relation from the point of maximum
modulus. However, as no internal measurements of strains
were performed, the strains at failure are believed to be even
smaller than those presented in Fig. 13. Nevertheless, the
general pattern of decreasing failure strains with increasing
strength as well as the difference between organic soils and
clays should be the same. Mean measured strains at failure
in the stabilised peat and gyttja from the Dömle test site in
the EuroSoilStab project are included in the figure for
comparison. Both gyttjas showed somewhat larger strains at
failure at higher strength than the clays. The stabilised peat
exhibited a more tenacious behaviour with greater strains at
failure than the other soils at all strength levels. This
behaviour is believed to be affected by a reinforcing effect of
the peat fibres.
Comments on the choice of binders
In choosing binders, there are technical as well as
economic aspects and, to an increasing degree, also environ-
mental aspects to consider, which will affect the final choice
of binder.
The effect of the different binders can vary considerably,
depending on the type of soil. The measured strengths in
the present project can serve only as indications of strength
levels that can be reached in relatively ‘binder-friendly’ soils
when using cement or composite cements with additions of
latent hydraulic cement or pozzolanic materials, such as slag
or fly ash respectively. When using lime as a binder, alone
IP: 119.40.120.194
 Stabilising effects of binders in Swedish soils

2000 2000
l l
100 kg/m3 c 100 kg/m3
c
cs50/50 cl50/50
cf50/50 cf50/50 sl
cs50/50
cl50/50 sl50/50
1500 sl50/50 1500

cl
l
cs
quc: kPa

quc: kPa
c
1000 1000
cs

500 500
cl
cf cf

sl
l 0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time: days Time: days
(a) (b)
2000
c 100 kg/m3
cs50/50
cf50/50
cl50/50 sl
1500 sl50/50
quc: kPa

1000 cl
c
cs

500
cf

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time: days
(c)

Fig. 11. Measured strength plotted against time for cement, lime and composite binders 50 : 50: (a) clay 1, Linköping; (b) clay 2, Löftabro; (c) gyttja 1,
Holma. For abbreviations see Table 2, columns 4 and 5

12.3 10.2
8
Clay 1

7 Clay 2
Gyttja 1 cl sl l
6
c cs cf
5
quc: kPa

0
d

1d
d

5d
1d
7d

5d

1d

d
d

5d

-7
-7

65

-7

-7

65

l-7

65
91

-9

6
-9

-9

l-9
c-

-9

6
36

sl
cs

cf

cl

-3
-3

-3

l-3
c-

-3

sl
cs

cf

cl
c-

sl
cs

cf

cl

Binder – Time: days

Fig. 12. Ratio of measured strength to 28-day strength 7, 91 and 364 days after mixing. For abbreviations see Table 2, column 5

