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Albatrosses Petrels Shearwaters of The World PDF
Albatrosses Petrels Shearwaters of The World PDF
Christopher helm
london
Like so many ocean sailors, I have a huge respect for these incredible birds,
which circle Antarctica over the most inhospitable oceans in the world. I
hope that through the images and information in this book those of you
who have felt the sheer presence of these birds can re-live it, and those who
haven’t can begin to experience it.
Dame Ellen MacArthur
Published 2007 by Christopher Helm, an imprint of A&C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho
Square, London W1D 3QY
Reprinted 2008
Electronic edition 2010
The right of Derek Onley and Paul Scofield to be identified as the authors of this work has
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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publishers.
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CONTENTS
Preface 11
Acknowledgements 11
Identification 19
Conservation 25
Seabird topography 31
Colour plates 32
References 237
Index 238
LIST OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES
the species within the families are generally listed in the same sequence as in dickinson (2003). however,
a number of taxa treated as subspecies there have been raised to species level, bringing the total number of
procellariiform species illustrated and discussed in this book to 137. The figure on the right shows the relevant
plate in each case. For polytypic species, races are listed in small type. Abbreviated ranges are given for all
taxa. subspecies are generally listed in order of publication. the order used here within the pterodromas and
shearwaters is artificial and is designed simply to help identification.
plate no.
Family DIOMEDEIDAE (albatrosses)
a) Wandering albatrosses
Diomedea exulans Snowy Albatross (Wandering Albatross) 1, 2
Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on higher-latitude islands of southern ocean except new Zealand.
Diomedea dabbenena Tristan Albatross 1, 2
tristan da Cunha and Gough i., ranging at sea through south Atlantic.
Diomedea antipodensis New Zealand Albatross 1, 2
D. a. antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on Antipodes i.
and in small numbers on Campbell i. and Chatham is.
D. a. gibsoni (Gibson’s Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on Auckland is.
Diomedea amsterdamensis Amsterdam Island Albatross 1
Amsterdam i. (indian ocean). ranges at sea across southern indian ocean.
b) Royal albatrosses
Diomedea sanfordi Northern Royal Albatross 1, 3
Circumpolar s hemisphere; breeds mainly on Chatham is.
Diomedea epomophora Southern Royal Albatross 1, 3
Circumpolar s hemisphere; breeds mainly on Campbell is., with smaller population on enderby i., Auckland i.
d) Mollymawks
Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross 7, 9
Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on higher-latitude islands of southern ocean.
Thalassarche impavida Campbell Albatross 7, 9
Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding only on Campbell i.
Thalassarche cauta Shy Albatross 6
T. c. cauta Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on islands off tasmania.
T. c. steadi (White-capped Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on islands off new Zealand.
Thalassarche eremita Chatham Islands Albatross 6
S Pacific. The Pyramid in Chatham Is. provides sole breeding ground. Migrates to Chilean and Peruvian
waters in winter.
Thalassarche salvini Salvin’s Albatross 6
S Pacific. Breeds on Bounty and Snares Is., migrates to Chilean and Peruvian waters in winter.
Thalassarche chrysostoma Grey-headed Albatross 8, 9
Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on higher-latitude islands of southern ocean.
Thalassarche chlororhynchos Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross 8, 9
Circumpolar s hemisphere, tristan da Cunha group and Gough i., ranging at sea through s Atlantic.
Thalassarche carteri Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross 8, 9
Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on lower-latitude islands of s indian ocean.
Thalassarche bulleri Buller’s Albatross 8, 9
T. b. bulleri (southern Buller’s Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeds on the snares and
solander around stewart is.
T. b. ssp. nov. (northern Buller’s Albatross) Breeds on sisters and Forty-Fours in Chatham is. and on
three Kings islands north of new Zealand. subspecies yet to be formally named.
e) Sooty albatrosses
Phoebetria fusca Sooty Albatross 10
Circumpolar s hemisphere, warmer subantarctic waters of s Atlantic and indian oceans.
Phoebetria palpebrata Light-mantled (sooty) Albatross 10
Circumpolar s hemisphere. ranges at sea in colder Antarctic waters as far south as ice edge.
b) Prions
Pachyptila vittata Broad-billed Prion 26
new Zealand and se Atlantic, in warmer subantarctic waters just north of subtropical convergence.
Pachyptila salvini Salvin’s Prion 26
Breeds SW Indian Ocean, occurs throughout cooler circumpolar waters except SE Pacific in winter.
Pachyptila macgillivrayi MacGillivray’s Prion 26
endemic to st paul is. range at sea unknown.
Pachyptila desolata Antarctic Prion 26
Circumpolar southern Ocean, in colder waters but rarely reported in central S Pacific.
Pachyptila belcheri Slender-billed Prion 26
Circumpolar southern ocean, dispersive in colder waters.
Pachyptila turtur Fairy Prion 27
P. t. turtur Circumpolar species of warmer subantarctic and subtropical waters.
P. t. subantarctica Breeds on Antipodes, snares and macquarie is.
Pachyptila crassirostris Fulmar Prion 27
P. c. crassirostris Chatham is, the snares and Bounty is.
P. c. flemingi heard and Auckland is.
d) Gadfly petrels
i) Cookilaria petrels
Pterodroma axillaris Chatham Islands Petrel 23
SW Pacific, breeding only on Chatham Is.
Pterodroma nigripennis Black-winged Petrel 23
Tropical and subtropical S Pacific.
Pterodroma inexpectata Mottled Petrel 23
Pacific Ocean; breeds in S New Zealand, foraging south to ice edge; migrates to NW Pacific.
Pterodroma hypoleuca Bonin Petrel 23
Subtropical west and central N Pacific.
Pterodroma leucoptera Gould’s Petrel 24
P. l. leucoptera Cabbage Tree I., Australia; SW and C Pacific.
P. l. caledonica (New Caledonia Petrel) New Caledonia; E Pacific.
Pterodroma cookii Cook’s Petrel 22
Hauraki Gulf and Stewart Is., New Zealand; migrates to NE and central E Pacific.
Pterodroma pycrofti Pycroft’s Petrel 22
N New Zealand islands; migrates to NE and central E Pacific.
Pterodroma brevipes Collared Petrel 24
Islands of SW Pacific.
Pterodroma defilippiana De Filippi’s Petrel (mas a tierra petrel) 22
Islands of E Pacific.
Pterodroma longirostris Stejneger’s Petrel 22
Alejandro Selkirk I. (Mas Afuera), Juan Fernández Is. Range at sea in Pacific poorly known.
Pterodroma atrata Henderson Petrel 16
Henderson Island, central E Pacific.
Pterodroma neglecta Kermadec Petrel 16, 20, 25
P. n. neglecta SW and central Pacific.
P. n. juana Juan Fernández Is. and Desventuradas.
Pterodroma ultima Murphy’s Petrel 16
Tropical Pacific.
Pterodroma solandri Providence Petrel 16
lord howe and phillip i. (norfolk Is); migrates to N Pacific.
e) Procellaria petrels
Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned Petrel 28
Circumpolar southern ocean; breeds in colder waters, moving north in winter.
Procellaria conspicillata Spectacled Petrel 28
sW Atlantic, breeding only on inaccessible i. (tristan da Cunha is.).
Procellaria parkinsoni Parkinson’s Petrel (Black petrel) 29, 30
Little and Great Barrier Is., New Zealand; winters in E tropical Pacific.
Procellaria westlandica Westland Petrel 29
West coast of South Island, New Zealand; migrates E temperate Pacific.
Procellaria cinerea Grey Petrel 29, 32
Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters.
f) Larger shearwaters
Calonectris diomedea Cory’s Shearwater 33
C. d. diomedea (scopoli’s shearwater) mediterranean.
C. d. borealis Subtropical W Atlantic Is. other than Cape Verde; migrant to S Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
Calonectris edwardsii Cape Verde Shearwater 33
Cape Verde Is.
Calonectris leucomelas Streaked Shearwater 33
NW Pacific, migrating to central W Pacific, Indonesia and E tropical Indian Ocean.
Puffinus pacificus Wedge-tailed Shearwater 15, 30, 32
Tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean.
Puffinus bulleri Buller’s Shearwater 32
Warmer waters of Pacific except SE Pacific. Breeds only on Poor Knights I. near New Zealand;
migrates to N Pacific.
Puffinus carneipes Flesh-footed Shearwater 29, 30
Subtropical Indian and SW Pacific Oceans; migrates to N Pacific and NW Indian Oceans.
Puffinus creatopus Pink-footed Shearwater 32
E Pacific; migrates to N Pacific.
Puffinus gravis Great Shearwater 32
Atlantic and indian oceans; breeds only on tristan da Cunha and Gough i. migrates north.
Puffinus griseus Sooty Shearwater 14, 31
Circumpolar in warm and subantarctic waters; migrates north mainly into Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
Puffinus tenuirostris Short-tailed Shearwater 31
Circumpolar in colder waters; breeds only in Tasmania; migrates north into arctic Pacific and Bering Sea.
Puffinus nativitatis Christmas Island Shearwater (Kiritimati shearwater) 30
Tropical and subtropical Pacific.
g) Manx-type shearwaters
Puffinus puffinus Manx Shearwater 35
Atlantic ocean; breeds in cooler n waters and winters in C and sW Atlantic.
Puffinus yelkouan Yelkouan Shearwater 35
Breeds throughout mediterranean except Balearic is., mostly migrating to Black sea.
Puffinus mauretanicus Balearic Shearwater 35
Breeds on Balearic is., dispersing into W Atlantic.
Puffinus opisthomelas Black-vented Shearwater 34
Pacific off Mexico, dispersing NW.
Puffinus gavia Fluttering Shearwater 36
northern new Zealand and tasman sea.
Puffinus huttoni Hutton’s Shearwater 36
Central e new Zealand; migrates to Australia.
P. a. kermadecensis SW Pacific. Kermadec Island.
P. a. haurakiensis SW Pacific. Islands off North Island, New Zealand.
P. a. tunneyi se indian ocean. Amsterdam and st paul is. and W Australia.
Puffinus baroli Macaronesian Shearwater 35, 37
The Azores, Madeira, Canary Is., Desertas and Salvage Is.
Puffinus lherminieri Audubon’s Shearwater 34–37
P. l. lherminieri Bahamas and West indies.
P. l. loyemilleri Caribbean Islands to Venezuela
P. l. boydi Central E Atlantic Ocean. Cape Verde Is.
Puffinus bannermani Bannerman’s Shearwater 37
NW Pacific Ocean. Bonin Is.
Puffinus persicus Arabian Shearwater 37
P. p. persicus Arabian sea.
P. p. temptator Comoros is., nW indian ocean.
Puffinus bailloni Tropical Shearwater 37
P. b. bailloni Central W indian ocean. mascarene is.
P. b. dichrous Tropical S Pacific and Indian Oceans (except Mascarene Is.).
Puffinus subalaris Galápagos Shearwater 34, 37
Galapagos is.
Puffinus newelli Newell’s Shearwater 34
P. n. newelli Central N Pacific Ocean. Main Hawaiian Is.
P. n. myrtae rapa island in the Austral Group (possibly elsewhere in French polynesia).
Puffinus auricularis Townsend’s Shearwater 34
Eastern N Pacific. Clarión, San Benedicto and socorro is., revillagigedo is.
Puffinus heinrothi Heinroth’s Shearwater 30
Central W Pacific, W Solomon Is.
Pelagodroma marina White-faced Storm-petrel 44
P. m. marina s. Atlantic. tristan da Cunha is.
P. m. dulciae sW indian ocean and tasman sea, southern Australia
P. m. eadesi Central W Atlantic. Cape Verde Is.
P. m. hypoleuca Central W Atlantic. salvages is.
P. m. maoriana SW Pacific. new Zealand (other than Kermadec is.).
P. m. albiclunis SW Pacific. Kermadec is.
Fregetta tropica Black-bellied Storm-petrel 41, 45
F. t. tropica Circumpolar subantarctic.
F. t. melanoleuca s Atlantic. tristan da Cunha is.
Fregetta grallaria White-bellied Storm-petrel 41, 45
F. g. grallaria tasman sea.
F. g. leucogaster s Atlantic. tristan da Cunha is.
F. g. segethi SE Pacific, Juan Fernández Is.
F. g. titan Central Pacific. Rapa Is.
Nesofregetta fuliginosa Polynesian Storm-petrel (White-throated storm-petrel) 44
Central S Pacific Ocean.
10
PREFACE
This book covers the 137 currently accepted species of the avian order Procellariiformes, ubiquitous denizens
of the oceans of the world. the common name for the entire group is ‘tubenoses’, a reference to their external
tubular nostrils, which are often very evident on the upper mandible. the order is usually divided further into
four families: the albatrosses, diomedeidae; petrels and shearwaters, the procellariidae; the storm-petrels,
hydrobatidae; and the diving-petrels, pelecanoididae.
the procellariiformes are an ancient group that have been recognisable in the fossil record for more than 35
million years. the order includes some of the world’s commonest birds, such as Wilson’s storm-petrel. Yet the group’s
very existence is scarcely known to the general public, due mainly to the fact that petrels and albatrosses are almost
exclusively marine birds, spending the majority of their lives at sea and only coming to land in order to breed.
Before the 1980s, observation and identification of petrels had been limited mostly to those who lived and
worked at sea, and was hampered by the absence of a good field guide. The landmark publication of Peter
harrison’s Seabirds: an identification guide by Croom helm in 1983 began the ‘rush to sea’. in recent years, the
advent of ‘pelagic’ birdwatching trips and eco-tourism that reaches the poles and the southern oceans has
seen the identification of seabirds become a frontier of birding. Many questions have been answered since the
publication of Harrison’s guide, but a number of identification issues remain unresolved, and there are cases in
this book where we had to admit that separation of a species at sea is extremely difficult or even impossible given
our current knowledge of the group. indeed, even our understanding of what constitutes a species is still in a
state of flux. Bird taxonomy cycles through periods of ‘lumping’ and ‘splitting’ of species. The current trend is
to split, stimulated by enthusiastic use of genetic research, and nowhere is this more apparent than among the
albatrosses; the 14 traditionally accepted species have been split, by some, into as many as 27 separate species.
in this book we have tended to be conservative and have leant toward the adage that if you can’t recognise it at
sea then don’t separate it.
This book is for birders, birdwatchers and others who go to sea and who wish to find and identify the birds
that they see there, whether flying alone through storms, feeding en masse in the sun with dolphins, tuna and
gannets, or paddling around at the back of a boat waiting for a handout. It is aimed mainly at identifying flying
birds and we concentrate on those aspects of plumage, moult, morphometrics and biology that help with this.
For example, we include features such as egg-laying dates to give an indication of the time of year the species
can be found near land, but we omit details of incubation shifts by males and females. At times we have to
discuss plumage in some detail, but we do not go into the meticulous feather-by-feather detail that may enable
identification of birds in the hand. We include descriptions of characteristic flight styles but rarely mention voice.
most petrels are silent during the day at sea except when they congregate in groups; in our experience, voice is
not useful in the separation of any species of albatross or petrel. We recommend that if you wish to find out more
about the lives of albatrosses and petrels you take a look at Warham (1990, 1996) or Brooke (2004).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following people who helped in many ways, by providing such things as accommo-
dation, money, cups of tea, pub lunches, information, photographs, references, permission, discussion, opinions
and encouragement, and for doing so cheerfully and generously: sandy Bartle, Kevin Bartram, sharon Birks,
mike Carter, George Chance, Joanna Cooper, robert prys-Jones, rose delany, euan dunn, david eades, Jim
enticott, dominique Filippi, Brian Gill, Judy Grindell, mike imber, david James, robert Kirk, mary leCroy,
douglas J. long, dick newell, Gary melville, Colin miskelly, Gwenda pulham, tim reid, Chris robertson, ilka
soehle, paul sagar, sav saville, larry spear, Brent stephenson, paul sweet, Graeme taylor, Alan tennyson,
Caz Thomas, Kath Walker, Dick Watling, Eric Woehler, and J. Weick; to all the others we are sure we have
forgotten over the last six years, our apologies.
special thanks to nigel redman and Jim martin at Christopher helm for their help and advice, and for
guiding the book skillfully to publication; thanks also to editors tim harris and John Jackson, and to designer Julie
dando. We would also like to thank the following museums and their staff for allowing us access to their collections
and providing us with space in which to work: the museum of new Zealand te papa tongarewa; Auckland,
Canterbury and otago museums, new Zealand; the natural history museum, tring; the California Academy
of sciences, san Francisco; the American museum of natural history, new York; and Burke museum, seattle.
