Control System File PDF

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Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
ww What are K-Notes?
w.E
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
asy
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
En
When do I start using K-Notes?
gin
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
ee
How do I use K-Notes? rin
g.n
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
et
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.

The control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism or
other equation is maintained or altered in accordance which a desired manner.
ww
w.E
Mathematical Modeling asy

En
The Differential Equation of the system is formed by replacing each element by
corresponding differential equation.
For Mechanical systems gin
(1) F  M d dt  M
d2 x
dt2 ee rin
g.n
(2) F  K  x1  x2  
t
 K  v1  v 2  dt
 et
(3) F  f  v1  v 2   f  dx1
dt

dx 2
dt 

Jd Jd2 
(4) T 
dt dt2
Jd Jd2 
(5) T 
dt dt2
ww
w.E (6) T  K  1  2   K
t
  1  2  dt

asy
En
Analogy between Electrical & Mechanical systems
 Force (Torque) – Voltage Analogygin

Translation system
Force F
Mass M
ee
Rotational system
Torque T
Moment of Inertia J
Electrical system
Voltage e
rin
Inductance L
Visuals Friction coefficient f Viscous Friction coefficient f Resistant R
Spring stiffness K Tensional spring stiffness K
g.n
Reciprocal of capacitance 1
C
Displacement x
Velocity 
Angular Displacement 
Angular velocity 
Charge q
Current i et
 Force (Torque) – current Analogy
Translation system Rotational system Electrical system
Force F Torque T Current i
Mass M Moment of Inertia J Capacitance C
Visuals Friction coefficient f Viscous Friction coefficient f Reciprocal of Resistant 1/R
Spring stiffness K Tensional spring stiffness K Reciprocal of Inductance 1 L
Displacement x Angular Displacement  Magnetic flux linkage 
Velocity  Angular Velocity  Voltage e

Transfer function
The differential equation for this system is

d2 x dx
F M 2
f  kx
dt dt
Take Laplace Transform both sides
F(s) = Ms2 X  s  fsX  s   kX s  [Assuming zero initial conditions]
X s 1
  Transfer function of the system
ww F s 2
Ms  fs  k
w.E
Transfer function is ratio of Laplace Transform of output variable to Laplace Transform of input
variable.

asy
The steady state-response of a control system to a sinusoidal input is obtained by
replacing ‘s’ with ‘jw’ in the transfer function of the system.
X  jw 
 En 1

1
F  jw  2
gin
M  jw   f  jw   k
2
w M  jwf+K
Block – Diagram Algebra

ee
The system can also be represented graphical with the help of block diagram. rin
g.n
et
Various blocks can be replaced by a signal block to simplify the block diagram.
 =>
 =>

 =>

=>
ww
w.E  =>
asy
En

gin =>
ee rin
g.n
Signal Flow Graphs

et
Node: it represents a system variable which is equal to sum of all incoming signals at
the node. Outgoing signals do not affect value of node.
 Branch: A signal travels along a branch from one node to another in the direction
indicated by the branch arrow & in the process gets multiplied by gain or transmittance
of branch
 Forward Path: Path from input node to output node.
 Non-Touching loop: Loops that do not have any common node.
Mason’s Gain Formula

Ratio of output to input variable of a signal flow graph is called net gain.
1
T   Pk k
 K

Pk = path gain of k th forward path

 = determinant of graph = 1 – (sum of gain of individual loops)
+ (sum of gain product of 2 non touching loops)
– (sum of gain product of 3 non touching loops) +………
 1   Pm1   Pm2   Pm3  ............
K
Pmr = gain product of all ‘r’ non touching loops.
K = the value of  for the part of graph not touching kth forward path.
ww T = overall gain
w.E
Example :
Forward Paths: P1  a12 a23a34 a45
asy
P2  a12 a23a35
Loops : P11  a23a32
P21  a23a34 a42 En
P31  a44
gin
P41  a23a34 a45 a52
P51  a23a35 a52
2-Non – Touching loops
ee rin
P12  a23a32 a44 ; P12  a23a32 a44
  1   a23a32  a23a42  a44  a23a34 a45a52  a23a35a52 

g.n
+  a23a32a44  a23a35a52a44 
First forward path is in touch with all loops
et
1  1
Second forward path does not touch one loop
1  1  a44 
P1 1  P2 2 a12 a23 a34 a45  a12 a23 a35 1  a44 