or in combination with other binders, the strength is affected therefore as a rule not be used for estimates of possible
to an even higher degree by the properties of the soil, as the strengths in other types of soil.
binder to a large extent reacts with the soil itself. The results Many factors differ in effect between the field and the
from tests on these types of lime-based binder should laboratory. Factors such as mixing effort, temperature,
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H. Åhnberg et al.
15
Peat 1 (100–300 kg/m3) - EuroSoilStab
Gyttja 1 (100–200 kg/m3) - EuroSoilStab
εfuc: % 10
0
0 500
Fig. 13. Measured strains at failure in the different stabilised soils. Comparative EuroSoilStab data from Åhnberg and Holm (1999)
confining stresses and pore pressures will all affect the
strength of the stabilised soil. The mixing procedure is of
importance, especially when using cement-type binders,
which act by forming reaction products locally at the site of
the binder grains: therefore these should be spread out as
evenly as possible in the soil. A thorough mixing of lime-
type binders is also important, but here the distribution is
further improved by diffusion processes in the soil. Further-
more, the binder reactions will lead to increased tempera-
tures in the field, which may prevail for a long time
(Åhnberg et al., 1989). As the heat evolution from the
hydration processes varies depending on the binder type,
the strength increase for binders containing quicklime, or
accelerators generating an increased heat evolution, will be
considerably faster at field temperature than under labora-
tory conditions. The difference will be smaller for the
binders generating less heat.
Depending on the application, the optimal binder combi-
nation is not necessarily the combination yielding the high-
est possible strength in the shortest possible time. The fact
that more moderate strength levels often permit a higher
degree of interaction with the surrounding soil is an
important aspect to be considered, as well as the possible
benefits of a long-term strength increase.
In choosing binders, the binder cost is one decisive factor.
However, since the cost for transportation may constitute a
large part of this, relatively large differences in the costs for
binders themselves are often evened out, depending on the
location of the soil improvement object relative to the binder
plant.
Depending on the composition of different industrial by-
products, reuse of these could sometimes have a more
negative impact on the environment than ‘traditional’
binders. However, the use in soil stabilisation of some of the
binders of the former type, even though having a certain
impact locally, could be environmentally more beneficial in
a total perspective compared with various alternative treat-
ments such as disposal in waste landfills. Leaching tests
conducted on cement–lime- and cement–slag-stabilised gytt-
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Clay 1 – 100 kg/m3
Clay 1 – 150 kg/m3
Clay 2 – 100 kg/m3
Clay 2 – 150 kg/m3
Gyttja 1 – 100 kg/m3
Gyttja 1 – 150 kg/m3
1000 1500 2000
quc: kPa
ja and peat in the EuroSoilStab project have indicated
negligible impact on the environment (Håkansson et al.,
2000). The local environmental impact of some of the binders
used in the investigations, as well as the durability of the
stabilised soils, are important aspects being studied in other
projects within the Swedish Deep Stabilisation Research
Centre programme, and will be reported on at a later date.
The presented results could be used as a guide for binders
of interest for use in similar types of soil. The choice of
binder should normally be based on tests in the laboratory
with more than one type of binder combination. As the
conditions in the field differ from those in the laboratory,
the final choice of binder quantity, and sometimes also the
type of binder to use in a project, should as a rule be based
on full-scale column tests.
Conclusions
A large number of binders and binder combinations were
used in the laboratory to perform stabilisation tests on three
soils. All three of these very soft soils were stabilised with
good results using many of the binders. Varying effects were
measured, indicating that the binders were of different
effectiveness for stabilisation purposes. The results illustrate
several differences and similarities in the way binders affect
strength in stabilised soils.
(a) When stabilising soils with chemical binders, the water
content and the different consistency limits will change
to different extents, depending on the type and amount
of binder used and the type of soft soil. The principal
ways in which these factors change proved to be quite
similar, regardless of the type of binder used.
(b) A large number of binders can be used for stabilisation
of soils. The optimum binder combination varies with
the type of soil. Binders containing lime, which to a
high degree acts through pozzolanic reactions with the
constituents of the soil particles, are more sensitive to
IP: 119.40.120.194

the type of soil than binders reacting primarily with the
pore water in the soil. Common binders of the latter
type are those containing cement, either alone or
together with mineral additions of slag or fly ash.
(c) Relatively high short-term strengths are mainly obtained
with binders containing a certain amount of cement.
(d ) High strengths can often also be obtained with binders
giving relatively low short-term strengths. A steady
long-term strength increase caused mainly by pozzola-
nic reactions can then be observed, especially for
binders containing pure lime and slag–lime, and also
cement–lime.
(e) Very large differences in effect were measured between
the two clays used in the investigations. Further studies
of soil parameters and chemical reactions are necessary
in order to improve the means of evaluating the
chemical reactivity of different types of soil.
(f) None of the different admixtures used proved to have a
generally positive effect on the strength of stabilised
soils. Varying positive or negative effects were obtained
depending on the type of soil and type of main binder
used.
(g) The strains at failure decrease with increasing strength
of the stabilised soils. The strength dependence varied
somewhat with the type of soil but not significantly
with the type of binder.
(h) The results can be used for guidance in choosing the
type of binder for stabilisation of a soil. Their display of
ranges of stabilising effects can be considered as more
important than the measured absolute strength levels.
It should be observed that the strength achieved by a
certain binder will vary with the type of soil, and will
also depend on how the soil–binder complex is
handled: that is mixed, compressed, heated and
drained/saturated.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for the project has been provided by the
Swedish Deep Stabilisation Research Centre (SD). The
financial contributions of the participants Cementa AB,
Partek Nordkalk AB, Merox AB, the Swedish Geotechnical
Institute and SD are gratefully acknowledged. Permission
from the participants within the European Community
project EuroSoilStab under contract Brite EuRam BRPR-
CT97–0351 to present data from this project is also much
appreciated.
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Discussion contributions on this paper should reach the
editor by 1 July 2003
23