We would like to point out that many texts in this book do not agree with the ‘conventional wisdom’ and
contradict published identification texts that many birders accept as the ‘truth’. These differences of opinion are
based on many hours of observation at sea and detailed examination of museum specimens. We may be wrong
in some cases and we accept that any inaccuracies here are our own. We would love to hear from anyone (c/o
the publishers) who disagrees with us and welcome a vigorous debate. That is the only way field identification
can progress.
11
TAXONOMY AND THE SPECIES DEBATE
The classification of birds is traditionally based on an assessment of similarities in morphology, with
measurements and plumage being the main considerations, together with additional input from less conveniently
studied aspects, such as behaviour, calls, distribution and even lice. those birds that exhibit the least differences
are deemed to be the most closely related, and with the study of the fossil record conclusions are possible about
their evolutionary history. Before dealing with criticisms of this approach, it should be remembered that for 95%
of the time this gives a reasonably clear idea of what constitutes a species and of the relationships between them,
and for many birders this is quite adequate.
GENETIC RESEARCH
data of a molecular nature, mainly the analysis and comparison of nuclear and mitochondrial dnA, became
commonplace about 15 years ago and have added to the information available from traditional methods. it
should be stressed, however, that these molecular techniques do not mean that a researcher can clip off a bit
of a bird, whether alive, recently dead on the tideline, or long dead in a museum tray, stick it in a machine and
get a printout of the species. the technique essentially involves comparing genetic material, much as traditional
taxonomists compared morphological data, and coming up with a measure of the degree of separation. then,
employing some vigorously debated figures about the rate of molecular evolution, statistical techniques are used
to arrive at a phylogenetic tree. or, to be honest, several trees; the techniques are a long way from being as cut-
and-dried as some biologists would suggest. however, genetic research has unquestionably made valuable contri-
butions to our understanding of seabird phylogeny; we now recognise the importance of convergent evolution
in the group, for example, where birds have evolved similar morphologies and behaviours in response to similar
environmental cues, but do not share a recent common ancestor. it is also possible, using genetic material such
as mitochondrial dnA that mutates at a known rate over the course of millions of years, to quantify the degree
of genetic difference between two samples. This allows us to date with a degree of confidence major events in
the seabird lineage, such as the divergence of the ancestors of modern storm-petrels and albatrosses some 10
million years ago.
Both traditional and molecular techniques come up with measures of the degree of relationship between
the birds in question. traditional taxonomists might arrive at what appears to be a complex array of features
such as bill measurements, foot colour, and timing of moult and breeding, compared with the apparently neat
percentage distances of molecular researchers (e. g. genetic distances within the genus Thalassarche range from
1.66% to 3.15%), but the next step is essentially the same; they have to decide on a degree of difference that will
be used to define genera, species, super- and subspecies, and, indeed, whether they are even going to recognise all
of these categories. At this point, having perhaps plodded through a number of user-unfriendly scientific papers
in order to understand the intricacies of molecular techniques, it would seem quite legitimate for the ordinary
birder to quietly despair or yell out loud in anger – biologists can’t even agree on what a species is!
SPECIES CONCEPTS
there are several opinions as to what constitutes a species. perhaps the simplest in concept, if not in name, is the
phylogenetic species Concept, as summarised by Cracraft (1983). it gives species status to any group of birds
that are morphologically distinguishable. in this scheme of things the pale-faced subantarctic race of Fairy prion
would become a full species, Pachyptila subantarctica, equal in status to the big, dark-billed Broad-billed prion
P. vittata; but for its english name, all trace of the closer relationship with Fairy prion would be lost. thus the
psC conceals a lot of useful information; several authors have tried to deal with this problem and subsequently
added to the confusion.
An alternative approach is the Biological species Concept, as advocated by ernst mayr, which maintains
that ‘species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from one another’.
At first glance, this seems a more sensible point of view as a statement of what everyone understands as a
species; albatrosses are obviously different from storm-petrels. In molecular terminology, there is no gene flow
between the populations. For the majority of cases the BSC works well. It does, however, run into difficulties with
populations that have recently diverged and may still interbreed, or are morphometrically or genetically similar
but have ranges that do not overlap, a frequent occurrence with albatrosses and petrels that nest on isolated
islands. this problem led biologists to expand the BsC into a multidimensional Biological species Concept
(mBsC), which allows the combination of similar populations into polytypic species.
there is a ‘political’ element to this debate. in developed countries, conservation funding has been
forthcoming for endangered species, especially if they can be shown to be endemic. For example, the promotion
of the shy Albatross that breeds in Bass strait to full species status (as White-capped Albatross T. cauta) would
allow the Australian government to fund research and conservation efforts. this is much less likely to happen if
12
the taxon remains a subspecies of Shy Albatross, which also nests in New Zealand. According this taxon specific
status would be an understandable and worthy move given the dearth of conservation funding, but it would not
necessarily reflect well on scientific integrity, nor would it help our understanding of the debate.
it was the adoption of the narrowest psC that led robertson and nunn (1998) to increase the number
of albatross species from 13 to 24, and to happily accept nucleotide distances of less than 1% as indicative
of specific species. Recent workers and reviewers, however, have tended to view the same albatrosses through
fuzzier MBSC glasses, and have rejected any distances of less than 1% as indicative of specific status, ending up
with 13 to 22 species.
Even when there is agreement on the definition of a species, the criteria for raising a group of birds to
species status vary considerably between authors. For example, for many years the Atlantic members of the
genus Calonectris have been lumped together under the name Cory’s shearwater (C. diomedea). this despite the
fact that the birds from the Cape Verdes are obviously a lot smaller, have slimmer, greyish rather than yellow
bills, and breed later and entirely separately from the rest. Most authors now accept that Cape Verde Shearwater
should be raised to species status (C. edwardsii), though Brooke (2004) is not entirely convinced. there are also
differences between those populations of Cory’s shearwater that breed in the mediterranean and those that
breed on the Atlantic islands; those from the mediterranean are smaller on average, with paler underwings and
paler heads. Most authors accept that these populations warrant subspecific status, but only the most enthusiastic
‘splitters’ make a case for full species status. the only genetic work carried out so far on this group is by penhal-
lurick and Wink (2004) and unfortunately they did not include the Cape Verde birds. They interpreted their
results for the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations as not warranting specific status but other workers in the
field have used what appears to be the same or even a lesser degree of genetic difference as evidence to support
such status.
CONCLUSIONS
there is no doubt that genetic work has added new information to the taxonomic debate, but interpretations
of the data still remain a matter of opinion; some have been dogged by poor science, and are far from being
the revolution that enthusiasts have claimed. the debate is not over, but it is also worth remembering that the
taxonomic status of the majority of albatrosses and petrels had remained much the same for 70 years, and those
that have changed have, in most cases, been recognised as different species or as a subspecies for some time.
there have not been that many surprises!
Amidst all this debate we had to make some broad decisions on taxonomy and on which taxonomic sources
to follow – after all, field guides are about identifying birds to species. So for much of this book we have followed
Brooke (2004), only departing substantially when we get to the smaller shearwaters, where we have adopted
many of the recommendations of Austin et al. (2004).
13
THE FOUR FAMILIES: CHARACTERISTICS
AND TAXONOMIC RELATIONSHIPS
A combination of evidence from molecular studies and the fossil record suggests that petrels emerged from a
common ancestor (with penguins and divers) in the mid-eocene, some 40–45 million years ago, and the four
modern families, diomedeidae, procellariidae, hydrobatidae and pelecanoididae, were present 10 million years
later in the Oligocene. Storm-petrels diverged first, then albatrosses, so storm-petrels are thus rather surprisingly
more closely related to the albatrosses than to the petrels, shearwaters or diving-petrels.
ALBATROSSES (DIOMEDEIDAE)
Albatrosses are big, far bigger than all other procellariiforms bar the giant petrels. they weigh between 2 and
9kg and have wingspans of between 1.8 and 3.5m. Unlike the other three families, they have separate nostrils
on either side of the bill.
the long, narrow wings with low wing-loading (low weight-to-wing area ratio) are ideal for extended gliding
flights, and they fly huge distances in search of food. Albatrosses feed by landing on the sea and grabbing prey
at or near the surface, and all but the sooty albatrosses are attracted to fishing boats. Rather than occupying
burrows, they nest on the surface.
Snowy Albatross
separate nostrils
Following molecular studies by nunn et al. (1996) and nunn & stanley (1998), it is now generally accepted
that the albatrosses can be divided into four genera. These are the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), the great
albatrosses (Diomedea), the mollymawks (Thalassarche), and the sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria).
it is also generally agreed that the genus Phoebastria consists of four species, laysan, Waved, short-tailed and
Black-footed Albatrosses, while Phoebetria contains just two, the sooty and light-mantled Albatrosses. however,
the make-up of the other two genera is more contentious. robertson and nunn (1998) suggested increasing
the number of species in Diomedea and Thalassarche from 10 to 18. this scheme was widely adopted despite the
fact that supporting evidence remained unpublished for some time. in this guide we have accepted six species
in Diomedea; snowy, new Zealand, tristan, Amsterdam island and northern and southern royal Albatrosses,
and nine in Thalassarche: Black-browed and the very similar but yellow-eyed Campbell Albatrosses, shy, salvin’s
and Chatham islands Albatrosses, and both indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatrosses. however, we treat
Buller’s Albatross and the darker-headed birds from the Chatham islands as one species. Grey-headed Albatross
remains, as always, as one species.
STORM-PETRELS (HYDROBATIDAE)
storm-petrels are the smallest of all the oceanic birds, weighing from 20g (a third less than a house sparrow)
to just over 100g, with wingspans of 32–56cm. they have relatively short inner wings, a large area of primaries
and a low wing-loading so they can glide well yet remain manoeuvrable. they feed by picking small prey off the
surface of the sea, fluttering and swooping low over the sea, and often pattering their feet upon the surface. Most
breed in natural holes and crevices rather than digging burrows, and all but the Wedge-rumped storm-petrel on
the Galápagos visit their breeding grounds only at night.
1
the family is divided into two subfamilies:
oceanitinae (southern hemisphere), 8 species in 6 genera
Wilson’s storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus)
elliot’s storm-petrel (Oceanites gracilis)
new Zealand storm-petrel (Pealeornis maoriana)
Grey-backed storm-petrel (Garrodia nereis)
White-faced storm-petrel (Pelagodroma marina)
Black-bellied storm-petrel (Fregetta tropica)
White-bellied storm-petrel (Fregetta grallaria)
polynesian storm-petrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa)
Grey-backed Storm-petrel
recent molecular data has supported the retention of all the species and the southern-hemisphere genera, but
more work is required.
DIvING-PETRELS (PELECANOIDIDAE)
A group of four very similar, small, southern-hemisphere species
that in many ways are more like the auks of the northern hemisphere
than the rest of the petrels. they weigh between 100 and 200g,
have two small nostril openings on top of the bill, and have small,
rounded wings with a high wing-loading. They fly directly with
rapid, whirring wings, and feed by diving, propelling themselves
underwater with half-closed wings. Unlike many other petrels they
tend to live and feed near their nesting areas and appear to have
relatively short lifespans. diving-petrels dig burrows or nest in
natural holes and only visit breeding colonies at night.
there are four species in one genus, Pelecanoides. darwin,
amongst others, wondered about their affinities with the auks but
Common Diving-petrel nowadays they are taxonomically uncontroversial.
1
PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS (PROCELLARIIDAE)
Compared with the other three families, the procellariidae are a rather diverse assemblage. the 80 or so species
(there is considerable taxonomic debate) are usually divided into four subfamilies: the fulmarine petrels, the
prions, gadfly petrels and shearwaters.
Fulmarine petrels
the fulmarine petrels are a small but diverse group
ranging in size from the 250g Snow Petrel to the 5kg Northern Giant Petrel
giant petrels, which are smaller only than the larger
albatrosses. Fulmarine petrels exhibit a wide range of
plumages, from the entirely white snow petrel, through
the grey, gull-like fulmars and chequered black-and-
white Cape petrel to the variably brownish giant petrels.
Fulmarine petrels all have prominent nasal tubes on
top of the bill. they feed by landing on the sea and
seizing prey near the surface. Northern Fulmars, Cape
Petrels and giant petrels feed around fishing boats;
uniquely among procellariiforms, giant petrels may feed
on land, scavenging around seabird and seal colonies.
snow petrels nest in crevices, but all the others nest on
the surface or on cliff ledges, and all visit the breeding
grounds by day.
taxonomically, the Antarctic and Cape petrels and
the two fulmars are relatively uncontroversial, although
there is some debate over subspecies of the northern
Fulmar, which exhibits several colour morphs and has
separate populations in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
taxonomic debate continues as to whether the snow
petrel should be split into two species, Greater and
Cape Petrel
lesser, and whether it is more closely related to the
Kerguelen petrel than to the fulmarines. the two giant
petrels are normally recognised as distinct species
Prions
the prions are a distinctive group of small, blue-grey petrels of the cooler southern oceans. they weigh between
90 and 240g. All have distinctive bills with fine filters called lamellae along the edge of the upper mandible, and
a gular pouch. These are used to filter out plankton in the manner of a baleen whale. Prions feed by sitting on
the sea or by flying low over the surface, often using their
feet to bounce off waves not unlike a storm-petrel. At
sea, all but slender-billed and Fulmar prions are often
highly gregarious and can be seen in huge flocks, but
they rarely follow ships or feed around fishing vessels.
prions nest in burrows and crevices. Fulmar prions can
be seen on the breeding grounds during the day but all
Slender-billed Prion
others visit only at night.
most authors accept that Fairy and Fulmar prions
form a separate grouping from the rest but taxonomists
agree about little else. the situation is complex;
morphometric measurements overlap a lot and each
island population of the ‘same species’ is slightly
different, so much so that earlier authors regularly
named prions by the island the specimens came from.
the situation may become clearer when good samples
of genetic and morphometric data are available from
known breeding birds on a wider range of islands, and
more details of breeding biology (notably of hybridi-
sation) are better known. For this book, we recognise
seven species in one genus, Pachyptila, and mention
Broad-billed Prion seven further subspecies.
1
Gadfly petrels
The term gadfly petrel has been used to describe a diverse group of long-
winged, fast flying, medium-to-small, highly pelagic species of temperate
and tropical oceans. All feed on the wing, and they can even catch flying
fish. They also alight on the sea and scavenge or grab prey at or near the
surface. species that breed in the cooler oceans tend to nest in burrows or
crevices and visit their colonies by night, while those in the tropics are more
likely to nest on the surface and be active at the colony during the day.
Gadfly petrels rarely feed around fishing vessels.
We have used the term gadfly petrel to refer solely to species in the
genus Pterodroma but other authors also include the genera Lugensa, Pseudo-
bulweria and Bulweria. the genus Lugensa consists of only one species,
Kerguelen petrel, which, despite being only relatively recently removed
from Pterodroma, appears to be quite distinct and with no obvious close
affinities.
the genus Bulweria has been recognised as distinctive for a fair while
and contains two species, Bulwer’s and Jouanin’s petrels. Both are dark,
long-winged and long-tailed tropical species that have characteristic bills
with less obvious tubular nostrils than the Pterodroma petrels.
like Bulweria, the genus Pseudo-
Tahiti Petrel bulweria occurs in warmer seas, and Bulwer’s Petrel
its species are long-winged and long-
tailed, with deep, heavy bills. the
genus includes four species, Fiji and mascarene petrels, the larger tahiti
petrel, and the very similar but smaller Beck’s petrel.
the genus Pterodroma contains 30–35 species, all of which have relatively
short, strong bills with prominent nasal tubes and a hooked tip. they range
in plumage from entirely dark, through several species that have dark and light phases, to a distinctive group that
are white underneath and pale grey above with a dark m mark across the open wings. the smaller members of
this distinctively marked group are often collectively called the cookilarias.
Great-winged Petrel
Stejneger’s Petrel
Barau’s Petrel
Kermadec Petrel
the pterodromas, especially those from the warmer oceans, are neither well-known nor well-studied, and
several new species have recently been ‘discovered’ rather than promoted purely on the basis of molecular and
taxonomic re-evaluation. these include the henderson petrel, ostensibly a dark form of herald petrel but which
breeds separately from all the light forms on henderson atoll in the pitcairn Group, and a small form of White-
necked Petrel, Vanuatu Petrel, which was described from old museum specimens and a more recent storm-blown
corpse from Australia.