T 
 

Effect of Feed back

System before feedback
System after feedback
ww
w.E
Effect on Gain asy
Positive feedback
G En
Gain =
Negative feedback
1  GH
gin
 G (gain increases)
Gain =
G
1  GH
G ee
(gain decreases)
rin
g.n
Effect on Stability
et
Feedback can improve stability or be harmful to stability if not applied properly.
G
Eg. Gain = & GH = –1, output is infinite for all inputs.
1  GH
Effect on sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ratio of relative change in output to relative change in input
T
 T T LnT
SG  
 G G LnG

For open loop system

T=G
T G T G
SG   1  1
T G G
For closed loop system
G
T
1  GH
T G T G 1  GH 1 1
SG    2
  1 (Sensitivity decreases)
T G G 1  GH 1  GH
ww
Effect on Noise
w.E Feedback can reduce the effect noise and disturbance on system’s performance.
Open – loop system

asy
En
gin
Y S 
N S 
 G2 ee rin
Closed – loop system
g.n
et
Y S  G2
  G2 (Effect of Noise Decreases)
N S  1  G1 G2H
 Positive feedback is mostly employed in oscillator whereas negative feedback is used in

amplifiers.

Time Response Analysis
 Standard Test signals

 Step signal
r(t) = Au(t)
u(t) = 1; t > 0
= 0; t < 0
R(s) = A
ww s
w.E  Ramp Signal

r(t) = At, t > 0
=0,t<0
R(s) = A
asy
s 2
En
 Parabolic signal
gin
2
r(t) = At 2 ; t > 0
=0;t<0
ee rin
R(s) = A 3
s
g.n
 Impulse
et
 t  0 ; t  0

   t  dt  1


 Time Response of first – order systems
 Unit step input

R(s) = 1
S
1 1 T
C(s) =  
S  Ts  1  S Ts  1
t
C(t) = 1 – e T
ww
w.E
asy
 Unit Ramp input En
R(s) = 1
gin
C(s) =
S
S2
2
1
 Ts  1 
ee rin
C(t) = t – T  1  e

t
T 

 g.n
et
Type of system
Steady state error of system  ess  depends on number of poles of G(s) at s = 0.
This number is known as types of system
Error Constants
For unity feedback control systems
lim
K P (position error constant) = G s
s0

lim
K v (Velocity error constant) = s G s
s0
lim 2
K a (Acceleration error constant) = s G s
s0
Steady state error for unity feedback systems
Type of Error Step input Ramp input Parabolic Input
ww system
j
cons tants
KP K v K a
R
1  Kp
R
Kv
R
Ka
w.E 0
1
K 0 0
 K 0
R
1K
0

R
K


R
2
3
  K
   asy 0
0
0
0
K
0
En

gin
For non-unity feedback systems, the difference between input signal R(s) and feedback
signal B(s) actuating error signal Ea  s  .
Ea  s  
1
1  G sHs
lim sR  s 
ee
R s
rin
ea ss 
s  0 1  G sHs
g.n
Transient Response of second order system
G s 
wn2
et
S  S+2wn 
Y s wn2

R s s2  2wns  wn2
Characteristic Equation:   s  s2  2wns  wn2  0

For unit step input
wn2
Y s 

s s2  2wns  wn2 

if  < 1 (under damp)

ewnt
y(t) = 1  sin  wd t   
1  2
1  2
wd  wn 1  2 ; =tan-1

if  = 1 (critical damp)
y(t) = 1 – (1 + wn t) e wnt
ww if  > 1 (over damp)
w.E 
y(t) = 1  cos h wn 2  1 t 


2
2

 1

sin h wn  2  1

 t e  wnt
asy
Roots of characteristic equation are
En
s1 ,s2  wn  jwn 1  2
  wn
gin
‘  ’ is damping constant which governs
 = cos  ee
decay of response for under damped system.
rin
 = 0, imaginary axis
g.n
If corresponds to “undamped system” or sustained oscillations et

