I.
INTRODUCTION AND PRESENTATION OF MAIN
A SAR Processor Based on
Two-Dimensional FFT Codes
GIORGIO FRANCESCHETTI, Fellow, IEEE
GILDA SCHIRINZI
IRECE
Italy
A synlhelic aperlure radar (SAR) processor approach is
presented, based on twodimensional fasl Fourier lrans form
(FFT) codes coupled wilh a n asymplolic evalualion of the unit
response function For lhe laller, no approximation is made lo the
dislance function so thal the full range of geometric aberralions
are analytically considered enabling a n effeclive reference filter to
be designed. As far as the two-dimensional FFTs are concerned,
these were designed in such a way as to run on computers of
very limited memory: the required FFT is compuled by means
of FFTs of lower order. W OFFT codes were considered: one is
faster and allows one lo easily obtain full or reduced (quick look
or mullilook) resolution performance; lhe second is slower bul
allows the use of a space-varying filler and/or investigations on
limited porlions (zoom) of lhe image. Both codes are suited to
parallel processing, e.g., via a transpuler nel.
A full discussion aboul compuler memory and lime
requirements is presenled as well as first examples of image
resulls.
Manuscript received July 8, 1988; revised May 23, 1989.
IEEE Log No. 33470.
Authors’ address: IRECE, V i Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy.
0018-9251/90/0300-0356$1.00 @ 1990 IEEE
356 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC
RESULTS
We present a new numerical algorithm for image
compression of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) raw
data. The algorithm is based on an exact evaluation
of the distance function, an asymptotic evaluation
of the reference filter and an appropriate form of
a (double) fast Fourier transform (FFT). The code
needs a limited computer memory and is amenable
to parallel processing.
It has been recognized for some time that the SAR
imaging problem is a n intrinsically two-dimensional
one. Factorizing the problem in terms of two
one-dimensional convolutions requires special
techniques for handling image distortions, e.g.,
the range migration [l-21. More recently, a full
twodimensional approach has been suggested [3],
based on twodimensional polynomial transforms, with
the main purpose of the range migration correction.
A discussion about nonseparable SAR processing is
given in [4]. The algorithm we present here is also
intrinsically two dimensional, but it is fully based
on FFT codes and, as already stated, relies on an
analytical filter function with no quadratic expansion
of the distance function. All corrections, as the range
migration, can naturally be included. It is noted that
the use of Fourier transform (FT) is not a necessity for
the presented algorithm, and other transforms could be
used, e.g., that suggested in [3]. However, we found the
use of FFT codes very handy and flexible, as discussed
in Secttion V.
The SAR raw data exhibit the following functional
form (see also (12), (16) in normalized form and Fig.
1):
x’=vt,,r’= 2 E)=//dxdry(x,r)
x g(x’ - x,r’ - r ; x , r ) (1)
wherein ( x ’ , ~ ‘ are
) the (output) azimuth and range
coordinates; ( x , r ) the corresponding coordinates
over the ground; y(x, r ) the equivalent backscattering
coefficient; and g(x’ - x , r’ - r; x , r ) is a transfer
function depending on the electrical (frequency,
bandwidth, pulse repetition rate, etc.), the cinematical
(aircraft or spacecraft velocity v ) and geometrical
(distance) parameters of the SAR system.’ The SAR
imaging problem is to design an appropriate (digital)
filter such that we can recover from (1) the best
estimate of y ( x , r ) or, usually, its modulus ly(x,r)l.
The transfer function exhibits increasing complexity
depending on the approximations that can be tolerated
in the evaluation of the distance from the platform
to the imaged ground point. In its simplest form
‘In (1) f’ is the time coordinate in-between subsequent pulses, which
are emitted at times I n ; see also Section 11. The latter is a discrete
coordinate, but it is treated, as usual, as a continuous one.
SYSTEMS VOL. 26, NO. 2 MARCH 1990