Current taxonomic discussion centres on the long-assumed relationship between the north Atlantic Fea’s
and Zino’s petrels with the southern ocean soft-plumaged petrel (Fea’s actually seems to be more closely related
to Cahow than Soft-plumaged Petrel), and the specific status of the polymorphic Herald/Trindade group that
breeds on widely separated islands in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. We have accepted all the recent
‘splits’ and recognise a total of 35 species in the genus Pterodroma.
1
Brooke (2004) includes the five members of the genus Procellaria among the shearwaters, but although they
possess the ability to dive, their bills are deep and strong with large hooked tips and prominent nasal tubes, more
like the pterodromas. the Procellaria are the largest of the burrowing petrels, ranging in weight from 600–700g
for parkinson’s petrel to 1.5kg for White-chinned petrel.
Shearwaters
the two genera of shearwaters, Calonectris and Puffinus, are small to medium-sized shearwaters with relatively
long, slim bills that have less prominent nostril tubes and shallower hooks on the tips than the pterodromas.
the smallest shearwaters weigh 150g and the largest more than 1kg, with many species being in the 300–400g
range. All dive for food to some extent; Cory’s shearwater rarely reaches 5m under the surface, but sooty and
short-tailed shearwaters are capable of depths of 70m and swim well underwater, propelling themselves on
half-open wings. those that dive well, especially the smaller Puffinus species, have compressed, water-resistant
plumage, narrower, more streamlined bodies, flattened tarsi, and short, narrow wings with stiffer, stronger
primaries. these adaptations all facilitate swimming and chasing prey underwater. the larger species, especially
Wedge-tailed and Buller’s shearwaters and those in the genus Calonectris, have broader wings and longer tails, are
much more manoeuvrable, and take much of their food on the wing or by shallow plunge-diving. many of the
shearwaters feed around fishing boats. Shearwaters that breed in temperate areas dig burrows and visit colonies
by night, but a few in the tropics nest on the surface and are present at colonies by day.
Streaked Shearwater
Fluttering Shearwater
Flesh-footed Shearwater
A version of the smaller, manx-like, brown or black-and-white Puffinus shearwater occurs throughout the
world’s temperate and tropical oceans, nesting on many oceanic islands and archipelagos and on islands on
continental shelves. they have provided taxonomists with many hours of amusement, caused much constructive
discussion and bitter controversy, and even generated a little in the way of research funds. one set of labels on
a brownish, rather faded and admittedly intermediate looking specimen (in a well-known museum that should
perhaps remain nameless) had no fewer than seven pencilled amendments culminating in ‘atrodorsalis?’.
once everyone, more or less, agreed that there was a relatively easy-to-identify manx-type group of species,
discussion moved on to centre around what became known as the little/
Audubon’s shearwater complex. the ‘little’ end of the spectrum was
characterised by black upperparts, a short tail, white undertail, smallish Westland Petrel
bill and steep forehead; the ‘Audubon’s’ end by brown upperparts, long tail,
dark undertail, biggish bill and sloped forehead. it was the intermediates,
notably from the Atlantic islands, plus poorly studied representatives from
far-flung Pacific and Indian Ocean islands, distant from the centres of
taxonomic debate in europe and the UsA, that caused the controversy.
recent molecular studies, especially those by Austin et al. (2004), suggest
that this emphasis on the characters differentiating little from Audubon’s
was misleading, as were many of the island species and subspecies, and
that the group was better looked upon as three biogeographic groups
– from the north Atlantic, southern oceans including Australasia, and
the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans respectively. Intriguingly, one of
the consequences of this research is that little shearwater characteristics
(black upperparts, short tail etc.) appear to have evolved separately and
convergently in the northern and southern hemispheres, and are not an
indication of a close relationship.
1
The Little/Audubon group. Left – Little characteristics; centre – intermediate; right – Audubon’s. Genetic studies have shown
that these morphometric characteristics do not truly reflect specific status.
We agree with many of Austin et al.’s (2004) recommendations; see the main text for details. We have decided
to include a total of 10 species from the former little/Audubon’s shearwater complex. together with the manx-
type group this makes 16 smaller Puffinus shearwaters, and 28 species of shearwaters in total (three in Calonectris
and the rest in Puffinus).
IDENTIFICATION
Away from their breeding grounds, from the shore or at sea, the usual view of an albatross or petrel is fleeting
and in flight. Things get a little easier if members of the species are attracted to ships, and an outing on a fishing
boat or, even better, a pelagic birding trip will bring many species in close enough to allow excellent views of
birds in flight and on the water. This is especially true of many of the albatrosses and a fair number of the
shearwaters, but many of the storm-petrels and gadfly petrels, especially those from warmer seas, are rarely
attracted to ships and remain elusive. in the main text we mention those species that are attracted to boats and
to ‘chum’, that enticing concoction of oily, smelly, fishy stuff thrown off the back of boats by pelagic birders to
attract seabirds close enough to allow identification.
In this guide we concentrate on the identification of birds in flight. This section deals with some of the
problems and pitfalls associated with assessing a bird at sea. Identification of many albatrosses and petrels is not
easy and there is no simple substitute for comparative experience. the best observers often identify a bird by
jizz, a term birders use to describe the general impression created by a bird’s outstanding features, shape and
relative proportions. it can be looked upon as the ‘arty’ side of birding. it is the aspect of a bird that allows an
experienced birder to identify a species from a brief glance out of the corner of their eye without quite knowing
how they do it. Equally, it allows the less scrupulous to mumble ‘jizz’ and claim an identification based on the
most fleeting of glimpses and on the slightest of pretexts.
1
a picture of a flying albatross and you can see that the near wing is narrower and smaller than the far wing
– not a natural state of affairs. Add to these difficulties all those related to weather and lighting (see below
under Conditions) plus a camera’s shortcomings in faithfully reproducing colour and contrast, and those single
photographs can result in many hours of entertaining yet often fruitless debate.
the immediate reaction of seabird experts to mystery photos these days is to ask for more information. how
big was it? What was its underwing, upperparts, rump like? How did it fly? Almost inevitably the information is
not forthcoming and here we would like to make a plea. please, please take the time to observe the birds and take
notes as well as looking through a camera lens. A few more seconds of observation of that mystery Pterodroma you
photographed and you would have known whether it had a white rump, if that really was a pale nape or whether
it was just a bright patch of light contrasting with the dark underwing shadow. photographs are helpful but they
cannot stand alone and require good observation and documentation if they are to be really useful.
CONDITIONS
Weather, lighting and sea conditions can alter the appearance of a bird. For example, in dull and rainy weather
many seabirds will look dark against the sea and sky, even when your binoculars are not misted up. Bright sun
increases the contrast between lighter and darker areas, shadows can appear as dark plumage features, and
sunlight glinting on dark feathers, especially worn ones, can make them appear very pale. in bright sunny
conditions, light reflecting off the surface of the sea can make all underparts look pale; this can make things
especially difficult when trying to see the pattern on the underwing of a Pterodroma petrel. the diagnostic dark
bars on the mainly white underwing of cookilaria petrels can be lost in a white glare and the subtle pale patches
on the base of the primaries of murphy’s petrel can look almost as white as those on herald petrel. the direction
of the light is also important. Back-lit birds will look darker, plumage details will be obscured, yet light may shine
through spread wing- and tail-feathers
and make them appear paler than
Cook’s Petrel
they actually are. light from the side
or from behind the observer is usually
best, but it can also wash out details
and make everything look pale.
Wind strength can dramatically
alter the way a species flies, and
diagnostic flight patterns may no
longer apply. For example, in high
winds the characteristic low, fluttering
flight of the smaller shearwaters can
turn into speedy, wheeling arcs, more Murphy’s Petrel
like the typical flight of a Pterodroma;
in calm conditions, a Kermadec
Petrel can fly with strong wingbeats The same Cook’s Petrel, back-lit on the left, lit from the side on the right. Murphy’s
not unlike a skua. Petrel with light reflecting off the sea.
SIzE
The Procellariiformes are quoted as having the greatest range in size of any avian order. The smallest species,
least storm-petrel, weighs a mere 28–34g and has a 32-cm wingspan, while the largest, snowy Albatross, weighs
11kg and has a wingspan of up to 3.6m. thus the largest is 25 times greater in wingspan and 274 times heavier
than the smallest.
despite this, and due to a lack of landmarks on the ocean surface, judging the distance an object is from a ship
at sea is fraught with difficulty. Because of this, among many other reasons (not least of which is seasickness), even
the most experienced of observers may have difficulty estimating the size of a bird at sea. If at all possible, the best
thing to do is to compare an unknown bird to another identifiable species visible at the same time. Experienced
observers often get an idea of size by a feeling for the flight style of a bird. Albatrosses, for example, wheel slowly
above the horizon on motionless wings, while smaller species appear suddenly and disappear just as swiftly.
Size often varies a lot within a species. Males are often considerably larger than females, and in the few
species where size is a useful identification feature this can lead to errors. For example, exercise caution when
using size to differentiate the wandering and royal albatross species and the black Procellaria petrels, as there is
considerable interspecific overlap and intraspecific variation. Often it is the proportions, such as bill length,
robustness of head, or overall length, that are more useful than length or wingspan alone. Size is often one of
the first things inexperienced observers try to assess, but it is usually better to concentrate first on the plumage
features, style of flight and proportions – almost anything else, in fact, apart from size – if you are to make the
most of a fleeting encounter.
20
PLUMAGE
Plumage variation, phases and morphs
twenty or so of the petrel and
albatross species regularly show some
from of plumage variation that can
be easily seen in the field, but only
half of these are usually considered
to have distinct phases or morphs.
those that show a wide range of
plumages from light to dark with a
full range of intermediates include
one fulmarine petrel, the northern
Fulmar; four gadfly petrels, the
herald, trindade, Kermadec and
Collared petrels; one shearwater,
Wedge-tailed shearwater; and two
storm-petrels, White-bellied and
polynesian. examples of lesser
degrees of variation include the Wedge-tailed Shearwater; light, intermediate and dark morphs.
southern Giant petrel which has a
relatively common white phase, all other variation in the dark phase being age-related. the soft-plumaged
petrel has a very rare dark phase and there are a few intermediates in museum collections, but there have been
no recent records of such birds at sea. museum specimens of Atlantic petrel also show a surprisingly wide range
of plumages, including almost entirely dark birds but, as with soft-plumaged petrel, these are rarely recorded
at sea nowadays. Both may be cases of selective collecting resulting in an over-representation of unusual birds
in collections; alternatively, the specimens may have been taken from more variable populations that are now
extinct. elliot’s storm-petrel comes in dark and lighter-bellied forms, but these are geographically separated and
are usually regarded as subspecies, while the Pacific forms of Leach’s Storm-petrel show a cline of increasingly
dark-rumped birds, correlated with the distance south that they breed along the American coast.
From an identification point of view it is always necessary to be aware of the wide range of plumages among
these variable species, but in only a few cases does identification become difficult or impossible. The dark phases
of White-bellied, polynesian and leach’s storm-petrels have to be remembered when trying to sort out an
all-dark storm-petrel, but range and jizz coupled with a fair amount of experience should allow identification.
on the other hand, some intermediate phases of Collared petrel may not be distinguishable from Gould’s petrel;
similarly, the henderson petrel does not appear to be distinguishable at sea from the dark phases of herald and
trindade petrels.
21
difficult to distinguish between the two species but there are no difficult identification consequences, except
that a wholly dark juvenile giant petrel may at first glance be confused with a variety of other dark petrels and
albatrosses. Size and the distinctive giant petrel shape should soon distinguish them.
immature or darker
adult Northern
adult Grey-headed Giant Petrel
Albatross
juvenile
Northern Giant Petrel
immature
Grey-headed Albatross
Adult and young mollymawks, such as Grey-headed Albatross, have similar plumages.
Giant petrels have a range of plumages, like the great albatrosses.
other petrels exhibit only minor differences between juveniles and adults. Juveniles of several species of dark
shearwater and storm-petrel tend to have small white tips and narrow fringes to the feathers, especially of the
upperparts. Juvenile Pterodroma petrels tend to have broader, paler fringes to feathers; cookilarias especially can
look very pale, as can young prions. In general, juvenile plumage does not cause many identification difficulties
at species level although the recent discovery that juvenile hutton’s shearwaters have a paler underwing that
approaches that of the sympatric Fluttering shearwater suggests that further study may be warranted.
Juvenile Little Shearwater with white tips to coverts; pale juvenile Cook’s Petrel; juvenile Fairy Prion.
22
(A) Dark feathers become browner and paler most dark feathers fresh
are bleached by sunlight and abrasion and can even result in unusual pale
patches and panels, especially on the upperwings. these rarely cause many
identification problems but less extreme bleaching could make it difficult to
worn
separate the blacker upperparts of tropical shearwater from the browner
tones of Arabian shearwater, for example.
(B) Pale or white feather tips wear off in juvenile or fresh plumage
several of the shearwaters and storm-petrels have narrow white fringes or
tips to the dark feathers of the upperparts. in the case of shearwaters this (A)
rarely causes any identification problems but in storm-petrels, especially
those where identification relies on the extent and distinctness of the pale
Fluttering Shearwater
crescentic upper wingbar, this could cause confusion.
Some of the greyer or paler phases of gadfly petrels can have broad
fresh pale fringes to upperpart feathers in fresh plumage, and this can make
birds appear very pale. Where identification includes assessment of subtle
differences in colour and tone, as for example in the cookilaria group, these
pale, often juvenile, birds can cause problems.
worn
Relying on narrow fringes to any feathers for identification is not
recommended and can be misleading. For example, differences in the extent
of white feathers on the scapulars can be diagnostic in diving-petrels; even
the peruvian species with the most extensive white markings can lose them
(B) completely with wear.
(C) Grey feathers become darker and browner the pale grey
feathers of many Pterodroma petrels become darker and browner with wear.
the upperwing is especially likely to become dark and the diagnostic m
mark across the open wing is often obscured, or disappears completely.
Peruvian Diving-petrel Back and head feathers can take on a scalloped appearance and can cause
identification problems, especially amongst such similar species as the small
cookilaria petrels. The effect of wear can vary between individuals and flocks of the same species may show a
wide variety of plumages.
worn
Cook’s Petrel
worn
Atlantic Petrel
(C) (D) (E) fresh
worn
(D) Dark feather tips wear off to reveal pale bases to feathers many petrels have white or pale bases
to dark feathers, but in most species it is only in extreme cases of plumage wear that they are revealed as pale
patches. A few species, such as the Antarctic petrel and the dark, immature wandering albatrosses regularly
become pale and patchy due to this form of abrasion, but in only a few species, such as the odd pale-chinned
Atlantic Petrel, is it likely to cause identification problems.
(E) Greyish or silvery sheen on fresh dark plumage wears away in fresh plumage many pterodromas have
a greyish or silvery sheen on the feathers, especially on the back, rump and scapulars. At sea these can appear pale
and can contrast with darker feathers, resulting, for example, in a more obvious m mark across the upper wing. the
sheen disappears with wear and the plumage may become browner with the m marking less distinctive.
23
MOULT
We have attempted to summarise published information. moult data for many petrels is lacking, yet in many
cases detailed study of the moult of individuals of difficult-to-identify species may be helpful in separating them,
especially when they are in wing moult at different times of the year. We believe that body moult is far more
prevalent than most authors suggest, and many species begin body moult whilst breeding. in many cases the state
of moult, and especially body moult, can be used to separate adult from immature birds, and subsequently assist
with identification. In most species body moult, apart from occasionally resulting in a rather scruffy, mottled
appearance, rarely causes identification problems.
the speed with which wing and tail feathers are moulted varies between species. Generally speaking, those
that rely on flight to search for food replace their feathers more slowly than those that dive for food. Thus
albatrosses replace flight feathers in groups; up to five generations of flight feathers can be identified along the
wings of a wandering albatross.
An immature Black-browed
Albatross with old, worn
outer primaries will be
36–47 months old. Southern Giant Petrels in wing moult.
several of the mollymawks can be aged by close examination of old and new feathers. in some cases,
immature Grey-headed and Black-browed Albatrosses, for example, the distribution of new and old feathers in
the wing can aid identification.