Pole – zero plot Step Response


ww 
w.E 
asy
En 

gin
ee rin


g.n
et
 

Important Characteristic of step Response
 / 12
 Maximum overshoot : 100e %
 1  2 
  tan1  
  
 
 Rise Time :
wn 1   2
ww Peak Time :


wn 1   2
w.E
 Settling Time : ts 
4
wn
3
(for 2% margin)
ts 
asy
wn
(for 5% margin)
En
Effect of Adding poles and zeroes to Transfer Function
gin
1. If a pole is added to forward transfer function of a closed loop system, it increases
maximum overshoot of the system.
ee rin
2. If a pole is added to closed loop transfer function it has effect opposite to that of case–1.
3. If a zero is added to forward path transfer function of a closed loop system, it decreases
rise time and increases maximum overshoot.
g.n
4. If a zero is added to closed loop system, rise time decreases but maximum overshoot
decreases than increases as zero added moves towards origin.
Stability of control system

et
A linear, time-invariant system is stable if following notions of stability are satisfied:
 When system is excited by bounded input, the output is bounded.
 In absence of inputs, output tends towards zero irrespective of initial conditions.
 For system of first and second order, the positive ness of coefficients of characteristic
equation is sufficient condition for stability.
 For higher order systems, it is necessary but not sufficient condition for stability.

Routh stability criterion
 If is necessary & sufficient condition that each term of first column of Routh Array of its
characteristic equation is positive if a0  0 .
 Number of sign changes in first column = Number of roots in Right Half Plane.
 Example :
a0 sn  a1 sn1  ............  an  0
ww sn a0 a2 a 4 …………
w.E sn1
sn2
a1 a3
a1 a2  a0 a3
a5 ………….
a1 a4  a0 a5
sn3 ..
a1
asy a1
.. ..
En
..
s 0
..
an gin
Special Cases ee rin

zero term. g.n
When first term in any row of the Routh Array is zero while the row has at least one non-
et
Solution : substitute a small positive number ‘  ’ for the zero & proceed to evaluate rest
of Routh Array
eg. s5  s4  2s3  2s2  3s  5  0

s5 1 2 3
4
s 1 2 5
s3  2
2  2
s2 5

4  4  5 2
s1  2
2  2
s0 5

2  2
 0 , and hence there are 2 sign change and thus 2 roots in right half plane.

 When all the elements in any one row Routh Array are zero.
Solution : The polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of row just above row of
zeroes in Routh Array is called auxiliary polynomial.
o The order of auxiliary polynomial is always even.
o Row of zeroes should be replaced row of coefficients of polynomial generated by
taking first derivative of auxiliary polynomial.
ww Example : s6  2s5  8s4  12s3  20s2  16s  16  0
w.E s6
s5
1 8
2 12 16
20 16 s6
s5
1
1
8
6
20 16
8
s5
s 4
1 6
2 12 16
8
asy s4
s3
1
4 12
6 8
s 4
1 6 8
En s3
1 3
s 3
0 0
gin s2
s1
3
1
8
ee s 0
8
3
Auxiliary polynomial : A(s) = s4  6s2  8  0 rin

Types of stability g.n



Limited stable : if non-repeated root of characteristic equation lies on jw- axis.
et
Absolutely stable: with respect to a parameter if it is stable for all value of this parameter.
Conditionally stable : with respect to a parameter if system is stable for bounded range
of this parameter.
Relative stability
If stability with respect to a line s  1 is to be judged, then we replace s by  z  1  in
characteristic equation and judge stability based on Routh criterion, applied on new
characteristic equation.