(invariant time system [5]):
g(x’ - x , r’ - r;x , r ) -+ g(x’ - x , r’ - r )
so that ( 1 ) reduces to a double convolution, thus
dramatically simplifying all subsequent analysis.
However, we d o not restrict ourselves to the simplest
functional form (2), and consider the general case.
Let us compute the (double) FT on x’ and r’, say
H(S,q), of (1). we get
H(S,q) = J J dxdrW,r)exp(-jx< - Pq)G(<,q;x,r.)
wherein G(<,q;x,r)is the FT of g ( x ’ , r ’ ; x , r ) . This
last function g is known, so that G ( { ,q;x , r ) is also
known, in principle. For a high-resolution system, its
asymptotic evaluation is appropriate, which is done in
Section 111.
The best estimate of y can be obtained by
multiplying (3) by G-’(<,q ; x ‘ , r’) within the
(effective) bandwidth of H(<,q) and then taking the
(inverse) n. But the function to be transformed,
H(<,q)G-l(<,q; x’,r’) is dependant on the output
variables (x’,r’), so that the FFT code cannot be
used. To circumvent this difficulty, we can subdivide
the output range into smaller subranges, each one
centered around the output coordinates (xi,ri). Then
we multiply (3) by G-’(<,q; x i , ri). If the corresponding
output range is sufficiently limited, the degradation,
or aberration of the image can be controlled. It is
concluded that the filter should be space varying.
The success of the presented algorithm relies on
the availability of two-dimensional FFT codes with two
stringent conditions: 1) a limited memory requirement
compared with the large quantity of handled data,
and 2) independence of the output range compared
with the input one, so that readjustment of the filter is
allowed.
We implemented two suitable codes which reduce
the computation of a large FT to that of FI’s of
smaller order (see (46)and Figs. Mi),which dictates
the memory requirement, thus fulfilling requirement
1). One of the two codes (see Figs. 4 and 5 ) generates
the output variables in independent subranges, thus
fulfilling requirement 2). Such algorithms are very
suitable to parallel processing, thus allowing also a
dramatic reduction in computer time, and exhibit a
number of flexible features which are discussed in
Section VI together with first examples of application
of the developed code.
II. THE HOLOGRAPHIC SIGNAL. TIME-DOMAIN
We review hereafter the analytical expression of
the holographic signal and we cast it in a form suitable
for the subsequent analysis.
The geometry of the problem is depicted in Fig.
1. The spacecraft (or the aircraft) moves at a constant
FRANCESCHETTI & SCHIRINZI: A SAR PROCESSOR BASED ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL FFT CODES
~ ~~- ~
(2)
(3)
W
fig. 1. SAR geometry.
velocity v = vi and emits at times t,, - ( 7 / 2 ) pulses
given, but for an amplitude factor, by
fi(t - t n ) = exp[jw(t - t,,)- j -a( t
2
[ i’.]
- t,)*]rect - .
(4)
We assumed a linear frequency modulation with a
chirp rate a, although this assumption is not necessary
for subsequent analysis. Each pulse lasts T seconds and
the pulse repetition rate is l / ( t n + l- r,).
The origin of the coordinate system ( x , y , z ) is
located at the center of the illuminated area over the
ground at t , = 0. The profile of the scene is described,
with reference to an (arbitrary) plane z = 0, by a
height function z = z ( x , y ) .
Consider an elementary point scatterer located
at P ( x , y , z ) . The received signal is given, (but for the
point backscattering coefficient, see (12)), by2
t,, - 2R(x7YJ,,)] w*(x,, - x , y )
[-
f ( t - t,,;x,y) = f l t
C
(5)
wherein x,, = vt,, and R is the distance between
the spacecraft antenna phase center and P . In (5)
w(x, - x , y ) is the ground illumination function, which
is related to the gain function of the transmitting
antenna; it is squared because we suppose that the
antenna operates in both the transmit and receive
mode. In its most simplified form:
wherein a pyramidal approximation to the gain
function has been used, and the rectangle of sides
(X, Y) is the illumination footprint over the plane
z = 0. This (usual) approximation is quoted here
’The spacecraft displacement 2 R v / c during the time 2 R / c is