Giant petrels have such an extended moult of flight feathers that it can sometimes be difficult to see a bird
with a complete set of wing feathers. At the other extreme, diving-petrels lose and replace almost all their wing
and tail feathers within a few weeks.
Pterodroma petrels like soft-plumaged petrel, and the broader-winged shearwaters like Cory’s, can have
substantial gaps in their wings yet still fly, whereas the fulmarine Antarctic Petrel can look distinctly pale and
scruffy and can be seen sitting around in flocks on the ice while moulting.
Soft-plumaged Petrel
Antarctic Petrel
Elliot’s Storm-petrel
Cory’s Shearwater
The effects of moult on plumage.
From the point of view of identification, petrels in wing moult can cause confusion at first glance because
they fly somewhat differently or look a different shape to normal.
2
those species that lose their feathers quickly can Moulting Jouanin’s Petrel with
often show pale panels, especially on the upperwing pale crescent on upperwing
like Bulwer’s Petrel.
where absent feathers have revealed pale bases or
quills in adjacent feather tracts. the resulting pattern
can be unfamiliar and a bird with areas of worn and
new feathers and active wing and tail moult can look
very odd at first glance. White-faced
however, as with mollymawks, the presence of Storm-petrel
in moult.
wing moult is more likely to assist than hinder identi-
fication, since several similar-looking species moult at
different times of the year. For example, separating
the all-dark Westland petrel from parkinson’s and
White-chinned petrels is quick and easy if the birds
are in wing moult.
CONSERvATION
in terms of extinctions, the petrels and albatrosses appear to have fared relatively well in the 10,000 or so years
since the last Ice Age. Studies of subfossil remains suggest that only around half a dozen or so have become
extinct in that time; five shearwaters from the Canaries, St Helena and New Zealand, and a gadfly petrel
from hawaii. in historical times only the Guadalupe storm-petrel has apparently become extinct (though the
Jamaican Petrel is either extinct or very nearly so); given that storm-petrels are notoriously difficult to find and
the potential breeding habitat is rugged and tropical, the Guadalupe storm-petrel may well ‘return’ like the
recently rediscovered new Zealand storm-petrel. Compare this record with the extinction of 30–40 species of
land birds since the arrival of polynesian peoples in new Zealand alone, plus a further nine species since the
colonisation of the islands by europeans, and the petrels look to be survivors.
Brooke (2004) gives the conservation status for 125 species of petrel and albatross based on the series of
iUCn categories that assess the level of threat of extinction. Five categories range from ‘least concern’, which
suggests everything is generally alright at the moment, to ‘critical’, which indicates imminent extinction (a
category that interestingly includes Guadalupe storm-petrel). the criteria for these categories are complex and
consist of considerably more than an estimate of numbers. For example, Black-browed Albatross is one of the
commonest albatrosses with an estimated three million breeding pairs, yet it is classified as endangered because
studies have shown declines of up to 17% over the last two decades, a level that will inevitably lead to extinction
if not halted. table 1 below summarises the criteria for the three main categories of concern. Brooke uses two
additional categories; ‘near threatened’, which is defined as those species that are close to qualifying for the
threatened categories, and ‘data deficient’ which hopefully is self-explanatory, but unfortunately includes some
of the more interesting species like Hornby’s Storm-petrel that occur in less accessible and less affluent parts of
the world.
Small population declining <250 mature individuals <2,500 mature individuals <10,000 mature individuals
Very small population <50 mature individuals <250 mature individuals <1,000 mature individuals
2
Pseudobulweria
Diving-petrels
Storm-petrels
Shearwaters
Albatrosses
IUCN
Pterodroma
Bulweria &
Procellaria
Fulmarine
Total %
CATEGORY
petrels
Prions
Critical 2 5 3 1 1 1 13 10
Endangered 7 6 1 14 11
Vulnerable 10 1 10 3 5 1 1 31 25
Near Threatened 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 12 10
Least Concern 6 6 9 1 13 3 13 51 41
Data Deficient 4 4 3
Table 2. Conservation status of main groups of petrels and albatrosses (based on taxonomy of Brooke, 2004).
A quick glance at the summary of the conservation status of petrels and albatrosses (table 2) shows that
far from being survivors, almost half are in trouble, and one in ten species are threatened with extinction in the
near future if nothing is done. some groups seem to be faring better than others, though only one, the prions,
seem to be doing well. on the other hand, 18 of the 20 albatross species are in the ‘vulnerable’, ‘endangered’
or ‘critical’ categories, and the other two are approaching the same status. Pterodroma petrels also seem partic-
ularly susceptible with two-thirds in the threatened categories. shearwaters and storm-petrels appear to be of
intermediate concern, but there is little data for several species. What has brought these birds to this perilous
state?
2
with rat holes in the side of the nest, cattle and sheep grazing in the background and a pile of cat scats in the
foreground.
many of the settlements on the smaller, more remote islands in the colder seas were abandoned by the
depression of the 1920s but the rotting wharves and ships of the whalers remained, as did the cattle, sheep,
rats and cats. On larger islands like New Zealand and in warmer tropical seas, settlements flourished and the
remaining seabirds were further threatened by introduced predators. mustelids, for example, were brought into
new Zealand to deal with the rabbit plague; they promptly turned to native birds. mongooses behaved similarly
in the Pacific. More recently on the more “developed” islands like Hawaii, the few remaining petrels now have
to deal with the consequences of affluence, urban expansion, roads, and lights that attract rare, newly fledged
chicks at night. By the 20th century a safe, predator-free, island nesting site was very much the exception rather
than the rule.
PROBLEMS AT SEA
Compared with the land, the sea has, until quite recently, been a relatively safe and predator-free environment
for an albatross or petrel. smaller species may be caught and eaten by gulls, skuas or the occasional roving
falcon, and, judging by the loss of feet, perhaps predatory fish, and they also come off badly in encounters with
larger species when competing for food. notwithstanding the occasional use of seabirds as bait and the small
numbers of birds that were trapped in nets and drowned, the rise of commercial fisheries in the 19th century
was beneficial for several species of seabird. Not only did fishermen clean and gut their catch at sea and toss
the offal overboard, the large nets and lines also caught huge amounts of unwanted, unsaleable by-catch, which
added to the fast-food supply for those seabirds that learnt to follow fishing boats. The well-documented spread
of the Northern Fulmar through the North Atlantic in the first half of the 20th century has been attributed to
the increase of food available from the fishing fleet, and it is clear that many seabirds, including some relatively
‘rare’ species like Westland and spectacled petrels and shy Albatross, obtain at least some of their food from
around fishing vessels.
it was not until the late 1970s and 1980s, when the combination of an increase in the worldwide demand for
fish and the demise of traditional fishing grounds due to overfishing led to the adoption of large, industrial-scale
fishing techniques, that seabirds began to be caught in numbers that affected their ability to survive. The first of
these new techniques was drift nets, huge ones – and lots of them. Greenpeace estimated that about 50,000km2
of net were set each night in the North Pacific in the 1980s, and the number of birds caught was probably of
the order of half a million per year, the estimate for 1992. drift netting in the open oceans ceased in 1992 but
it was replaced by long-lining; this has become a serious threat to the survival of many seabirds, particularly
albatrosses.
LONG-LINING
Long-lining is mainly used to catch tuna, swordfish and Patagonian Toothfish. It involves setting thousands
of baited hooks on lines up to 130km long. An estimated one billion hooks are set annually. Albatrosses and
petrels grab the baited hooks as the lines are set or retrieved, become hooked and drown. tens of thousands
of seabirds are killed in the southern ocean every year and in the new Zealand region alone approximately
65,000 albatrosses and petrels have been killed in the last 20 years. 6,000 deaths per year are estimated in
Argentine waters, mostly Black-browed Albatross and White-chinned petrel. All the species of albatross have
been recorded as killed by long-lines, and other species regularly caught include giant petrels, White-chinned,
Grey and spectacled petrel, Cape petrel and sooty shearwater. there is now some international agreement on
measures to prevent this slaughter but illegal fishing vessels, which are estimated to make up about one third of
the world’s fishing fleet, do not abide by these rules, nor by those aimed at making the fisheries more sustainable.
An estimate of the seabird by-catch from pirate fishing in the four years before 2000 was between 105,900
and 257,000 birds, a horrifying figure that includes 21,900–68,300 albatrosses, 5,000–11,000 giant petrels and
79,000–178,000 White-chinned Petrels. Some more recent estimates suggest illegal fishing accounts for up to 10
times more deaths than licensed vessels.
With long-lived, slow-breeding birds like albatrosses, it does not take much of an increase in adult mortality
to cause a slow decline in numbers that eventually ends in extinction. on Bird island, Croxall et al. (1990) found
that the annual adult survivorship for Wandering Albatrosses need only fall 3%, from 96% to 93%, for a decline
to extinction to start. the death of as few as a couple of hundred albatrosses is all it takes to send some island
populations into decline. similar predictions have been made for Grey petrel and several of the mollymawks,
where imbalances in the sex ratios due to differential mortality of males and females on long-lines have also
contributed to the declines. in addition, there is evidence of a substantial reduction in the rate of recruitment
of young birds into breeding populations. For example, the rate for Grey-headed Albatrosses fell from 36% per
year in the 1960s to 5% in the 1980s.
2
OTHER THREATS
In addition to long-lining, fishermen also threaten albatross and petrel populations through overfishing, both
directly by taking vast amounts of the birds’ prey species, and indirectly by taking species at the top (seals,
whales, tuna) or near the bottom (small fish and squid) of the food web. Albatrosses and petrels have also suffered
from other indirect effects of human activity. organochlorines have been implicated in eggshell thinning in
Black-footed Albatrosses, while plastic debris has been found in the stomachs of prions, Antarctic petrels and
even laysan Albatross chicks, but bigger problems are likely to arise with the effects of global warming on
sea level, the ocean currents and ecosystems. opinions differ as to the scale of the consequences of warming,
and predicting the effects on seabirds is complex. At the simpler end of the scale a rise in sea level is going to
submerge seabird breeding sites on low atolls in tropical waters, but more serious effects are likely to arise from
changes in ocean temperature, water circulation and plankton production. For example, an increase of 0.50C
in the temperature of the California Current has led to a 70% reduction in plankton biomass. similarly, a 20C
warming of the north sea in the last 20 years has led to a dramatic change in the plankton fauna, the likely
cause of a dearth of sandeels and an almost complete failure of seabird breeding in the area over a number of
years since 2000.
2
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
Caption text
this gives key features as shown on the illustrations. each species on a plate is given a number (1–4, for example)
and then further divided up by letters. the combination of numbers and letters corresponds with those on the
plate opposite.
these are wingspan (WS) and total length (TL), given similar size and shape. All are grey above with a dark M marking across the open wing and white below with
a variety of dark markings on the underwing. several other species have similar patterns on the upperparts:
White-necked, Juan Fernandez, Galápagos, Hawaiian, Barau’s and Vanuatu are large, long-winged versions;
in centimetres. For a wider range of sizes see the main soft-plumaged, Fea’s, Zino’s and White-headed petrels have dark underwings, and mottled has a dark belly
patch. Prions and Blue Petrel have white underwings and fly very differently.
Cookilarias are not easy to tell apart. Identification depends on good views of the pattern on the underwings
systematic text. and small differences in head and tail patterns. With a lot of experience subtle differences in shape and flight
may help. Published identification criteria have not always taken into account changes in plumage due to age
and wear. in general, young and newly moulted birds have pale upperparts and the dark m is distinct (e.g.
22:1e). Birds in worn plumage are often darker or patchier (22:2c) and the upperwings can become very dark,
obscuring the m shape (23:1b). other problems include individual variation (22:4bc), the effect of light or
the page number refers to the entry for this species in viewing conditions (22:1b and 23:5a) and the fact that some plumages and species are poorly known, e.g. de
Filippi’s, Collared and Gould’s.
the systematic text. 1. Cook’s Petrel Pterodroma cookii WS 66cm TL 30cm See p.166
long-winged and short-tailed with long, relatively thin bill. see also plate 23:5.
1a Underparts At all ages underwing white with narrow black trailing edge and tip and small black ‘tick’
mark at carpal;. crown and nape pale grey, not extending downwards as collar; small black eye-patch.
1b
Note that it is difficult or impossible to separate juvenile,
Underparts, bright light At all ages cap can look quite dark; outer tail feathers white.
1c Adult fresh plumage, upperparts head same pale grey as back; m mark conspicuous; dark tip to tail.
1d Adult worn plumage, upperparts head darker than back; wings darker and m less obvious.
immature and adult plumages for most procellariiform 1e Juvenile fresh plumage, upperparts Very pale with white fringes to feathers of upperparts.
species. therefore, the majority of plumages are relatively short-winged and long-tailed with rather small bill.
2a Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s
simply labelled ‘underparts’ or ‘upperparts’. Where and slightly larger ‘tick’ mark; crown and nape grey, extending down onto side of breast as short collar;
eye-patch black.
2b Fresh plumage upperparts medium-grey with head, on average, slightly darker than back; dark tip to tail.
ageing is possible, the label is preceded by an indication 2c Worn plumage upperparts Upperwings almost entirely dark with little trace of dark m; head darker
than back.
of the age of the individual in the illustration. other 3. De Filippi’s Petrel Pterodroma defilippiana WS 66cm TL 29cm See p.169
Relatively short-winged with long, quite broad tail. Fairly easily identified by lack of dark tip to tail.
information, such as sex, state of moult or plumage 3a Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s
and larger ‘tick’ mark at carpal. dark eye-patch joins to dark grey crown and is separated from partial grey
a Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s
and larger ‘tick’ mark at carpal; crown and nape very dark with small dark grey partial collar separated from
the caption text contains a number of cross- eye-patch by white crescent on ear-coverts.
b-c Underparts, moulting Underwing varies from as light as Cook’s (22:1b) to almost as dark as Gould’s
(24:1e); shape of collar and dark hood also variable.
references, allowing the reader swift access to possible d Fresh plumage, upperparts Crown and nape much darker than back; broad, dark tip to tail; dark
m obvious.
e Worn plumage, upperparts much darker with less contrast between head and back and less
confusion species. these are in the format of plate: conspicuous m.
on plate 24.
Systematic text
these accounts are set out as follows:
Name With a few exceptions the scientific names follow those used by Brooke (2004). For English names we give
the most commonly used versions; we have not followed any particular authority.
Other names We only include alternative english names that are currently in common use. We have made no
attempt to trawl back through the literature to find obscure or apocryphal names.
Taxonomy in many cases our approach to the taxonomy is outlined in the introduction to each group. We have
generally followed the taxonomy of Brooke (2004) who uses an up-to-date, rational and reasonably conservative
approach. The most significant deviation from this is in the Audubon’s/Little Shearwater group, which has
recently been revised by Austin et al. (2004).
Distribution Where possible, all known breeding grounds of each species are mentioned. in some widespread
species a complete list is not possible; in these cases a summary of distribution is given. An indication of egg-
laying dates is given to indicate the period during which it is most likely that breeding birds will be near the
breeding grounds. dispersal and migration are also described.
Behaviour This includes foraging behaviours, flight patterns and flight characteristics (where possible in both
high and low winds), and whether or not the species is attracted to fishing boats and ‘chum’, the concoction of
smelly fish guts thrown overboard by pelagic birders to attract seabirds close enough to allow identification.
Jizz this is a term birders use to describe the general impression created by a bird’s outstanding features, shape
and relative proportions etc. We have tried to be objective and, for example, base our description “long-winged”
on ratios of wing to tail, and our use of the adjective “stocky” on the ratio of weight to body length.
2
orange shading
indicates breeding Green shading is
range, covering all range at sea.
main breeding islands.
Lastly, we would like to say that this book is no way the final word on seabird identification but is intended to
promote open discussion and an exchange of information, preferably of a friendly and enthusiastic nature over
cups of tea or a beer or two. We hope you will take this book into the field, write all over it, redraw the pictures,
stick in extra sketches and contribute to a better edition in ten years time. And if you prefer to treat your books
with a little more reverence, then maybe you can buy another copy for your bookshelf.