Roots locus Technique

Root – Loci is important to study trajectories of poles and zeroes as the poles & zeroes
determine transient response & stability of the system.
Characteristic equation
1+G(s)H(s) =0
Assume G(s)H(s) = KG1  s  H1  s 
1  KG1  s  H1  s   0
ww G1  s H1  s    1 K
w.E
Condition of Roots locus
G1  s  H1  s  
1
k asy
 k  
G1  s  H1  s    2i  1  
G1  s  H1  s   2i En K  0 = odd multiples of 180°
K  0 = even multiples of 180°
gin
Condition for a point to lie on root Locus

ee rin
The difference between the sum of the angles of the vectors drawn from the zeroes and

those from the poles of G(s) H(s) to s1 is on odd multiple of 180° if K > 0.
g.n
The difference between the sum of the angles of the vectors drawn from the zeroes &
et
those from the poles of G(s)H(s) to s1 is an even multiple of 180° including zero degrees.
Properties of Roots loci of 1  KG1  s  H1  s   0

1. K = 0 points : These points are poles of G(s)H(s), including those at s =  .
2. K =  point : The K =  points are the zeroes of G(s)H(s) including those at s =  .
3. Total numbers of Root loci is equal to order of 1  KG1  s  H1  s   0  equation.
4. The root loci are symmetrical about the axis of symmetry of the pole- zero configuration
G(s) H(s).
5. For large values of s, the RL (K > 0) are asymptotes with angles given by:
2i  1
i   180
nm
for CRL(complementary root loci) (K < 0)

2i
i   180
nm
where i = 0, 1, 2, ………., n  m  1
n = no. of finite poles of G(s) H(s)
m = no. of finite zeroes of G(s) H(s)
6. The intersection of asymptotes lies on the real axis in s-plane.
ww The point of intersection is called centroid (  )
1 =
 real parts of poles G(s)H(s)   real parts of zeroes G(s)H(s)
w.E nm
7. Roots locus are found in a section of the real axis only if total number of poles and zeros
to the right side of section is odd if K > 0. For CRL (K < 0), the number of real poles &
asy
zeroes to right of given section is even, then that section lies on root locus.
En
8. The angle of departure or arrival of roots loci at a pole or zero of G(s) H(s) say s1 is found
gin
by removing term (s – s1) from the transfer function and replacing ‘s’ by ‘s1’ in the
remaining transfer function to calculate G  s1  H  s1 
ee
Angle of Departure (only applicable for poles) = 1800 + G  s1  H  s1 
rin
Angle of Arrival (only applicable for zeroes) = 1800 - G  s1  H  s1 
g.n
9. The crossing point of root-loci on imaginary axis can be found by equating coefficient of
s1 in Routh table to zero & calculating K.
et
Then roots of auxiliary polynomial give intersection of root locus with imaginary axis.
10. Break-away & Break-in points

dk
These points are determined by finding roots of 0
ds
d2k
for breakaway points : 0
ds2
d2k
For break in points : 0
ds2

1
11. Value of k on Root locus is K 
G1  s1  H1  s1 
Addition of poles & zeroes to G(s) H(s)

 Addition of a pole to G(s) H(s) has the effect of pushing of roots loci toward right half
plane.
 Addition of left half plane zeroes to the function G(s) H(s) generally has effect of moving
& bending the root loci toward the left half s-plane.
ww
Frequency Domain Analysis
w.E
 Resonant Peak, Mr
It is the maximum value of |M(jw)| for second order system
1
Mr =
2 1   2
asy
,   0.707  = damping coefficient
 Resonant frequency, wr En
gin
The resonant frequency wr is the frequency at which the peak Mr occurs.
wr  wn 1  2 2 , for second order system
ee rin
 Bandwidth, BW
g.n
The bandwidth is the frequency at which |M(jw)| drops to 70.7% of, or 3dB down from, its
zero frequency value.
for second order system,
1
et
  
BW = wn  1  2 2   4  4 2  2 

2
Note : For  > 0.707, wr = 0 and Mr = 1 so no peak.
Effect of Adding poles and zeroes to forward transfer function

 The general effect of adding a zero to the forward path transfer function is to increase
the bandwidth of closed loop system.
 The effect of adding a pole to the forward path transfer function is to make the closed
loop less stable, which decreasing the band width.