neglected in (2). However, it can be easily taken into account [6].
See also footnote 3.
351
mainly for introducing the parameter X,but is not
used in the following.
The analytical expression for the distance R
appearing in (5) is now in order. We can make
reference to the usual coordinate system ( x , y , z ) as
depicted in Fig. 1. But it is more convenient to use the
“natural” system (x,r,s), wherein r is along the range
and s = s(x,r) is orthogonal to the ( x , r ) plane. We
have
R2(x,r,xn)= (Ro + r)2 + (x,, - x)’ + s2
(x,, - x12 + r2 + s2
) Ro + r +
R ( x , ~ , x ,x + ... .
2RO
The approximation (8) is the usual one (with the
terms r2 and s2 also often neglected). But this is not
always acceptable, especially for airborne SAR and at
higher frequencies. Accordingly, we relax it and recast
expression (5) as follows:
f(. . .) = exp[jwt’]exp
(-j-43
exp[-j@]
[
t’ - ( 2 r / c )- ( 2 A R / c )
x rect
T 1 w2(x, - x , r )
wherein
Note that the first phase factor, wt‘, which appears in
expression (9) is suppressed by heterodine processing.
The holographic signal h(xn,t’) is obtained by
superimposing all the elementary returns from the
Earth’s surface, hence:
h(x,,t/) = J J dxdry(x,r)f(x, - x,tl -2r/c;x,r)
wherein 7 ( x , r ) is the backscattering coefficient times
the Jacobian of the transformation from the surface
area dS to its planar projection ( d x . dr). Note that 7
depends on both the physical properties of the surface
and its orientation with respect to the direction and
polarization of the incident wave.
Before proceeding further, some comments are in
order.
The second phase factor in (9) can be associated
with the backscattering coefficient y(x, r). Due to the
stochastic nature of the phase of 7, its role is marginal.
The third phase factor, @, given in (11) needs more
attention. When the height function z ( x , y ) is neglected
we have for a planar E a r t h
s = -rcotan8
358 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 26, NO. 2 MARCH 1990
~~
and for a spherical Earth of radius RT:
x2 + r2
sM -r cotan0 + -
~ R sine.
T
More important [7], it is noted that each point
over the Earth’s surface undergoes a movement
along the local parallel due to the Earth rotation
(besides additional, possibly stochastic displacements).
Depending on the aircraft or spacecraft orbit
orientation, each point P may exhibit azimuthal v,,
(7) radial v,, and transversal v, velocity components. The
effect of the former can be taken into account by
redefining the spacecraft velocity as v ---* v ( 1 - u X ) ,
U , = v , / v . The latter two components amount to
changing A R from the expression (10) to the new
A R 4 R ( x , - x,Ro + r + u,x,,,s + u,x,) - Ro - r .
In all previous expressions U,, U,, U, are the Earth
surface velocity components normalized to v .
(9) Ill. THE HOLOGRAPHIC SIGNAL. FREQUENCY
DOMAIN
We want now to compute the F T of the
holographic signal h(x,,t’) given by (12), with the
phase function (11).This signal is a function of the
two time variables (t, = x , / v , t ’ ) , the corresponding
integration variables being ( x / v , 2 r / c ) ;or, equivalently,
it is a function of the two space variables (xn,ct’/2),
the corresponding integration variables being ( x , r).
We chose the space variables, letting c t ’ / 2 -+ r’ and
treating x,, -+ x’ as a continuous variable instead
of a discrete one. It is also convenient to refer to
adimensional quantities, which is readily accomplished
by normalizing x , s and x’ to azimuthal illumination
footprint X and r , r’ to one-half of the spatial pulse
(12) extension c r / 2 . This is understood from now on,
although we are adopting the symbols already used for
the nonnormalized variables. Skipping, now and in the
following unessential amplitude factors, (12) becomes
in normalized form:
h(x’,r’) =
JJ d x d r y ( x , r ) w 2 ( x ’- X )
exp(-j@) (16)
wherein we dropped the r-dependence in the function
w2(.) because it is playing no role in the subsequent
3The spacecraft displacement during the time 2 R / c (see footnote 1)
amount to add in (11) the extra term 47rv(xn - x)/Xc, which is of
(13) order of v/c.
analysis, and c