30
SEABIRD TOPOGRAPHY
forehead
nostrils
primary coverts
primaries upper mandible
carpal
secondaries
lores
lower mandible
secondary-coverts sulcus
axillaries or armpit
undertail-coverts
breast
vent
flanks belly
back or mantle
nape uppertail-coverts
crown rump
tail
ear-coverts
scapulars
carpal
forehead humerals
naricorn
secondaries
nostril
maxillary unguis
primaries
primary coverts
chin
ramicorn throat
latericorn
mandibular unguis
31
Plate 1: Great albatrosses of the southern oceans
Huge birds with very long, narrow wings and massive pale bills. Even the smallest are larger than all other
albatrosses, with wingspans of 2.5–3.5m and bodies over 1m long. Flight is an impressive soaring glide with an
occasional slow flap of the wings. In strong winds the wings are held arched well downwards and the wing-tips are
angled back. As a group they are easily distinguished by size, shape and flight from all the smaller albatrosses but
they are far from easy to tell apart unless details of the bill can be seen well.
32
1c
1a
1b
2a 1d
2b
2c
3c
3a 3b
3d
Plate 2: Wandering albatross grouP
13 Adult male Snowy, head Bill entirely pink. Head white but close up some can be seen to still retain thin
dark vermiculations on neck and upper breast.
14 Darker adult New Zealand, head Some young and darker-plumaged New Zealand, Tristan and
possibly Snowy can have darker tips to pink bills that are likely to cause confusion with Amsterdam Island
Albatross.
34
1 14
2 3
7
5
9
8
6
12
11
10
13
Plate 3: royal albatrosses
A royal albatross with white on the upperwing is a Southern. Newly fledged juveniles of both species look very
similar, but Northerns tend to have more dark markings on head, back and tail. However, there is much variation
and they are inseparable in the field. Immature Southerns (2c) can have black upperwings like adult Northerns
(1a); they are impossible to tell apart at a distance and even close up can be difficult. Birds with dark spots on crown
or dark feathers in tail are likely to be Northerns. The scapulars and base of the upperwing tend to look scruffier
on Southerns (2c) with more vermiculations than Northerns (1a). Birds with entirely white bodies, heads and tails
and dark upperwings can be of either species, but with practice size may help. Southern Royals are larger than
Northerns: bills 17.3cm (16.5–19.0cm) and 16.4cm (15.4–17.2cm), wing length 68.5cm (64.7–70.7cm) and 63.8cm
(61.4–66.0cm), respectively. Note, however, that there is considerable variation within a species as well. The extent
of the dark border on the leading edge of the underwing from carpal to primaries (2b) has been used to separate
the two species. Northerns, it is suggested, have bigger dark margins. This feature appears, however, to be related
to age and sex. This means that immature Southerns (2c), especially females, the very birds with dark upperwings
you would want to distinguish from Northerns (1a), may have wide margins as well. A few hybrids nest at Taiaroa
Head, New Zealand. They are indistinguishable from Northerns.
For separation of royals from the many wandering-type albatrosses with similar plumage, see main text on
pp.128–129.
36
1b
1a
1c
2d
2b
2c 2a
Plate 4: albatrosses of the north PacIfIc
38
1d
1f
1a
1c
1b
1e
2b 2d
2a
2c
2e 1g
2f
Plate 5: albatrosses of the north and troPIcal PacIfIc
40
1a
1b
2a
2c
2b
Plate 6: MedIuM-sIZed albatrosses of the southern oceans
A group of three similar albatrosses, often called mollymawks, smaller than wandering-type albatrosses but noticeably
larger than Black-browed Albatross. As a group they can be separated from the much larger royal and wandering-type
groups by dark back and by shape, especially broader, shorter wings and smaller bill. They are larger and longer-
winged than the other Thalassarche mollymawks and their white underwings have a very narrow black border.
Adults are relatively easy to separate. Shy has a white head with barely noticeable pale grey wash on cheeks and
pale bill. Salvin’s has a pale grey head and pale bill with dark tip. Chatham has a dark grey head and yellowish bill
with dark tip. Birds of any age with pale bases to the primaries on the underwing will be Shy but note that others,
especially Salvin’s, can show a trace of white, and birds with very worn, faded, brownish feathers can be a problem.
Assessment of this feature needs good views and comparative experience. Young birds with scruffy greyish heads
and greyish bills with dark tips are more difficult. Shy has pale bases to the primaries, back is paler than upperwings
and the dark usually does not extend onto the rump. Both Salvin’s and Chatham have dark bases to the primaries.
Further identification is often impossible unless there are some traces of adult bill colour. A small break in the
underwing border next to the basal patch and dark on the back extending only a small way onto rump suggest
Salvin’s; no break and dark extending onto the rump suggests Chatham, but both features vary. With practice, size
can help: Chatham is noticeably smaller than Shy, less convincingly so than Salvin’s.
42
1a
3a
2a
3b
2b
1b 1c
1d
2c 3c
1e 3d
2d
Plate 7: sMaller albatrosses of the southern oceans I
A group of half a dozen or so similar smaller, albatrosses of the cooler southern oceans, often called mollymawks,
and now placed in the genus Thalassarche together with Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham Islands Albatrosses. All look
smaller and more compact than the ‘shy’ group, and considerably more so than the great albatrosses. Genetic stud-
ies suggest that the forms of Yellow-nosed Albatross (Atlantic chlororhynchos, and Indian carteri), and of Black-browed
Albatross (Black-browed melanophrys, and Campbell impavida) should be considered separate species. Evidence for
dividing Southern and Northern Buller’s, which are relatively easily distinguished in the field, is inconclusive and
recent studies of the Campbell/Black-browed group show a fair degree of hybridisation.
As a group the adults are relatively easy to tell apar,t given good views of bill and underwing, but younger birds
are more difficult (and are compared on Plate 9).
Close up, adult Black-browed and Campbell Albatrosses are distinguished from all other mollymawks by orange
bills. At a distance, adults of both species told from similar Indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed and Buller’s Alba-
trosses (8:1–3) by broad, distinctively shaped border to leading edge of underwing, and from Grey-headed (8:4) by
white head. Young birds with scruffy heads and dark underwings can be told from both species of yellow-nosed
albatross and Buller’s Albatrosses by darker underwing, but are not easy to distinguish from young Grey-headed
Albatross. Compare also larger Shy and Salvin’s Albatrosses (6:1–2), which both have narrow black borders to white
underwings.
44
2a
1a 1b
3a
1g
1e
1c
2b
1f 1h
1d
Plate 8: sMaller albatrosses of the southern oceans II
A group of smaller albatrosses of the southern oceans, similar in size to Black-browed Albatross with dark
upperwings, back and tail, white rump and underparts and black bills striped with yellow. Adults are relatively easy
to identify by bill, underwing and head pattern. Young birds look different, are more difficult to separate and are
dealt with on Plate 9.
Close up, Atlantic Yellow-nosed told from Indian by larger black eye-patch and grey wash on cheeks. The shape
of the base of the yellow stripe on the bill is not a reliable ID feature. Immature Atlantic birds with adult-looking
bills can have white heads and small eye-patches similar to adult Indian. At a distance, Atlantic and Indian are
indistinguishable unless grey wash on cheeks can be seen. Both told from Buller’s and Grey-headed by whiter heads,
and from Black-browed and Campbell (7:1–2) by narrow dark borders to underwings. Yellow-nosed albatrosses
look slim-bodied and small-headed with long, rather slender bills. Pale-headed individuals of the ‘shy’ group (6:1–2)
have similar narrow black borders to underwing but are much larger, longer-winged and heavier-looking, especially
around head and neck, and have pale bills. Compare also Laysan Albatross (5:2).
46
4a
3a
1a
5a
4b
3c
2a
4c
1b 2b
3b
Plate 9: younG, sMaller albatrosses of the southern oceans
Albatrosses in this group take about 4–6 years to attain adult plumage. They all fledge with dark, dull-coloured bills
and pale or greyish heads. Black-browed, Campbell and Grey-headed Albatrosses fledge with dark underwings that
lighten with age, but Buller’s and both yellow-nosed albatrosses have white underwings bordered with black, like
adults. They are not always easy to identify. Look at underwings first, then details of bill and head.
48
1c
1b
1a
1d
2c
2b
2a
2d
3a 3b
4c
4a 4b
4d
Plate 10: sooty albatrosses
Two medium-sized dark albatrosses with long thin wings and long, pointed wedge-shaped tails. Both species are
easily told from everything else by size and distinctive shape, although one might just be confused by dark boobies.
Dark colour and size only shared by young giant petrels (Plate 11:1–2), which have large pale bills, short tails, and
look a lot less elegant in flight.
Light-mantled told from Sooty Albatross by pale back. Even the scruffiest Light-mantled has a paler back than
Sooty, and even the palest-collared Sooty has a dark back. Sooty Albatrosses are slimmer and have thinner wings
and flatter foreheads than Light-mantled. In flight they look more angular, even reptilian, and with practice can be
told from Light-mantled at some distance by jizz. Adults distinguished at close range by colour of line on bill.
50
1a
2a
1b
2c
2b
1c
1d 2d
Plate 11: Giant Petrels
Two species of very large petrels, the size of small albatrosses, with large, bulbous, pale bills. Juveniles of both
speciesfledgesooty-blackandbecomepaleroverseveralyears,passingthroughavarietyof plumages.Easilytold
from other albatrosses andpetrels, but not always easy to distinguish between the two species. Size and shape,
especiallyhuge,bulbous,palebillisunlikeanythingelse,althoughdarkyoungbirdscouldbeconfusedwithsooty
albatrossesorthelarger,darkerpetrelsatfirstglance.Ofteninwingmoult,sowingshapevariesalittle.Wingsare
straightandsomewhatround-endedinlightwinds,andmorepointedandangledinstrongerwinds.
Southernwhiteformunmistakable.Closeup,NorthernandSoutherneasilytoldapartbycolourof billtipexcept
forafewdarkyoungbirdsthathaveplainpinkbillsandarethereforeunidentifiable.Atadistance,thereddishtip
of aNorthern’sbillappearsdarkandisstillnoticeable.If thebillcannotbeseenwellthenbirdswithwhiteheads,
darkerbelliesandpaleunderwingsarelikelytobeolderSoutherns,andbirdswithpalerbelliesanddarkercapsare
likelytobeNortherns,butmanyplumageslooksimilarandsomebirdsarenotseparable.
52
2f
2a
1a 2d
2g
1c
2e
2b
1d/2h
1b
2c
Plate 12: Fulmars
Two species of medium-sized, pale, stocky, gull-like petrels, with narrow wings held stiff and straight while gliding.
Juveniles similar to adults.
54
2a
1a
2c
1c 3a
2e
2d
2f
2b
1b
2g
2h
Plate 13: Distinctive fulmarine Petrels of the southern oceans
56
1c
1b
1a
2c
2b
2a
3b
3a
Plate 14: all-dark Petrels
58
2a
3a
1a
1b
6a
2b
4d
4c
4a 5b
4b
5a
Plate 15: dark buLweria and PseuDobuLweria Petrels
60
1c 2d
3c
1a
2a
3a
1b
3b
2c
2b
4a
Plate 16: dark PTeroDroMa Petrels of the PacIfIc
Even with experience, the darker phases of Pterodroma petrels can be very difficult to identify. There is no known
way to distinguish between dark Herald and Henderson Petrels, and in many other cases lack of information about
plumage variation plus the inevitably fleeting nature of many observations may make identification impossible.
4. herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica dark phase WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.171
henderson Petrel Pterodroma atrata WS ? TL 35cm See p.173
Plumage of dark-phase Herald Petrel appears to be exactly the same as Henderson’s Petrel and there is no known
way of telling them apart at sea. Medium-sized, slim, long and narrow-winged petrel with relatively long tail, usu-
ally held tightly closed in flight and appearing quite pointed. Both species are very similar to dark-phase Trindade
Petrels (25:2) of Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Best told from Murphy’s by white patch on outer underwing; from
Kermadec by lack of pale bases to primaries on upperwing; and from Providence by smaller size and bill, and
slimmer jizz. See Plate 20:2 for pale phase and Plate 25:1 for complete range of plumages.
4a Underparts Head and body dark-slaty or chocolate-brown , usually paler on throat and lores. Underwing
dark with diffuse white patch on outer wing, greyish paler panel extending onto inner wing and narrow white
line along inner leading edge.
4b Fresh plumage, upperparts Some have greyish cast to back, rump and secondary coverts, hinting at dark
M mark across open wings.
4c Worn plumage, upperparts Entirely dark chocolate-brown.
62
2c
3d
1a
3a
2a
4a
3b
1b
2b
4c
1c 4b
3c
Plate 17: troPIcal PacIfIc Petrels
64
5a
3a
1a
4a
4b
3b
1b
3c
2a
4c
1c
Plate 18: larGer Grey-and-WhIte PTeroDroMa Petrels of the PacIfIc
A group of large, long-winged, long-tailed petrels with plumage similar to the cookilarias (Plates 22–24); grey
upperparts with dark M of varying intensity across open wings; white underparts and underwings with distinctively
shaped dark marks from carpals.
White-necked and Vanuatu can be distinguished from Juan Fernandez by white collar, except in a few cases of
birds in very worn plumage when the larger dark underwing patch from the carpal should help. Note, however,
that underwing of all species can look white at a distance and in strong light. Juan Fernandez has a heavier-looking
bill. Vanuatu is 10% smaller than both and has dark bases to the primaries on the underwing. Note, however, that
c.10% of White-necked do also, which would make size – rarely easy to judge – the only reliable criterion. All three
species are paler and greyer than both Galápagos and Hawaiian, especially around the head.
At sea both Hawaiian and Galápagos Petrels look dark above and white below with broad dark bar on underwing
and dark hood. Separating them is not easy and is complicated by changes in plumage with wear and considerable
variation in head pattern. Galápagos looks longer-winged and longer-tailed and has a heavier bill, and a bird with
dark markings on the flanks is likely to be Galápagos. More knowledge of timing of moult might help separation
of these species. In all states of plumage, both species look darker, more black-and-white than White-necked, Juan
Fernandez and Vanuatu, and have very dark hoods.
66
1a 3a
4a 5a
1b
5b
3b 4b
4c
3c
2a
1c 5c
Plate 19: PTeroDroMa Petrels WIth dark underWInGs and WhIte bellIes
68
2c
2b
2a
3a
1a
2d
1c
3b
1b
4b
4a
4d 3c
4c
Plate 20: larGer PTeroDroMa Petrels of the PacIfIc and IndIan oceans
1. trindade Petrel Pterodroma arminjoniana pale phase WS 98cm TL 37cm See p.172
Medium-sized, long, narrow-winged petrel with relatively long tail, usually held tightly closed in flight. Slightly
heavier and more robust than Herald. Kermadec has white flashes on upperwing. See also Tahiti, Beck’s, Phoenix
(17:1–3) and Magenta (19:3). See Plate 25:2 for complete range of plumages.
1a Pale phase (Round Island form), underparts White; rather pale scruffy breast, flanks and undertail;
underwing, forewing dark; large white patch on outer wing, paler panel extending onto inner wing; narrow
white line on inner forewing.
2. herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica paler phases WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.171
Medium-sized, slim, long- and narrow-winged petrel of the Pacific with relatively long tail, usually held tightly
closed in flight and appearing quite pointed. See Plate 16:4 for dark phase and Plate 25:1 for complete range of
plumages.
2a Pale phase, underparts Belly, throat and lores white; breast, flanks and undertail dark; underwing as
Trindade, tending to be darker on the inner wing.
2b Pale phase, upperparts All but the very lightest phases are dark with grey cast in fresh plumage, browner
when worn; a few show a trace of dark M.
2c Intermediate phase, underparts Darker on head and throat, but lores usually remain pale.
3. kermadec Petrel Pterodroma neglecta paler phases WS 92cm TL 38cm See p.173
Medium-sized Pterodroma of the Pacific with long broad wings, short squarish tail and relatively short, stubby bill.
Kermadec Petrel has the widest range of plumages of all the polymorphic Pterodroma petrels, each so-called phase
or morph grading into the others. At all ages and in all plumages Kermadec is best identified by pale bases to
primaries on upperwing. See Plate 16:2 for dark phase and Plate 25:3 for complete range of plumages. The two
races, neglecta and juana, are not separable at sea.
3a Pale phase, underparts Palest birds have head and underparts almost entirely white except for pale brown
mottling on crown, collar and flanks, darkening on undertail; underwing variable but always has a large
white patch on outerwing, paler panel extending onto centre of innerwing and narrow white line on inner
forewing.