Nyquist stability criterion

In addition to providing the absolute stability like the Routh Hurwitz criterion, the
Nyquist criterion gives information on relative stability of a stable system and the degree of
instability of an unstable system.
Stability condition
 Open – loop stability
If all poles of G(s) H(s) lie in left half plane.
 Closed loop stability
ww If all roots of 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0 lie in left half plane.
w.E
Encircled or Enclosed
A point of region in a complex plane is said to be encircled by a closed path if it is found
inside the path.
asy
A point or region is said to enclosed by a closed path if it is encircled in the counter
En
clockwise direction, or the point or region lies to the left of path.
Nyquist Path
gin

ee
If is a semi-circle that encircles entire right half plane
rin
but it should not pass through any poles or zeroes
of   s   1  G  s  H  s  & hence we draw small
g.n
semi-circles around the poles & zeroes on jw-axis.
et
Nyquist Criterion
1. The Nyquist path s is defined in s-plane, as shown above.

2. The L(s) plot (G(s)H(s) plot) in L(s) plane is drawn i.e., every point s plane is mapped to
corresponding value of L(s) = G(s)H(s).
3. The number of encirclements N, of the (–1 + j0) point made by L(s) plot is observed.

4. The Nyquist criterion is

N= Z – P
N = number of encirclement of the (–1+ j0) point made by L(s) plot.
Z = Number of zeroes of 1 + L(s) that are inside Nyquist path (i.e., RHP)
P = Number of poles of 1 + L(s) that are inside Nyquiest path (i.e., RHP) ; poles of 1 + L(s) are
same as poles of L(s).
For closed loop stability Z must equal 0

For open loop stability, P must equal 0.
∴ for closed loop stability
ww N=–P
i.e., Nyquist plot must encircle (–1 + j0) point as many times as no. of poles of L(s) in RHP
w.Ebut in clockwise direction.
asy
Nyquist criterion for Minimum phase system
En
A minimum phase transfer function does not have poles
or zeroes in the right half s-plane or on – axis excluding origin.
gin
For a closed loop system with loop transfer function L(s)
that is of minimum phase type, the system is closed loop
ee
stable if the L(s) plot that corresponds to the Nyquist path
does not encircle (–1 + j0) point it is unstable.
rin
i.e. N=0
g.n
 Effect of addition of poles & zeroes to L(s) on shape of Nyquiest plot
If L(s) =
K
1  T1 s
et
Addition of poles at s = 0
K
1. L  s  
s 1  T1 s 
Both Head & Tail of Nyquist plot are
rotated by 90° clockwise.

K
2. L  s  
s 1  T1 s 
2
K
3. L  s  
s 1  T1 s 
ww
3
w.E
Addition of finite non-zero poles
K
asy
L s 
1  T1 s 1  T2 s  En
gin
Addition of zeroes
ee
Only the head is moved clockwise by 90° but tail point remains same.
rin
 
g.n
Addition of term 1  Tds in numerator of L(s) increases the phase of L(s) by 90° at w   and
hence improves stability.
et
Relative stability: Gain & Phase Margin
 Gain Margin
Phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the L(jw) plot intersect the negative
real axis.
or where L  jwP   180
1
gain margin = GM = 20log10
L  jwP 

if L(jw) does not intersect the negative real axis

L  jwP   0 GM = dB
GM > 0dB indicates stable system.

GM = 0dB indicates marginally stable system.
GM < 0dB indicates unstable system.
Higher the value of GM, more stable the system is.
 Phase Margin
ww It is defined as the angle in degrees through which L(jw) plot must be rotated about the
origin so that gain crossover passes through (– 1, j 0) point.
w.EGain crossover frequency is 𝑤𝑔 s.t.
 
L jwg  1
asy 
Phase margin (PM) = L jwg  180 
En
Bode Plots
Bode plot consist of two plots gin


20 log G  jw  vs log w
  w  vs log w ee rin
K 1  T1s 1  T2s 
Assuming G  s  

s 1  Tas   1  2 s 2  s
2 
2
e
 Tds
g.n
 n n 
G  jw  dB  20log G  jw   20log10 K  20log10 1  jwT1 
20log10 1  jwT2  20log10 jw  20log10 1  jwTa

et
w w2
20log10 1  j2  w2
wn n
 2 
G  jw    1  jwT1    1  jwT2   jw   1  jwTa     1  2 jw / wn  w 2   jwTd rad
 wn 

Magnitude & phase plot of various factor
Factor Magnitude plot Phase Plot

K
P
 jw 
ww
w.E
P
 jw 
asy
1  jwTa  En
gin
1
ee rin
1  jwTa 
g.n
G  jw  
1
et
    j2  w w 
 2 2 
1 w w
 n n  