z 2Ro
q5=a - A R + b 2 (17)
X

I I

OS t I 1

In the system parameter definition (19), Af is the

maximum frequency deviation and the effective
azimuthal ground illumination is X = vT,wherein T is Fig. 2. Module of function d(q/b2) versus q / b 2 , for two different
the azimuthal integration time. It is noted that a2 and values of the parameter b2 = 100 (right-end side) and bZ = loo0
(left-hand side).
b2 are related to the attainable (normalized) azimuthal
and range resolutions, respectively, Ax = r / a 2 and
Ar = ?r/b2. & leg
We want to compute the (double) FT of the
holographic signal (16): 90“

H ( < , q )= // dx’dr’h(x’,r’)exp(-jx’t - jr’q)

0

= // dxdrr(x,r)exp(-jx< - j v ) G ( t , v ; x , r ) (20)
90’
G(<,q;x, r )

= /J dpdqw2(p)rect[qlexp[-j*l(p) - i*z(q)l (21)

180”

q1= <p+ a2 (1+ 5)2

2R A R ; $2 = qq + b2q2 (22) Fig. 3. Phase of function d(q/b2) versus q/b2, for two different
values of b2 = 100 (right-end side) and b2 = lo00 (left-hand side).

AR = /($ + 2x
+ U r X + urP + P2 + (s + u s x + us oscillates for 1771 > b2. The transition between these two
PI2
regimes occurs in a width of order b around 77 = fb2.
Ro CT

x 2xr. (23) For large values of b2 we have

It is noted that the double integral (21) factorizes and

the q integration is readily accomplished in terms of
lim
b2-m d (5) [$1
= rect . (27)

the Fresnel integral: In SAR applications b2 is always very large.

Accordingly, the effective 7-bandwidth of (25) can

F(c) = /‘
0
daexp(-ja2).
be taken equal to 2b2, or slightly smaller to cut-off
(24) the transition regions nearby 1771 = f b 2 . In a first
approximation, we can use (27) instead of (26), which
We easily get is more difficult to compute numerically. An improved
approximation is given in Appendix A.

G(<,v;x,r) = e x p (js)($) d /dpw2(p)exp(-jW

Let us now turn to the evaluation of the remaining
(25) integral in expression (25). Examination of @I in (22)
shows that a n asymptotic evaluation is appropriate,
d 2
(b2>
=- I
2F(b/2)
F - 1+-
{ [i( z2)1 [i( :)I
+ F - 1--
>’
because U* is a large n ~ m b e r The
point is defined by
. ~ stationary phase

a*1 7 2RodAR
(26) -=(+a2(1+-)-
aP w r x -&-
=o. (28)
The function d(q/b2) is represented in Figs. 2
and (phase)- Its is 4Note that this asymptotic evaluation implies an error of order l/a2,
constant for lql < b2, and tends to zero for 1771 > b2; its i.e., absolutely negligible in practical cases. From this viewpoint, our
phase is approximately zero for 171 < b2, and rapidly analysis is still “exact”.

FRANCESCHETTI & SCHIRINZI: A SAR PROCESSOR BASED ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL FIT CODES 359
Letting p s be this point, we have (skipping, as already
stated, inessential constant factors):
(29). In order to get the image of the scene, a filtering
process is necessary, to compensate for the function G
appearing in (20).
To this end, let us first assume that the ( x , ~ )
depending terms in the function (29) can be ignored
SO that G(E,q;x,r) G(E,’I;O,O) = GO(E,’I).BY
+

multiplying, as usual, (20) by G;’ within the

bandwidth of the signal and by taking the (inverse) FT
we get
An explicit expression for G is obtained if some
reasonable approximations are accepted for computing
p,, $1, and its second derivative. This is done in
Appendix B and hereafter only the conclusions are
summarized in their simplest form. To this end, let
us define the following extra system parameters, in
addition to those given in (19):
x exp[i<(x’- x ) + j ~ ( r-’ r ) ]
= // dxdry(x,r)sinc[a’(x’ - x)]sinc[b*(r’-r ) ]
RO
x(x,r) = -[[U.
X
+ Prur + 7 . ~ ~ ~ 1 . (31) i.e., the usual image function h’(x’,r’) of the SAR
(35)

We have: system.
Let us now relax the assumption G = Go, i.e., of
a space-invariant system. To this end, let us multiply
the FT (20) by G-’(E,q;x:,rf), wherein (x:,ri) are the
coordinate of a prescribed output point. Proceeding as
before we get

For a transmitting antenna with uniform
illumination we have w(x) = sinc(rx), with the
assumed normalizations and referring to the -3 dB
footprint over the ground. If the antenna width is
equal to I , we have X = XRo/l, and the E-bandwidth
of the signal is 2a2. Also, the spectrum of h(x’,r’) is
shifted by -2xa2 in the { domain, because:
x G-’(~,rl;xf,r:)exp[jJ(x’- x ) + jv(r’ - r ) ] .
(36)
It is rather obvious that the image Ih(x’,r’)l is as
faithful as possible to the scene ly(x,r)l if x’ -+ x i ,
r’ --+ ri. For instance, if we take for G the approximate
expression (32) with U, = 0 in x , we have
G(~,’I;X,~)G-’(E,’I;X~,~~)

$ x -’I2
+ ({ + 2 x 4 2 1+ p r x 41+ p ( r - ri)
(34)
4b2 1 + e - ’I
c
4a2
2b2
but for the constant (inessential.) phase term X2a2.
Note that E is a range-azimuth coupling factor due to
the inclusion of AR in the last term of (17). The term
p takes into account the variation of focus depth with
x rect (- ) 1
5
1
2a2+ E rect
2a2x1

the imaged point, because a2/(1 + p r ) x a2(1- p r ) x

2nXR/12 and 7 is an extra correcting term which also
modifies x. This last parameter times 2a2 is what
is usually referred to as the (normalized) Doppler
centroid frequency [SI. The simplicity of appearance
of all corrections is stressed.