3b Pale phase, upperparts Palest birds have greyish-fawn scalloping on white back, darkening on rump;
upperwings darker with prominent white bases to shafts and outer flight feathers.
3c Intermediate phase, underparts As pale phase but darker cap, breast-band, flanks and undertail; under-
wing variable, often similar to light phase.
3d Juvenile intermediate phase, underparts At all ages, intermediate phases are darker on head, breast
and flanks. As illustrated, many (but not all) juveniles have less prominent and more poorly defined white
patches on outer underwing, similar in shape to those of Herald Petrel.
70
4a
3a
1a
4b
3b
2b
3c
2a 4c
3d
2c
Plate 21: north atlantIc black-and-WhIte Petrels
72
3a
2a
1a
1b
2b
6a
1c
5a
5b
4b
4a
Plate 22: cookIlarIa Petrels I
Plates 22–24 illustrate a group of small fast-flying Pterodroma petrels often referred to as cookilarias. All occur in the
Pacific or Southern Oceans and are a similar size and shape. All are grey above with a dark M marking across the
open wing and white below with a variety of dark markings on the underwing. Several other species have similar
patterns on the upperparts: White-necked, Juan Fernandez, Galápagos, Hawaiian, Barau’s and Vanuatu are large,
long-winged versions; Soft-plumaged, Fea’s, Zino’s and White-headed Petrels have dark underwings, and Mottled
has a dark belly patch. Prions and Blue Petrel have white underwings and fly very differently.
Cookilarias are not easy to tell apart. Identification depends on good views of the pattern on the underwings
and small differences in head and tail patterns. With a lot of experience subtle differences in shape and flight may
help. Published identification criteria have not always taken into account changes in plumage due to age and wear.
In general, young and newly moulted birds have pale upperparts and the dark M is distinct (e.g. 22:1e). Birds
in worn plumage are often darker or patchier (22:2c) and the upperwings can become very dark, obscuring the
M shape (23:1b). Other problems include individual variation (22:4bc), the effect of light or viewing conditions
(22:1b and 23:5a) and the fact that some plumages and species are poorly known, e.g. De Filippi’s, Collared and
Gould’s.
74
1b
4b
4c
1a 2a
3a
4a
1c
2b
3b
4d
1d
4e
1e
2c
Plate 23: cookIlarIa Petrels II
Black-winged, Chatham Islands and Bonin Petrels are all best identified by extent and pattern of dark markings
on underwings.
76
trinidade trinidade
Petrel Petrel
1a 2a 3a
1b 2b 3b
1c
4a
4b
5a
1d 4d
4c
Plate 24: sMall cookIlarIa Petrels of the troPIcal PacIfIc
78
1b
1d
1a
1e 1c
1f
2g
2a 2b
2e
2d
2c
2f
Plate 25: Variable Pterodroma Petrels
This plate shows the range of plumages of the most variable of the Pterodromas: Herald, Trindade and Kermadec
Petrels. See also Plate 16 for the identification of dark-phase birds and Plate 20 for lighter phases.
Herald and Kermadec Petrels occur in tropical and subtropical waters of the south Pacific; Trindade Petrel
occurs in the western Atlantic and south-west Indian Ocean around Mauritius and Réunion. Birds from the Indian
Ocean (Round Island) are similar in size and plumage to the Atlantic birds but the two widely separated breeding
populations may warrant subspecific status. Henderson Petrel (16:4) is the dark species breeding on Henderson
Island. It is not separable by size or plumage from dark-phase Herald Petrel.
80
1a 1c
1b
1d
1e
2b
2c
2a
2f
2e
2d
3c
3d
3b
3a
3e
Plate 26: PrIons WIth narroW dark tIPs to taIl – ‘WhalebIrds’
Prions are pale, zippy, flickering little birds that fly low, fast and erratically and are often hard to see against a rough
sea, let alone identify. All are grey and white with a dark M mark across the upperwings in flight and a dark tip to
the tail. Young and newly moulted birds are paler, though often with more contrasting dark markings, and birds in
worn plumage can have a washed-out brownish-grey look with less obvious patterns. Head pattern and extent of
dark tip to the tail are better field marks than general colour and pattern but identification is not always possible.
Bill size and shape are also important but note that juvenile bills are smaller than adults and there is wide variation
within and much overlap between species – almost every island’s population is slightly different. As few as three and
up to seven species have been recognised. No useful DNA work has been done – yet.
Broad-billed Prion is distinguishable at sea with practice by larger size and dark, big-headed look caused by
huge bill and steep forehead. Salvin’s, MacGillivray’s and Antarctic are difficult if not impossible to separate at sea.
A bird with a strongly-patterned head and definite ‘tabs’ extending down sides of breast is likely to be Antarctic.
Slender-billed should be relatively easy given good close-up views. Thin bill, white-faced look and paler, less well-
marked upperparts together would suggest Slender-billed. Fairy Prions of the race subantarctica and young of the
nominate (27:1c,f) can look similarly pale, but are separable by broad dark tip to tail.
82
1c
1b
1d
1a
2a
3a
3b
3c
4c
4b
4a
4d
5b 5c
5a
5d
Plate 27: PrIons WIth broad black tIPs to taIl and blue Petrel
Fairy and Fulmar Prions are separated from all others by larger amount of black in tail (compare 1d and 3a), which
is reasonably obvious at sea even in poor conditions. Separating Fairy and Fulmar Prions at sea is very difficult and
usually impossible. The heavier bill of Fulmar Prion is apparent in the hand but very good views and considerable
practice are required at sea. Extent of pale wash on undersides difficult to assess at sea due to light. Distinctive
‘barrel roll’ flight of Fulmar Prion when approaching ship and habit of sitting on the sea near floating objects may
help.
84
1b
1a 1c
1e
2a
1f
1g
2b 2d
2c
4b
4a
1d 3a 4c
Plate 28: ProceLLaria Petrels I
86
1d
1a
1e
2a
2d
2e
1b
2c
2b
1c
Plate 29: ProceLLaria Petrels II and flesh-footed shearWater
Parkinson’s and Westland Petrels and Flesh-footed Shearwater are distinguished from White-chinned (28:2) by dark
tip to bill, and from Spectacled Petrel (28:1) by lack of white patches on head. Parkinson’s Petrel and Flesh-footed
Shearwater are c. 10–15% smaller than Westland and White-chinned Petrels, and jizz is different. Parkinson’s
is more slightly built with a more slender head and neck, while Flesh-footed Shearwater has a smaller head,
slimmer body, longer, thinner bill and narrower, shorter wings. Westland moults wings Oct–Jan, all others Apr–Aug.
Parkinson’s is difficult to separate from Westland even under the best of conditions as both are all-dark and have
pale bills with dark tips. Parkinson’s is smaller, longer-necked and less bulky, and sits lower and less erect on water.
However, size can be hard to judge as juvenile Westlands, especially females, can be barely 5% larger. Shape of bill
is useful, Parkinson’s having longer nostrils and a shorter latericorn. Flesh-footed Shearwater can be distinguished
from all Procellaria petrels by pink (not black) feet. Flesh-footed’s bill looks longer and slimmer, with smaller nostrils,
and is pinkish-yellow with a darker tip.
88
1c
1a
1d
2a
2d
2c
3b
1b
2b
3a 4a
Plate 30: dark shearWaters of the PacIfIc and IndIan oceans
90
5a
2a
1a
2b
1b
3a 4a
3b
4b
Plate 31: sooty and short-taIled shearWaters
92
1b 2b
1a 2a
1c
2c
1d
2d
Plate 32: larGer shearWaters and Petrels WIth lIGht underParts
94
2c
1a
4a
2a
3a
4c
1b
2b
4b
3b
5c
5a 5b 1c
Plate 33: caLonecTris shearWaters
A small, distinctive group of broad-winged, scruffy brown-and-white shearwaters with a rather distinctive flight,
especially in calmer conditions. Most authors recognise three species; Cory’s is usually considered to have two
subspecies that are often separable in the field.
96
1a
2a
2d
3a
1b
2b
3b
2e
2c
3c
Plate 34: sMall black-and-WhIte-shearWaters I
Plates 34–37 illustrate 16 species of smaller, narrow-winged shearwaters with dark upperparts and white under-
parts that have caused much discussion amongst taxonomists and are, with few exceptions, often difficult if not
impossible to identify at sea. We have followed recent DNA work by Austin et al. (2004) so some of these species
divisions are new and different from most recent publications. Please read the introductions in the main text to the
Manx (p. 202) and Little/Audubon’s groups (p. 206).
98
3a
2a
1a
3b
2b
1b
4b
4c
4a
5c
5b
5a
Plate 35: sMall black-and-WhIte shearWaters II
100
3b
1b
1a
2a
4a
3a
4b
1c
2b
3c
5a
1d
Plate 36: sMall black-and-WhIte shearWaters III
102
2a 3a
1a
3b
1b 2b
2c 4a
1c
3c
1d
2d
4b
1e
Plate 37: lIttle and audubon’s shearWater coMPlex
Identification of this group is very difficult and depends mainly on small differences in shape of wings, tail and
head, and details of plumage of undertail, underwing and head. See main text (p.206) for discussion of ID. See
also Plates 34–36.
1. little shearwater Puffinus assimilis WS 63cm TL 27cm See p.209
1a Underparts In all races, undertail white; underwing white with narrow dark border; slight dark collar; legs
bluish with pink webs.
1b Head (kermadecensis) Dark cap barely reaches eye; lores white. In all races bill short, forehead rounded.
2. subantarctic little shearwater Puffinus elegans WS 64cm TL 28cm See p.208
2a Head Dark cap extends below eye but lores mainly white; bill more robust than Little; forehead rounded.
3. Macaronesian shearwater Puffinus baroli WS 65cm TL 28cm See p.210
3a Underparts Undertail white; underwing white with narrow dark border; not much of a dark collar; legs
blue and black.
3b Head Dark cap does not or barely reaches eye; lores white; bill short and slim; forehead rounded.
4. bannerman’s shearwater Puffinus bannermani WS 71cm TL 30cm See p.211
4a Underparts Undertail white, darker towards tip; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark
marks on inner forewing; some with extensive dark collar others with little (as illustrated); legs blue.
4b Head Dark cap does not or barely reaches eye; short white supercilium; lores white; bill short; forehead rounded.
5. audubon’s shearwater Puffinus lherminieri WS 70cm TL 29cm See p.210
5a Underparts (nominate) Undertail dark; underwing white with broad dark border and variable amount of
dark markings on inner wing; dark collar absent; legs pink and black.
5b Paler form (nominate, Bahamas), head Cap just reaches eye; lores white; white eye ring wider in front
and over eye; bill long and robust; forehead flatter.
5c Darker form (nominate, Bermuda), head Cap extends well below eye but streaked white below and on
ear-coverts; lores mostly dark; thin white eye ring.
5d Underparts (boydi) Undertail mainly dark; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark marks
on inner forewing; dark collar relatively large and apparently blue legs.
5e Head (boydi) Dark cap reaches below eye; small white crescent curls up behind eye; lores mostly white; bill
short and robust; forehead squarer than Macaronesian Shearwater.
6. tropical shearwater Puffinus bailloni WS 69cm TL 31cm See p.212
6a Underparts (dichrous) Based on a specimen from Samoa. Undertail dark; underwing white with broad
dark border and variable but extensive dark markings on inner wing; dark collar quite pronounced. Undertail
can be white in Réunion birds, partly dark in Aldabran; legs blue and black, webs pinkish.
6b Head (bailloni) Black cap extends well below eye but streaked white below and on ear-coverts; lores dark;
thin white eye-ring; bill long and slim; forehead flatter.
7. Galápagos shearwater Puffinus subalaris WS 63cm TL 30cm See p.213
7a Paler form, underparts Undertail dark; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark markings
on inner wing; dark collar small and smudgy; broad white eye-ring; legs pink and black.
7b Darker form, underparts Undertail dark; underwing with broad dark border and variable but extensive
dark markings and brownish wash; flanks smudgy-brown; dark collar quite pronounced.
7c Darker form, head Solid dark cap reaches well below the eye; lores dark; thin white eye-ring and small
white crescent curling up behind eye; bill long and quite robust; forehead flatter.
8. arabian shearwater Puffinus persicus WS 69cm TL 33cm See p.212
8a Underparts (nominate) Undertail dark; underwing with broad dark border and variable but extensive dark
markings and, often, brownish wash; flanks smudgy-brown; small, smudgy collar; legs pink.
8b Head (nominate) Solid, medium-brown cap reaches well below the eye; lores dark; very thin white eye-ring;
bill long and robust; forehead flatter.
9 Shorter, rounded tail of P. assimilis, P. elegans, P. baroli and P. bannermani.
10 Longer, wedge-shaped tail of P. lherminieri, P. bailloni, P. persicus and a shorter form in P. subalaris.
104
3b
4b
1b
1a
2a 3a
4a
5d
5e
5b
5a
5c
10
6a
6b
8a
7c
7b
7a
8b
Plate 38: dIvInG-Petrels
Small, compact birds with short wings and tail, and straight, whirring flight. Easily distinguished from all other
petrels and shearwaters, but it is not easy to separate the four species.
106
3a
1a
2a 4a
1b 3b
4b
3c
2b
4c
2c
4d
1c 3d
1d 3e
Plate 39: all-dark Storm-PetrelS with white rumPS
108
1b
2b
1a 2a
4c
3b
4b
4a
3a
1c
3c
2c
Plate 40: PacIfIc storM-Petrels and Grey-backed storM-Petrel
110
1a
1b
2a
4a
4b
3b
3c
5a
3a
5b
Plate 41: WhIte-bellIed and black-bellIed storM-Petrels
Black-bellied can often be difficult to distinguish from paler White-bellied because it is difficult to see whether there
is a dark belly stripe when birds are flying or foraging low over the sea. Black-bellied has duskier, less clean-cut
underwing, and the division between dark breast and pale belly is consistently lower on the breast than in White-
bellied. The extension of the feet further beyond the tail in Black-bellied is not always helpful as it seems to vary
between populations, and birds often fly around with their feet tucked up in their belly feathers! Darker forms of
White-bellied tend to have darker flanks and paler bellies, whereas darker Black-bellied have the opposite; dark
belly and pale flanks. See Plate 45 for comparison with New Zealand Storm-petrel.
112
1g 1d
1h
1e
1f
1b
1c
1a
2c
2b 2a
2d
Plate 42: dark, fork-taIled storM-Petrels I
Five species of all-dark storm-petrels commonly occur in the warmer eastern Pacific. Least is relatively easy to
identify but the others – Black, Ashy, Markham’s and the dark form of Leach’s – are difficult. Look out for size and
flight style, along with the extent and contrast of the pale crescent on the upperwing, but note that in all species this
becomes larger and paler as feathers wear. The other four all-dark species, Swinhoe’s (43:1), Matsudaira’s (43:3),
Tristram’s (43:4) and the dark form of Polynesian (44:3), have not been recorded in the area but are possibilities.
5. leach’s storm-petrel oceanodroma leucorhoa dark phase WS c. 44cm TL 20cm See p.229
O. l. chapmani is the mainly dark-rumped race of Leach’s Storm-petrel from the southern part of the species range
in the eastern Pacific. Most chapmani are completely dark. Medium-sized and fork-tailed. Flies with wings angled
back, but smaller than other Leach’s and flight may not be as strong and bounding – more fluttery and erratic with
quicker wingbeats. See Plates 39:4, 40:1 and 43:2 for other races and plumages.
5a Upperparts (chapmani) Dark with pale crescent on upperwing that reaches forewing at carpal and be-
comes more prominent as plumage wears. Rump all-dark.
114
2c
3b
1c
2a
3a
1a
5a
6b
4a
2b
1b
6a
Plate 43: dark, fork-taIled storM-Petrels II
Four all-dark storm-petrels occur in the west and central Pacific: Swinhoe’s, Matsudaira’s, Tristram’s and the rare
dark form of Polynesian (44:3). Polynesian is simple to identify by wing shape and feeding behaviour, but the others
are difficult. Look for size and flight style, white bases to outer primary shafts, and the extent and contrast of the pale
upperwing crescent; note that in all species moult and feather wear can affect the appearance of these features. Five
more all-dark species (Black, Markham’s, Ashy, Least and Leach’s dark phase, Plate 42:1–5) occur in the eastern
Pacific; they have not been recorded in the west but are possibilities. Matsudaira’s and Swinhoe’s also occur in the
eastern Indian Ocean; Swinhoe’s has been recorded from the North Atlantic. Compare Bulwer’s Petrel (15:1).