Example : Bode plot for

10  s  10 
G s 
s  s  2  s  5 
10 10  jw 
G  jw  
jw  jw  2  jw  5 
If w = 0.1
102
G  jw    100 ;
0.1  2  5
ww
For 0.1 < w < 2
w.E G  jw  
102
w  25
G  jw   90
 10 w ; slope = –20 dB / dec
For 2 < w < 5

10  10 20
asy
G  jw  
jw  jw  5 w
En
 2 ; G  jw   Slope = –40 dB/ dec
G  jw   180
For 5 < w < 10 gin
G  jw  
10  10
jw  jw  jw
G  jw   270
100
w ee
  j 3 ; G  jw   Slope = – 60 dB/ dec
rin
For w > 10
10  jw
g.n
G  jw  
jw  jw  jw
G  jw   180
 10 2 ; G  jw   slope = – 40 dB/ dec
w
et

Designs of Control systems
 P – controller
The transfer function of this controller is KP.
The main disadvantage in P – controller is that as KP value increases,  decreases &
hence overshoot increases.
As overshoot increases system stability decreases.
ww I – controller
The transfer function of this controller is

ki
s
.
w.E It introduces a pole at origin and hence type is increased and as type increases, the SS
error decrease but system stability is affected.
 D – controller asy
En
It’s purpose is to improve the stability.
The transfer function of this controller is KDS.
gin
It introduces a zero at origin so system type is decreased but steady state error increases.
 PI – controller
ee
It’s purpose SS error without affection stability.
rin
K  SKP  K i 
Transfer function = KP  i 
s S g.n
It adds pole at origin, so type increases & SS error decreases.
It adds a zero in LHP, so stability is not affected. et
Effects:
o Improves damping and reduces maximum overshoot.
o Increases rise time.
o Decreases BW.
o Improves Gain Margin, Phase margin & Mr.
o Filter out high frequency noise.

 PD controller
Its purpose is to improve stability without affecting stability.
Transfer function: KP  KD S
It adds a zero in LHP, so stability improved.
Effects:
o Improves damping and maximum overshoot.
o Reduces rise time & setting time.
o Increases BW
ww o
o
Improves GM, PM, Mr.
May attenuate high frequency noise.

o
w.E
PID controller
Its purpose is to improve stability as well as to decrease ess.
K
asy
Transfer function = KP  i  sKD
s
o
En
If adds a pole at origin which increases type & hence steady state error decreases.
If adds 2 zeroes in LHP, one finite zero to avoid effect on stability & other zero to
o
improve stability of system.
gin
Compensators
ee rin
 Lead Compensator
Ge  s  
  ZS  1  g.n
c1 ;  < 1
 ZS  1
et
 = phase lead
= tan1  w   tan1  w 
For maximum phase shift
w = Geometric mean of 2 corner frequencies
1
=
 
tan m 
1   
2 

Effect
o It increases Gain Crossover frequency
o It reduces Bandwidth.
o It reduces undamped frequency.
 Lag compensators
 1  s 
Ge  s   ;  1
1  s 
1  jw 
Ge  jw  
1  jw 
ww
For maximum phase shift
w.E
w
1
 
 1
tan m 
2 
asy
Effect
En
o
o gin
Increase gain of original Network without affecting stability.
Reduces steady state error.
o Reduces speed of response.
ee rin
 Lag – lead compensator
g.n
 S  1  S  1

Ge  s   
1  


2 
 S  1    S  1  

et
 1  2
 >1;  <1
Ge  jw  
1  jw1 1  jw2 
1  jw1 1  jw2 / 

State Variable Analysis
 The state of a dynamical system is a minimal set of variables (known as state variables)
such that the knowledge of these variables at t = t0 together with the knowledge of input
for t ≥ t0 completely determine the behavior of system at t > t0.
 State variable
 x1  t    y1  t    u1  t  
     