IV. THE IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHM

wherein x1 is defined in (B2) and the last equality
We computed under Section I11 the FT of the is justified by the subsequent 7-integration which
holographic signal. The result is given in (20) and generates the spreading function sinc[b2(r - r’)].

360 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE A N D ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 26, NO. 2 MARCH 1990
 ~

The appearance of the factor (37) in the integral INPUT DATA, P-16 : C=4

(36) produces an r-depending amplitude modulation, p=O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

displacement and defocusing of the image; the larger

(r’ - I:), the more pronounced is the effect. This FJI)
implies that we must limit the allowed values of the
output variable r’ (and also of x’ in the general case), F,lll

readjusting the filter function G-’((, q ; x ’ , r‘) in the F21i)

different output (x’, r’) ranges.
A brief discussion about the segmentation of the
range illumination in patches within which the filter Fig. 4. Relevant to computation of FFT in terms of FFTs of
can be taken invariant is in order. lower order. Comb-like procedure applied to input data.
The main factor to be considered is the term p r
in (33). If this is neglected, we leave essentially in the
The (discrete) FT is defined as follows:
inverse FT a defocusing term e ~ p ( - J p r ( ~ / 4 u ~which
),
broadens the impulse response of the system, fills the
nulls, and raises the lateral lobes, thus affecting both
the geometric and radiometric resolution. A detailed
analysis of these effects can be found elsewhere [9].
We can simply require that, at the end-points of the Using the standard FFT code, N must be equal to P,
integration patch, the defocusing phase factor does not the computer time is proportional to Nlog,N, and the
exceed ~ / 2 : memory requirement is equal to N .
27r Following [lo] let us put:’
p r 5 2. (38)
P = CQ; N = CM with C , Q , M integers (41)
The patch dimension is twice the value given by (38) if
the filter is matched at its mid-point. p=Qk+q; k =0,1, ...C - 1 ; q = O , 1 , ...Q - 1
Note that .rr/aZis the (normalized) azimuthal (42)
resolution Ax. In nonnormalized units we get for the
patch dimension Or: n=Cm+i; i = O , 1 , ...C-1; m = 0 , 1 , ...M-1.
(43)
~ R o = 8- (W
Ar = -Ax
X x (39), Substituting in (38) we get
in agreement with known results [4].
Previous discussion highlights the scheme for the
image processing algorithm: 1) perform a (double)
FT on the raw (holographic) data, 2) multiply above
0 1
FT by the appropriate filter function, the inverse of
(32), and 3) perform a n inverse (double) FT, possibly
readjusting the filter in different ranges of the output
points. The filter readjustment is necessary only for a The expression
high precision SAR imaging, especially for the airborne
case, where the parameter p cannot be negligible. + q)exp [ j g k i ] (45)
It is concluded that the success of the proposed
algorithm relies on the availability of a fast, efficient,
is easily recognized to be (but for the phase term
memory limited (double) FT code. A natural candidate
outside the summation) an FT in the conjugate
is the FFT,provided that the memory requirement
variables (k,i). Furthermore, input and output
can be controlled, without impairing the time request,
dimensions are equal to C, so that the FFT code can
and that the output range is independent of the input
be used for its evaluation. Note that these FFTs (see
one (only for the second FT). These suitable codes are
Fig. 4) are computed by a comb operation on the input
presented in Section V.
data [12].
Equation (40) can be rewritten in view of (44) and
V. THE FFT CODE (45) as follows:

We present now the FFT code appropriate to

the algorithm described under Section IV. Just for
simplicity, we make reference to a onedimensional
case, but all results can be immediately generalized to
the double FFT, which is of our interest. ’ F O ~a complete review of FFTcodes, see [11].