1. swinhoe’s storm-petrel oceanodroma monorhis WS 46.5cm TL 20cm See p.230
A medium-sized, all-dark storm-petrel with a moderately forked tail. Smaller than Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s,
about the same size as Leach’s. In flight looks long, yet rather broad-winged. The wings are not angled back as far
as Leach’s and the wing-tips are rounder. The wingbeats are deep and the shortish tail is usually held closed. Close
up, the bill is short and heavy and the white bases to the primary shafts may be visible, sometimes as a faint pale
patch. Underparts similar to Matsudaira’s, completely dark, becoming browner with wear. Where size is difficult
to assess may be difficult to tell from other all-dark storm-petrels. Check wing and tail shape, relatively heavy bill,
indistinct pale crescent on upperwing and, close up, white bases to primary shafts.
1a Fresh plumage, upperparts Plumage dark, brownish-black. Pale crescent on upperwing not prominent,
not reaching forewing at carpal. Most birds have white bases to the primary shafts but these are only visible
close up and are unlikely to be useful for identification at sea at any distance.
1b Worn plumage, upperparts Plumage as 1a but browner with a larger and paler crescent on upperwing.
1c Head Bill relatively short and heavy.
2. leach’s storm-petrel oceanodroma leucorhoa dark phase WS c.44cm TL 20cm See p.229
A medium-sized, all-dark storm petrel with a moderately forked tail. Dark-rumped individuals may be present in all
four races of Leach’s Storm-petrel that occur off the Pacific coast of North and Central America (nominate leucorhoa,
cheimomnestes, socorroensis and chapmani), but they are rare in all but chapmani. Bird illustrated is a dark-rumped bird of
unknown race from the south of the range. Leach’s is smaller than Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s, similar in size to
Swinhoe’s. Dark-rumped birds have not been recorded outside the eastern Pacific, but are likely to be hard to tell
from Swinhoe’s. Look for flight style, pale crescent on upperwing and thinner, longer bill. See Plates 39:4, 40:1 and
42:5 for other plumages.
2a Upperparts Dark with pale crescent on upperwing that reaches forewing at carpal and becomes especially
prominent as plumage wears. Bases to the shafts of the outer primary feathers dark, but note that a few white-
rumped birds have white shafts, so they could possibly occur in dark birds as well!
2b Head Bill thinner and slightly longer than Swinhoe’s.
3. Matsudaira’s storm-petrel oceanodroma matsudairae WS 56cm TL 24cm See p.233
A large, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail, larger than Swinhoe’s and Leach’s, about the same size as
Tristram’s but lighter. In moult or worn plumage the bases of the primary shafts of other species of all-dark storm-
petrels can be revealed and may look like the pale patch on Matsudaira’s, but most Matsudaira’s can be identified by
the prominent white bases to the primary shafts and smaller, not particularly prominent pale upperwing crescent.
3a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark, becoming browner with wear. Pale crescent on upperwing not promi-
nent. White bases to the primary shafts usually present, showing as small pale patch, even at a distance.
3b Worn plumage, upperparts Pale crescent on upperwing larger and paler, not reaching forewing at carpal.
3c Underparts Completely dark, becoming browner with wear.
4. tristram’s storm-petrel oceanodroma tristrami WS 56cm TL 24cm See p.231
A large, long-winged, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail, larger than Swinhoe’s and Leach’s, about the
same size as Matsudaira’s but heavier. Bill relatively small and slight. Flight is a mixture of fluttering wingbeats,
steep banking turns and periods of gliding, wings held slightly angled back in flight and in a slight upward V when
foraging. Feet do not extend beyond tail. Underparts similar to Matsudaira’s, completely dark, becoming browner
with wear. Relatively easy to identify in fresh plumage, more difficult in worn plumage. Look for large prominent
pale crescent on upperwing, vestiges of pale sides to rump and relatively small bill.
4a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark with large pale crescent on wing reaching forewing at carpal. Greyish
back is paler than head resulting in a hooded appearance. Sides of rump usually paler.
4b Worn plumage, upperparts More uniform dark black-brown with less contrast between back and head
but larger, paler upperwing crescent.
116
3c
1a
3a
4a
1b
1c
3b
4b
2a
2b
Plate 44: PIed storM-Petrels
118
1b
2b
1a
2a 2c
2d
3c
3e
3b
3d
3a
Plate 45: black-and-WhIte storM-Petrels WIth WhIte ruMPs
120
2b
1d
1e
2c
1a
1b
2a
1c
3b
4a
3a
4b
albatrosses
Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences (Nunn et al. 1996; Nunn & Stanley 1998) indicate that
the albatrosses comprise four major groups, which are best recognised as genera: the great albatrosses (Diomedea),
the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), the mollymawks (Thalassarche) and the sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria). The
same studies indicate that the sooty albatrosses are most closely related to the mollymawks. Here we have chosen
to use the species limits originally suggested by Robertson & Nunn (1998) as modified by Brooke (2004) and by
Burg & Croxall (2004).
Wandering albatross
Following Brooke (2004) and Burg & Croxall (2004), we recognise four species: Snowy Albatross Diomedea exulans;
New Zealand Albatross D. antipodensis; Tristan Albatross D. dabbenena; and Amsterdam Island Albatross D. amster-
damensis. Two subspecies of New Zealand Albatross are recognised: D. a. antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross)
breeding on Antipodes I. and in small numbers on Campbell I. and Chatham Is.; and D. a. gibsoni (Gibson’s
Albatross) breeding on Auckland Is.
122
Plate 2 attempts to depict these eight typical plumages, based on museum specimens and photographs from
known locations. Note that although we have called the plumages A–H this series is not meant to indicate the
linear progression of an individual’s plumage from dark juvenile to whiter adult.
A) Plate 2: 1–2 Juvenile Head, neck, body and tail entirely chocolate-brown except for striking white face.
Underwing, as adult except for wider dark margin between carpal joint and base of outermost primary and
small chocolate-brown patch at base of inner leading edge of wing.
B) Plate 2: 3–4 Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck. Belly and flanks mostly white
with broad brown breast-band and mostly dark undertail-coverts.
C) Plate 2: 5–6 Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck, saddle, rump and uppertail-
coverts. Belly and flanks mostly white with faint brown breast-band and dark on undertail-coverts.
D) Plate 2: 7–8 Head and neck mostly white except for brownish crown and mottling on sides of neck.
Body mostly white with brown and grey vermiculations and blotches on saddle and rump. Some have brown
shading on flanks, and most retain indistinct breast-band. Tail white with black sides and tip. Upperwing
mainly blackish-brown with variably sized white blotch on centre of inner wing. Underwing like previous
plumage; pre-axillary notch still present but may be paler.
E) Plate 2: 9 Similar to D but head and body whiter and breast-band absent or made up of very faint ver-
miculations; tail, whiter with dark sides and tips of outermost feathers usually retained. Upperwing mainly
blackish-brown with more white especially on centre of inner wing. Underwing similar to last plumage but
lacks pre-axillary notch.
F) Plate 2: 10 Similar to E but upperwing considerably whiter, especially distinct white patch on centre of
inner wing.
G) Plate 2: 11 Similar to F except head and body mostly white; tail mostly white, usually with dark outer
feathers. On upperwing, white central patch behind elbow linked to white of back, forming white wedge
extending from body onto inner wing, leaving broad black leading and trailing edges. Underwing as D but
black leading edge between carpal joint and base of outermost primary thinner and not continuous.
H) Plate 2: 12 Head, neck and body white. Tail white; black tips to tail feathers retained on some. Inner
upperwing predominantly white with black tips to entire trailing edge and some dark-tipped feathers on
central area, close to body. Black on coverts increases towards elbow and outer upperwing predominantly
black; some darker patches and mottling on outer half of inner wing-coverts, creating chequered transition
between white inner forewing and dark trailing edge and outer wing. Underwing white with black flight
feathers forming thin dark trailing edge and large dark tip.
As mentioned above the five taxa do not all attain the whitest plumage, nor do they all pass through every stage.
Below is a summary of the typical plumages attained by the different species and subspecies of wandering
albatross. Note that every population examined appears to show exceptions to these rules; for example, a female
in plumage 11 has been found breeding on Antipodes Island. This suggests that some gene flow still occurs
between these species. In all species males are whiter than females of the same age.
PlumaGes a b C D e F G H
breeding breeding
&
snowy &
& ? & &
breeding
breeding breeding
breeding breeding
New Zealand & &
& & breeding
(antipodean) breeding breeding
breeding breeding
123
snowy albatross
Diomedea exulans Plates 1, 2
tristan albatross
Diomedea dabbenena Plate 2
taxoNomy Formerly considered a subspecies of wandering group but molecular work suggests it is sufficiently
distinct to warrant specific status (Burg & Croxall 2004).
DIstrIbutIoN Fewer than 2,500 pairs breed biennially in the Tristan da Cunha group (Inaccessible, and formerly
Tristan da Cunha) and Gough I., ranging at sea through South Atlantic (between at least 23°S and 42°S) to west
coast of South Africa and to within c.300km of the coast of Brazil, although as yet there are only six records for the
latter country. Also recorded from south-west Indian Ocean and once from southeast Australia.
beHavIour Similar to other wandering albatrosses.
124
JIZZ Similar to Snowy but smaller, more compact and
less robust.
sIZe TL ?; W 63.2cm, 65.4cm; WS ?; WT ?
The Tristan Albatross is smaller than the Snowy in
all measurements but very similar in size to published
measurements of New Zealand Albatross. Female
smaller than male in all measurements.
PlumaGe Range and sequence of plumages unde-
scribed but photos and museum specimens suggest
that it occurs in plumages A, B, C, D, E, F and G (see ?
pp.122–123) and breeds in C, D, E, F and G. May also
occur in plumage H. Bill and legs similar to Snowy
but a few, mainly darker-plumaged, birds have dusky
tip to bill. Only a few breeding birds have pink patch
on ear-coverts. Juveniles tend to have paler, greyer tone to dark chocolate-brown plumage, whiter throat and
foreneck and more smudgy white behind ear than juveniles of other wandering species.
moult aND Wear Undescribed but probably similar to other wandering albatrosses.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Juvenile Tristan may be separable from juveniles of other ‘wanderers’ by paler, greyer (not
chocolate-brown) plumage and whiter face, throat and foreneck. Plumage otherwise not helpful and inseparable
at sea from all other species although really white birds are more likely to be Snowy. Range often the most useful
indication, overlapping only with Snowy off eastern South America where direct comparison or experience may
allow separation by Tristan’s smaller size and shorter bill with less bulbous tip. Dark birds with dusky tip to bill
have been mistaken for Amsterdam Island Albatross.
125
sexual dimorphism in breeding pairs, with majority of females having streaks on back, more vermiculations on
underparts and a dark cap (similar to plumage D), whilst males are whiter bodied and have just a few streaks on
the head (plumage E).
D. a. antipodensis attain plumages A, B, C, D and E, breeding in A, B, C, D and E. Typical breeding male is
plumage C with dark brown crown cap commonly extending to ears and very little white on upperwing, whilst
female commonly breeds in plumage B.
moult aND Wear Dark chocolate-brown of fresh plumage becomes paler with wear and can look disordered
and blotchy due to pale bases of feathers being visible. Moult poorly studied, but assumed to be similar to
Snowy.
IDeNtIFICatIoN By far the majority of birds in New Zealand waters are this species. There are no simple
plumage features to distinguish New Zealand Albatross from other ‘wanderers’ but a very white bird (plumage
H) is unlikely to be a New Zealand and a bird with almost entirely dark upperwing and whiter body (plumages
E and F) is unlikely to be Snowy. New Zealand Albatrosses usually have some vermiculations on white plumage
whilst Snowy, even those in plumage E and F, have fewer vermiculations and much cleaner demarcation between
white and dark areas. New Zealand Albatross best distinguished from Snowy by smaller size and shorter bill with
less bulbous tip. This is especially useful for birds on the water behind boats but is convincing only with direct
comparisons and experience. On the whole antipodensis and gibsoni impossible to tell apart at sea although paler
birds are more likely to be male gibsoni. Tristan probably indistinguishable as is a similar size and occurs in many
of the same plumages. See Tristan, however, for possible differences in juvenile. Amsterdam Island Albatross,
similar to darker-plumaged New Zealand Albatross, is only identifiable at close range by dusky tip and thin dark
line along cutting edge of bill. Note, however, that a few New Zealand Albatrosses have darker bill tips and can
have or appear to have dark lines to cutting edge of upper mandible. Whiter birds with all-dark upperwings look
like Northern Royals at a distance but closer up can be seen to have more vermiculations on body, darker tail
and often dark smudgy markings on head, back and rump – unfortunately not unlike juvenile royals! Juvenile
royals rarely have a pronounced dark cap, are whiter underneath, have less dark in tail, a thin dark line on bill
and a different jizz.
126
royal albatrosses
Two species of distinctive Diomedea albatrosses.
127
Southerns have some white on the upperwing especially on the fringes of the inner upperwing-coverts around the
elbow region. The scapulars and base of the upperwing tend to look scruffier on Southerns with more vermicu-
lations than Northerns. Birds with dark spots on the crown or dark feathers in the tail are likely to be Northerns,
but birds with entirely white bodies, heads and tails and dark upperwings can be either species. However, with
experience the slighter build of Northern Royal (see Southern jizz) allows identification of most birds seen in
New Zealand. Southern Royals are larger than Northerns; note though that there is considerable variation
within the species and some overlap. The extent of the dark border on the leading edge of the underwing from
carpal to primaries has been used to separate the two species. Northerns, it is suggested, have broader dark
margins. This feature, however, appears to be related to age and sex, which means that immature and especially
female Southerns, the very birds with dark upperwings you would want to distinguish from Northerns, can have
wide margins as well.
The few hybrids nesting at Taiaroa Head, New Zealand, are indistinguishable from Northerns, but there is
no information on the small number nesting elsewhere.
128
moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with age. Wing-moult poorly described but probably similar
to wandering albatross group.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See Northern Royal for separation from that species. Southern Royal from wandering
albatrosses: Juvenile and immature Southern Royals with dark upperwings can look very similar to some plumages
of New Zealand Albatross. In general, however, ‘wanderers’ with upperwings as dark as these Southern Royal
plumages are much scruffier looking as they have a lot more brownish markings and vermiculations on head and
body. However, adult Southern Royal Albatrosses can look very similar to the whiter plumages of the wandering
albatross group. When you can see the bill clearly there is no problem. Royals have thin dark lines along the
cutting edge, ‘wanderers’ do not. As a general rule, Southern Royals have whiter bodies than ‘wanderers’ with
similar patterned upperwings. All but the whitest of ‘wanderers’ retain thin wavy grey or black lines (vermicu-
lations) on the scapulars back, rump and hindneck and in darker birds these can even form a pale band on the
sides or across the breast. Similarly, dark marks on the crown are likely to persist, as are dark marks on the tip
of the tail, especially on the central feathers. The white on the upperwing of Southern Royals extends back in a
triangle from the leading edge of the wing, unbroken except for a few, if any, small black feathers. A bird with a
line or two of small black feathers extending along the leading edge breaking up the white will be a ‘wanderer’, as
will one with an obvious patch of white surrounded by black.
The most difficult birds to tell apart are Southern Royals and ‘wanderers’, particularly Snowy Albatrosses,
with large areas of white on the upperwing. The dark on the upperwings of ‘wanderers’ often looks like a fine
checkerboard pattern, whereas that of Southern Royals has a more uniform look. Birds with virtually white
inner wings and almost all of the secondaries white are likely to be Snowys, since Southern Royal’s inner wings
never become as white, some dark always being present on the secondaries and secondary coverts. With practice
jizz may be the best way to identify royals. In flight royals have a hunchbacked look with a longer, more wedge-
shaped tail. Royals’ wings are slightly broader than ‘wanderers’ especially towards the base, and the proportions
(e.g. body to carpal, carpal to tip) are different as well. This makes ‘wanderers’, especially the large Snowys, look
relatively longer and thinner winged. Royal bills look slightly longer and straighter than those of ‘wanderers’, less
bulbous at the tip and tending towards yellowish rather than rosy pink. None of these differences are particularly
pronounced and it requires a lot of experience to tell the groups apart by jizz alone.