x(t) =  x2  t  
; y(t) =  y 2  t   ; u(t) =  u2  t  
 ..   ..   .. 
ww  
 xn  t  
 
 yp  t  
 
um  t  
w.E
 Equations determining system behavior :
̇ = A x (t) + Bu(t) ; State equation
𝑋(𝑡)
y(t) = Cx (t) + Du (t) ; output equation
State Transition Matrix

asy
En
It is a matrix that satisfies the following linear homogenous equation.
dx  t 
dt
 Ax  t 
Assuming   t  is state transition matrix

gin
1
  t    1  SI  A  
 
ee rin
1 2 2 1 33
Properties:
  t   eAt  I  At 
2!
A t  A t  .........
3!
g.n
1)   0  = I (identity matrix)
2) 1  t     t 
et
3)   t2  t1    t1  t0     t2  t0 
K
4)   t     kt  for K > 0
Solution of state equation

State Equation: X(t) = A x(t) + Bu(t)
t
At A  t 
X(t) = e x  0    e Bu    d
0

Relationship between state equations and Transfer Function

X(t) = Ax (t) + Bu(t)
Taking Laplace Transform both sides

sX(s) = Ax (s) + Bu(s)
(SI – A) X(s) = Bu(s)
X(s) = (SI – A)–1 B u (s)
y(t) = Cx(t) + D u(t)
ww
Take Laplace Transform both sides.
y(s) = Cx(s) + D u (s)
w.E x(s) = (sI – A)–1 B u (s)

y(s) = [C(SI – A)–1 B + D] U(s)
y s
U s
1
asy
 C  SI  A  B  D = Transfer function
En
Eigen value of matrix A are the root of the characteristic equation of the system.
gin
Characteristic equation = SI  A  0
Controllability & Observability


ee rin
A system is said to be controllable if a system can be transferred from one state to

another in specified finite time by control input u(t).
g.n
A system is said to be completely observable if every state of system Xi  t  can be
identified by observing the output y(t).
Test for controllability

et
QC = controllability matrix
= [B AB A2B ………An – 1 B]
Here A is assumed to be a n x n matrix
B is assumed to be a n x 1 matrix
If det  QC  = 0 system is uncontrollable
det  QC   0 , system is controllable

Test for observability

Q0 = observability matrix
C 
 
CA 
 2 
CA 
= . 
 
. 
ww .




C  A n1 

w.E
A is a n x n matrix
C is a (1 x n) matrix
asy
En
If det  Q0   0 , system is unobservable
gin
det  Q0   0 , system is observable
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w .Ea
sy E
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

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Manual for K-Notes

ww What are K-Notes?

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 Force (Torque) – Voltage Analogygin

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The differential equation for this system is

Block – Diagram Algebra

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Mason’s Gain Formula

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Pk = path gain of k th forward path

Forward Paths: P1  a12 a23a34 a45

  1   a23a32  a23a42  a44  a23a34 a45a52  a23a35a52 

P1 1  P2 2 a12 a23 a34 a45  a12 a23 a35 1  a44 

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Effect of Feed back

System after feedback

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For open loop system

Open – loop system

 Positive feedback is mostly employed in oscillator whereas negative feedback is used in

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Time Response Analysis

 Standard Test signals

w.E  Ramp Signal

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 Time Response of first – order systems

 Unit step input

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Steady state error for unity feedback systems

Type of Error Step input Ramp input Parabolic Input

Characteristic Equation:   s  s2  2wns  wn2  0

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if  < 1 (under damp)

ww if  > 1 (over damp)

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Pole – zero plot Step Response

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Important Characteristic of step Response

ww Peak Time :

Stability of control system

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Routh stability criterion

eg. s5  s4  2s3  2s2  3s  5  0

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ww Example : s6  2s5  8s4  12s3  20s2  16s  16  0

Auxiliary polynomial : A(s) = s4  6s2  8  0 rin

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Roots locus Technique

Properties of Roots loci of 1  KG1  s  H1  s   0

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6. The intersection of asymptotes lies on the real axis in s-plane.

ww The point of intersection is called centroid (  )

10. Break-away & Break-in points

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Addition of poles & zeroes to G(s) H(s)

Note : For  > 0.707, wr = 0 and Mr = 1 so no peak.

Effect of Adding poles and zeroes to forward transfer function