FRANCESCHETTI & SCHIRINZI: A SAR PROCESSOR BASED ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL FIT CODES 361
 Q elements; the third term refers to the (sequentially)

”20
,;)xi1
I 2
linear combination

3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 It 12 13 14 15
access time (for the Q FFTs) and to the transfer time
of all data to the mass storage. For all terms, the 7 are
elementary times.
If we want to compute independently each one
of the M output blocks, changing any time the input
data7, the time breakdown is different. For each
Fig. 5. Relevant to computation of FFT in terms of FFTs of block all the Q-generating FFTs of order C must be
lower order. Code for sequential output data.
recomputed; however, the access and transfer time (for
the Q FFTs) is not necessary any more. Accordingly,
we have
+
T = 71MPlog2C (72 +74)NQ. (48)
Coming to the FB-FFTthe memory requirement is
the larger between C and Q, which are the dimensions
of the two sequential FFTs. The time breakdown is the
following (for the simplest case P = N ) :

F(n)
W O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 IO I1 12 13 I4 15

Fig. 6. Relevant to computation of FFT in terms of EFTS of

lower order. Code for interlaced output data.
T = TIPlog2P

wherein the first term account for the Q C FFTs of

+ r2P+ 73 (5 + )++Q 2r4P (49)

dimensions C and Q, respectively, the second term

Equation (46)shows that the FT (40) can be is related to the phase term multiplication in (44),
computed as a superposition of FTs of lower order and the third term accounts to the (direct) access and
(see Fig. 5). The output data are generated in M transfer time.
blocks, each one comprising C elements, of the same Expressions similar to (47) and (49) can be
“bandwidth” C . The output data come out sequentially, obtained for the two-dimensional case, which is our
and each block is generated independently from the interest. We prefer to provide the graphical results
others. This fulfills the requirement 3) of Section corresponding to (47) and (49); they are collected in
IV, because after a single block is generated, we can Figs. 7 and 8 and refer to a VAX 111750 computer.
readjust the filter for the subsequent block. For both cases the computer time T (in decimal log
Equation (46)can also be viewed as an FT in scale) is given versus the total number P1P2 (in binary
the conjugate variables ( q , m ) ,wherein the input and log scale) of (complex) input points. This number is
output dimensions are equal if M = Q. An FFT code coincident with that of the output points. The graphs
can be used for its evaluation6 (see Fig. 6). From are parametrized in terms of C1C2, which is the
this new viewpoint, the FT (40) can be computed as dimension of the elementary FFTs (given by (45) in
two successive applications of FFTs of lower order. the one-dimensional case). This parameter provides
The output data are generated in C blocks of M an estimate of the core memory requirement. In both
elements, each of bandwidth P - M and they come figures the computer time which would be needed by
out interlaced (see Fig. 6 ) . a conventional FFT is given for reference purposes
We call the former algorithm the passband FFT (dashed line). Note, however, that the memory
(PB-FFT), while the latter is referred to as the requirement for this last curve is not constant, being
full-band FFT (FB-FFT). For both of them, let us proportional to 4 P 2 . The dots on the graphs refer to
now discuss memory and time requirements with experimental points obtained by running the two FFT
conventional (sequential type) computers. codes.
For the PB-FFT the memory requirement is of Examination of the graphs suggests that the
order 2C, the factor C accounting for the FFT and the PB-FFT algorithm (Fig. 8) is more convenient from
factor 2 accounting for the linear combinations. The the computer time point of view, unless P1P2, for a
computer time has the following breakdown: given C1C2, is sufficiently small. However, the PB-FFT

T = TI P log2C + T ~ N Q (z
algorithm exhibits the interesting feature that the
+ N Q + 74) . (47) output data came out in independent patches (see
Fig. 5). This can be very useful, as already discussed.
In expression (47) the first term refers to the Further discussion about the convenience of the first
computation of Q FFTs of order C; the second term or the second code in SAR imaging applications is
accounts for the N linear combinations, each one of postponed to Section VI.

61f M < Q, the FFT code can still be used by neglecting all output 7This is requirement 3) of Section IV. Note, however, that extra time
data m > M . is needed for computing the new filter for each output block.

362 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 26, NO. 2 MARCH 1990
 01
13
I
14
I

15
*
16
.
17
I

18
*
19
.>
20
IOgJw

Fig. 7. Computer time for the PB-FFT versus input points

number. Computer is VAX 1150. Dots refer to experimental
points.

Fig. 9. Part of picture of Mount Shasta obtained via SIR-B data.

to test the algorithm, no attempt has been made for

o l * I ' I ' * '
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
bA?p,)
Fig. 8. Computer time for F B -mversus input points number.
Computer is Vax 11/750. Dots refer to experimental points.
The presented algorithm is aimed to be used on
general purpose computers; however, its architecture
is particularly suited to a dedicated hardware, e.g.,
a transputer net [13]. A dramatic computer time
reduction can be obtained if parallel processing
is used [14]. This is outside the purpose of this
paper. However, let us remark that the computer
architectures of Figs. 4-6 are very well suited to
parallel processing.
VI. DISCUSSION
The SAR processing algorithm introduced in
Section IV has been implemented by using the FFT
codes presented in Section V. As a first preliminary
example, the single look image of Mount Shasta using
SIR-B data is displayed in Fig. 9. A 3,891 x 3,200 array
of (real) raw data is taken. Our digital filter is an array
of 910 x 1,200 complex data. The FB-FFT algorithm is
used with the elementary FFTs Fq(i)of order 64 x 64
(complex) numbers. The needed computer memory
is 2 Mbyte. We used a Microvax I1 and the central
processing unit (CPU) time was 6h 50 min. In order
reducing this time: for instance, standard FFT codes
for complex numbers have been used, although the
input data are real, therefore, faster FFT codes for
real numbers, or Hartley transform could be used.
Accordingly, it is expected that the computer running
time can be substantially lowered.
A comparison of the performance between the
presented algorithm and other nonseparable [3, 41 or
separable [l] approaches would be certainly interesting.
2? This comparison is not easy because a definition of
the performance is necessary, and this should include
a large variety of parameters, as CPU time, memory
requirement, image quality, etc. Interesting data to
be compared would be the number of elementary
operations that the code requires. From this viewpoint,
our code is certainly interesting because the filter
is analytically computed, thus not requiring FT
operations. Another interesting data is the memory
requirement: in our code this can be as low as wanted
(at the expense of the computer time) at variance of
other approaches [3, 41. When the image dimension
does not require the multiple stage FFT,our code
becomes very fast; for instance an image of 256 x 256
points is processed on a VAX 11/750 in 3 min. This
time should be compared with the larger one given in
[41.
We conclude that the main feature of the presented
algorithm is its flexibility to be run on computers
of very limited memory, with a tradeoff with the
computation time. Or, as an alternative, to be
particularly suited to massive parallel processing, with
dramatic reduction of the computational time, either
by using general purpose or dedicated hardware. But
there are a number of additional features which are
worthy of discussion.
We already pointed out that the algorithm allows
one to perform coordinate-independent as well as
coordinate-dependent corrections. Space-invariant

FRANCESCHEITI & SCHIRINZI: A SAR PROCESSOR BASED ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL FFT CODES 363
or variant filters may be used, the latter being well APPENDIX B
suited to the presented processor with the PB-FFT
code. But the ability of the latter to generate the image From (28) we have
points in isolated patches introduces a further degree t R s + a 2 ( 1 + ” ) 2R
L
of freedom in the algorithm. For instance, a zoom on
wr X
a prescribed portion of the image is possible at full
resolution, without the necessity of generating all the Ro cr
other image points.
-
x + -r
2x
+ urx + urps)u, + p ,
On the other side, the Fl3-mexhibits its own
interesting features. The output data come out
interlaced, so that a variable resolution (quick-look)
can be easily obtained, saving computer time, and/or
averaging techniques alternative to multilook process
+ (s + U,X + u,p,)u,
1 =0

wherein R, is the value of R for p = p,. We solve now

(B1)

can be easily implemented. The quick-look feature (B1) for p , neglecting quadratic terms in the Earth’s
is particularly attractive when coupled with the (normalized) surface velocity. Letting:
zoom feature, they can both be included in the same
processor.
It is concluded that the main characteristic of
the presented algorithm is its inherent flexibility, we have
with reference to a number of parameters: computer
memory, required corrections, image resolution,
quick-look, and zoom on a portion of the image.

Substituting the expression of $1 in (22) and taking

APPENDIX A into account (23), we have

We use the asymptotic expansion:

+ U ~ 17( 2Ro
~ + ~ ) ~ A R ~

- t2 1 + (cr/2Ro)r
- - X J - s 1 + - rl
in (26) to get (but for a constant): wr
(
+ a 2 1 + -;rI2?-AR,
r 1

(A2) wherein A R , is the value of A R for p = p,.

-
with F(b/2) F(m) and 1171 < b2. The requirement
that d(q/b2)x 1 imposes a n upper bound on the
A more readable expression for (B4) is obtained by
letting
Rn cr
allowed values of 171. If we choose:

in the expression of A R,, and subsequently

the amplitude oscillation of (A3)is less than f28 approximating this as
percent around unity, and the phase oscillation less 1 + (cr/2Ro)r t2
ARs x
than f16’ around zero. This is equivalent to the state
that the effective q-bandwidth of the signal should be (1+ 5) (2RoIX)4a4
taken equal to 2K2,wherein: r 1

364 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 26. NO. 2 MARCH 1990
Substituting (B6) in (B4) we get PI Wu, C. (1976)
A digital system to produce imagery from SAR.
5’ 1+ (cr/2Ro)r In Proceeding of the American Instilute ofAeronautics
,+l(PS) = -x5 - Astronautics System Design Driven 4 Sensors, Pasadena,
1+-9 CA, Oct. 18-20,1976, paper 76-968.
wr
Truong, T. K., Reed, I. S., Lipes, R. G., Rubin, A. L., and
r 1
Butman, S. A. (1984)
x
I
1+--
552 1
a4 (1 + & ) 2 (2Ro/W2
1. Digital SAR processing using a fast polynomial transform.
IEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech and Signal
Processing, ASSP-32 (1984), 41-25,
Di Cenzo, A. (1988)
A new look at nonseparable synthetic aperture radar
processing.
For a complete asymptotic evaluation of (25) IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,
the second derivative of $1 with respect to p AES-24 (1988), 218-223.
must be computed. We get in the same previous I51 Ulaby, E T., Moore, R. K., and Fung, A. K. (1981)
Microwave Remote Sensing, Vol. 11.
approximations:
Reading, M A Addison-Wesley, 1981.
van de Lindt, W.J. (1977)
Digital technique for generating syntheticaperture images.
IBM Research Development, 21 (1977), 415432.
Elachi, C., Bicknell, T,Jordan, R. L., and Wu, C. (1982)
For p = p s we have
Spacebornesynthetic aperture imaging radars:
applications, techniques and technology.
Proceedings of the IEEE, 70 (1982), 11741209.

I--
Bennett, J. R., and Cumming, J. G. (1979)
A digital processor for the production of SEASAT
r 1
synthetic aperture radar imagery.
x 1 Presented at ESRIN Workshop, Frascati, Italy, 1979.
u4 (1 + &)’( ~ R o / X ) ~ Franceschetti, G., Btoian, J. Z., and Dutt, B. (1989)
Aberration in the SAR image of a moving object.
Aka Frepenza, 58 (1989), 175-183.
where (B3) has been taken into account. If we Brenner, N. M. (1969)
approximate R, to its simplest form: Fast Fourier transform of externally stored data.
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(1%9), 128-132.
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1 I Multiprocessor FFTs.
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Efficient computation of the far-field of parabolic
reflectors by pseudo-sampling algorithm.
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The transputer-an effective tool for geometric modelling
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International Journal of Computers and Applied Technology,
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[l] Wu, C., Liu, K. Y.,and Jim, M. (1982)
Modelling of spaceborne synthetic aperture radar response
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FRANCESCHETTI & SCHIRINZI: A SAR PROCESSOR BASED ON TWO-DIMENSIONALFFT CODES 365

 Giorgio Franceschetti (S’6O-M62-SM’73-F88) was born and educated in Italy.
Winner of a national competition in 1968, he was appointed Full Professor of
Electromagnetic Wave Theory at University of Naples, Italy. In addition he has
been Visiting Professor at University of Illinois (1976 and 1977) and at UCLA
(1980 and 1982), USA, Fulbright Scholar (1973) and Research Associate (1981 and
1983) at CalTech. USA, Visiting Professor at National Somali University (1984),
Somalia.
He has lectured in several summer schools (University of Southern California,
USA; Queen Mary College, London; Eindhoven Institute of Technology, The
Netherlands). He has been invited to lecture at Erricsson, at the Chalmes Institute
of ’Technology (Goteborg, Sweden), at the Chinese Academy of Sciences and at
the Chinese Academy of Space Technology. He is a scientific consultant to several
companies in the US and Italy.
Mr. Franceschetti has published widely in the field of applied electromagnetics
(ref lector antennas, transient phenomena, shielding, nonlinear propagation and
scattering) and, more recently, in the field of SAR data processing.
He is a fellow of IEEE and Director of IRECE, a Research Institute of CNR,
the Italian National Council of Research.

Gilda Schirinzi was born in Italy and graduated in electronic engineering at the
University of Naples, Italy.
From 1983 to 1985 she worked at the Department of Electronic Engineering
of the University of Naples on the application of sampling series to the
electromagnetic field representation and near field-far field transformation. From
1985 to 1986 she was at the European Space Agency, ESTEC, The Netherlands.
In 1988 she joined IRECE, a Research Institute of the Italian National Council of
Research. Her main scientific interests are in synthetic aperture radar simulation
and processing.

366 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 26, NO. 2 MARCH 1990