Waved albatross
Phoebastria irrorata Plate 5
129
vermiculated pattern on hindneck, rump and uppertail-coverts. Paler lower rump patch, still heavily ver-
miculated, contrasts with chocolate-brown tail. Upperwing chestnut-brown without vermiculated pattern,
but with prominent lemon-white shafts to primaries. Undertail chocolate-brown. Underwing has dark edges
and armpit, white centre and fine grey-brown vermiculations on armpit and white coverts.
Juvenile and immature Like adult but juvenile head white without yellow wash and wider, darker (almost
black) vermiculations, especially on back. Vermiculations narrow with age and yellow wash increases on
head. Bill horn-coloured with dusky tip becoming yellower with age.
moult aND Wear Yellow wash on head fades during breeding season. Dark plumage becomes browner with
age. Wing moult poorly described but probably similar to wandering group.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Generally unmistakable in range. As vagrant could be mistaken for Laysan but combination of
massive yellow bill, dark underbody and darkish rump diagnostic.
short-tailed albatross
Phoebastria albatrus Plate 4
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Extremely rare northeast Pacific
breeder. Breeds annually (eggs October–November)
mainly on Torishima I. (Izu Is.) with smaller number
on Minami-Kojima (Senkaku Is.) and 1 or 2 pairs
on Yome-jima I. (Ogasawara Is.) and Midway Atoll.
Occurs farther east in northeast Pacific during
August–January as far as Bering Sea and western USA.
Commonest south to 20°N but has been recorded at
albatross breeding islands of French Frigate Shoals
and Laysan I. (Hawaiian Is.), Guadalupe I. and San
Benedicto Is. off Baja California.
beHavIour Flight, dynamic soaring. Heavy-bodied,
thus often becalmed in light winds. Not readily
attracted to fishing boats or chum.
JIZZ Recalls larger great albatrosses rather than smaller Thalassarche. Heavy-bodied with large, long bill.
sIZe TL 89cm; W ?; WS 215–230cm; WT ?
PlumaGe Complex. Passes through a series of stages similar to that of wandering-type albatrosses. All-brown
juvenile gradually becomes whiter, passing through several mottled plumages to mainly white adult with yel-
lowish head.
Juvenile (Plate 4: 1b) Newly fledged juveniles are uniform sooty-brown. Most are dark around base of bill,
a very few have thin white stripe. Bill dark, legs bluish flesh.
Juvenile/immature (Plate 4: 1c–d) Chocolate-brown. Bill pale flesh with bluish tip. Legs pale flesh to
bluish. Underwing mostly dark, paler at base of primaries. Paler plumage develops first on chin, base of bill
and belly.
Immature (Plate 4: 1e–f) Head whitish, but hindcrown, nape, hind neck and sides of neck sepia; this does
not join across the throat, so it forms a dark cap. Upperparts patchy sepia and white, with buff and white
vermiculations to uppertail-coverts. Base of tail white, tip of tail blackish. Underparts white, with pale brown
markings on flanks, thighs and vent. Upperwing sepia, with white patch developing on inner central coverts.
Underwing mainly white, dark tip and trailing edge with some dark tips to wing-coverts. Bill and legs as adult.
May breed in this plumage.
Older Immature (Plate 4: 1g) Head white; crown and sides of face yellowish-brown, becoming browner
on nape. Upperparts mainly white, with buffish-brown vermiculations on back and rump. Underparts white
with browner vermiculated flanks, thighs and vent. Upperwing beige-brown with white patches. Underwing
progressively whiter on coverts. Tail black with white base. May breed in this plumage.
Adult (Plate 4: 1a) Head white, shading to yellowish on crown, nape and, on some, across throat. Upper
body white from nape to tail base, tip of tail black. Underparts white, some with yellow wash, especially to
breast. Upperwing black with large white triangular patch on innerwing almost joining white scapulars and
mantle. Underwing white with narrow blackish margin. Large pink bill with blue tip; iris blackish; legs and
feet bluish-white. Some breeding adults retain brown nape and flecks of brown on mantle and back.
moult aND Wear Begins wing-moult on non-breeding grounds (late June–mid-October).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adult is only white-bodied albatross in north Pacific with huge pink bill and distinctive
upperwing pattern. Juvenile resembles juvenile Black-footed Albatross, but differs in greater size and more
massive bill. Newly fledged Short-tailed has dark bill, like Black-footed, and a very few also have a narrow white
stripe around base of bill. Older juveniles easily recognised by pink bill.
130
black-footed albatross
Phoebastria nigripes Plate 4
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN North Pacific. Commonest albatross
in the northeast Pacific. Most of population breeds
on northwest Hawaiian group, especially Laysan,
Lisianski, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Midway and
French Frigate Shoals, with some on other island of
the archipelago. Small numbers on Torishima (Izu Is.),
Muko-jima Islands (Bonin Is.), Kita-ko-jima (southern
Ryukyu Is.). Ranges at sea from 30°N to 56°N, from
China north to Bering Sea and east to Baja California;
the only albatross seen regularly off the Pacific coast
of USA and Canada. During the breeding season,
sighted at sea between 112° W to 170° E and 15° N to
53° N, including Sea of Okhotsk. Common off Japan
in July and in the southern Bering Sea during June to August; off coast of California may occur at any season,
but most numerous June to August. Pelagic range of breeding birds most restricted in February when feeding
small nestlings; range expands as chicks increase in size. Single historic, Southern Hemisphere record from New
Zealand.
beHavIour Flight dynamic and soaring. As Black-footed flaps wings more frequently than other albatrosses, it
is often able to fly in very light winds when other seabirds are becalmed. Follows ships and is readily attracted to
fishing boats and chum.
JIZZ Relatively small albatross with large bill and slim, scimitar-like wings typical of Phoebastria. Flight very
buoyant and dashing for an albatross, with wings held bent at the wrist. Feet generally extend beyond tail in flight
and are used as rudder. Only in the strongest winds are feet tucked up into belly feathers.
sIZe TL 64–74cm; W 50–52cm; WS 193–216cm; WT 2.8kg. Generally larger in all measurements than Laysan,
except that in individuals of same sex head wider but bill shorter than comparable Laysan. On average, heavier
than Laysan. Males slightly larger than females, with longer beak.
PlumaGe A small, dark albatross, the immature plumages of which do not differ as much from the adults as
those of other Phoebastria albatrosses.
Adult Head and neck black-brown, with variable but narrow white area at base of bill extending from lower
forehead to upper chin; some may show white crescent below eye that extends back to ear. Mantle, back and
tail, black-brown; lower rump and uppertail-coverts usually white but may be speckled brown. Underparts
brown with grey wash and somewhat paler than upperparts, especially breast and belly; in c. 10% of popu-
lation vent and undertail-coverts white. Upperwings uniform black-brown, with white shafts to outer flight
feathers. Underwing dark brown, paler on bases of primaries. Bill generally dark blackish-brown but in some
individuals lighter; eye blackish-brown; legs and feet black. Small proportion of population considerably
paler; head pale with dark flecking, underparts pale grey or white rather than brown, contrasting with brown
breast band; underwing paler; bill and legs pink or yellow. Upperparts as normal birds but paler with dark
flight feathers. Some hybridisation between Black-headed and Laysan in Hawaiian Group but little published
information on appearance of these individuals.
Juvenile Plumage entirely sooty-brown with narrower area of white at base of bill than adult, dark lower
rump and uppertail and dark shafts to outer primaries. Whitish areas on head, belly, and uppertail-coverts
increase in size with each successive moult, at least until first breeding at approximately 6 years of age.
moult aND Wear Begins wing moult on non-breeding grounds (late June–mid-October).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Easily distinguished from all other north Pacific albatrosses by its dark colour, apart from
juvenile Short-tailed. See Short-tailed for separation.
laysan albatross
Phoebastria immutabilis Plate 5
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Commonest albatross of north Pacific. Breeds Laysan, Midway and other northwest Hawaiian
islands (Kure east to Kauai, Niihau, Nihoa, Moko Manu); Torishima (Izu Is.); Ogasawara Is. (Muko-jima). Small
numbers on Guadalupe I. and Revillagigedo Is. (Clarion, San Benedicto, Rocas Alijos) off Baja California. At
sea ranges from 28°N–55°N from Japanese seas north to Bering Sea, and east to Pacific coast of North America,
where regular but rare. Southern limit poorly defined. Non-breeders wander widely over much of north Pacific,
131
including Marianas Is. and Caroline Is. Recorded
infrequently from Southern Hemisphere (Solomon
Is., Australia, New Zealand, and Indian Ocean).
beHavIour Will follow ships.
JIZZ Relatively small, long-necked albatross that has
slim scimitar-like wings typical of Phoebastria but a rel-
atively small bill. Feet extend just beyond tail in flight
but are often tucked up into belly feathers.
sIZe TL 79–81cm; W 47–50cm; WS 195–203cm;
WT 2.4kg (1.9–3.1kg).
PlumaGe Small, relatively slightly built black-and-
white albatross, with immature plumages similar to
those of the adult.
Adult Head, neck and underparts white. Grey-
black eye-patch begins in front of the eye and extends as a thin line back to ear; lower eye-lid white.
Upperwing, mantle, back and scapulars and upper rump dark sooty-brown with slightly paler edges to the
feathers. Lower rump and uppertail-coverts white, forming narrow white U-shaped area between dark upper
rump and black-grey tail. Outer flight feathers black with white primary shafts. Under surface of tail paler
grey-black. Underwing variable, perhaps whitening with age; predominantly white with broad black leading
edge, wing-tips and large black patches in armpits near the base. Darker birds have alternate rows of black and
white underwing-coverts forming a series of narrow parallel lines on the underwing. Bill yellowish-pink in non-
breeding season, becoming pinker whilst courting, with smudgy bluish tip; eye dark; legs and feet pale flesh.
Juvenile Similar to adult but bill slightly duller and head lacks grey wash.
moult aND Wear Moult flight feathers (late June–mid-October) on non-breeding grounds in southern parts
of range after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Amongst the north Pacific albatrosses, easily distinguished from Black-footed at all ages by
the latter’s uniformly sooty plumage. Much rarer Short-tailed is larger, with a much more massive bill; adults
are white backed with white patches on the upperwing and nearly pure white underwing. Immatures with dark
upperwings and whiter bodies similar to Laysan will always appear scruffier with dark patches on head, back and
rump. In the Southern Hemisphere strongly resembles several white-headed smaller albatrosses, especially adult
Black-browed and Campbell Albatrosses and the two yellow-nosed species, from which it can only be separated
given good views if one is unfamiliar with distinctive jizz of Laysan. Laysan is slim winged, long necked and has
a slim, pale, pinkish bill. Underwing pattern is darker and smudgier than both yellow-nosed but similar to Black-
browed and Campbell. Laysan, however, tends to have a more prominent large dark patch in centre of hand on
underwing, and the dark back extends further down onto the rump.
black-browed albatross
Thalassarche melanophrys Plates 7–9
132
Evangelistas), Falkland Islands (12 sites), South Georgia, South Sandwich Is., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is.; Heard
I. and McDonald Is., Macquarie I. and Bishop and Clerk Is.; Antipodes I., Campbell I., and Snares Is. Forages
generally north of breeding islands. Disperses northwards from breeding colonies to continental shelf waters
off Australia (to 28°S on west coast and 24°S on east coast), New Zealand (to subtropical waters N of 46–48°S),
South Africa (to 15°S on west coast) and South America (to 20°S on eastern shelf). The commonest vagrant
southern albatross in Northern Hemisphere, recorded from the Faeroes, Britain, Greenland, Iceland, Norway,
Ireland, USA and North Africa.
beHavIour Gregarious at sea, often in vast numbers behind trawlers and fishing boats. Readily attracted to chum.
JIZZ Medium-sized albatross with comparatively long wings, short tail and short neck. Broader-winged and
longer-necked than Grey-headed, Buller’s or Pacific but not as long-necked as either species of Yellow-nosed.
sIZe TL 80–96cm; W 50–56cm; WS 210–250cm; WT 2.9–4.6kg. Considerably smaller than the ‘shy’ albatrosses
but larger than any other dark-backed Thalassarche albatross except Campbell. Female averages smaller than
male in most measurements and overall weight, but considerable overlap in all of these.
PlumaGe Medium-sized, black-and-white, pale-headed albatross with dark back and black-and-white underwing
on which the extent of white varies with age. At all ages, eye blackish-brown. Hybrids with Campbell recorded
on Campbell I. but not known how these may differ in plumage.
Adult White with black upperwings, back and tail. Prominent black eyebrow which does not reach base of
bill. Underwing white with broad black leading edge, narrow trailing edge and dark wing-tip. Fully adult
bird has only a few dark feathers in the outer underwing-coverts. Bill yellowish-orange, redder at tip during
breeding. Legs and feet blue-grey, tinged pinkish.
Juvenile Predominantly white-headed with small grey-brown eyebrow, some smudginess around eye (but little
on lores) and distinctive grey nape and collar formed by dark feather tips to the sides of the neck and upper breast.
Collar becomes dusky-brown and is reduced or even lost with wear. Underwing mostly black, appearing entirely
so at a distance, but close up a paler central panel is visible in the inner wing, which is formed by broad grey edges
to central coverts. Feather edges become paler grey-brown with wear, making pale panel more obvious. Bill at
fledging mostly dark, grey-black, becoming paler over the first 18 months; variable horn-coloured and brownish-
yellow patches develop at base and on lower mandible, but the cutting edges and tip remain dark.
Immature Following post-juvenile moult, similar to worn juvenile, but central panel of underwing becomes
increasingly white. By 4th year extent of white on underwing can be similar to adult but with some dark
streaks in the centre of inner and outer wing formed by dark centres and tips to coverts. Any grey wash on
head or collar lost. Dark eyebrow increases in size, extending onto lores to become similar in size to that of
adult. Bill similar to older juveniles but by 3rd year paler and yellower at base. Older, pre-breeding birds
separable from adults by duller yellow bill, usually with some black smudginess on tip of upper mandible and
a few more dark feathers on underwing.
moult aND Wear Black feathers of adult become browner with wear. Grey wash on neck and nape of juvenile
and immature either becomes dirty brown or is lost. Wing-moult complex and with study many immature birds
can be aged. Not all flight feathers moulted in a single year. Adults that successfully raise a chick retain consid-
erably more flight feathers than those whose nests fail.
IDeNtIFICatIoN It is often helpful with the smaller mollymawks to try to establish the age of an individual before
trying to decide upon the species. Adults can be separated from all other mollymawks except Campbell Albatross
by combination of white head, black brow, orange bill and white underwing with broad dark borders, especially
along the leading edge. Adults separable from Campbell by dark not yellow eye, larger dark eye patch and darker
inner underwing, although the last should be used with caution as immature Black-browed can also have similar
pattern to underwing. Range is useful as Campbell is rare outside New Zealand waters. Young birds separable from
similar-sized Buller’s and Yellow-nosed and larger Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham by dark underwing. Juvenile and
immature impossible to separate from Campbell. Young Black-browed with darker underwings, darker bills and
scruffy greyish collars can be difficult to distinguish from young Grey-headed (for which see). See also Laysan.
Campbell albatross
Thalassarche impavida Plates 7, 9
133
neck. Broader winged and longer necked than Grey-
headed, Buller’s or Pacific but not as long necked as
either species of Yellow-nosed.
sIZe TL 78–90cm; W 49–54cm; WS 210–246cm;
WT 2.2–3.8kg. Very slightly smaller on average than
Black-browed but larger than any other dark-backed
Thalassarche and considerably smaller than the shy
group. Female averages smaller than males in most
measurements and overall weight, but overlap is con-
siderable.
PlumaGe Medium-sized, black-and-white, pale-
headed albatross, with dark back and underwing on
which the extent of white varies with age. Adult eye
straw-coloured. Hybrids with Black-browed recorded
on Campbell I. but not known how these may differ. Plumage as Black-browed, differing only in larger triangular
black eye patch, which extends farther in front of eye and nearly reaches base of bill, and darker underwing.
The coverts, especially of the the centre of the underwing are darker and virtually separate the continuous white
central strip found on Black-browed into two distinct panels. Bill may have an orange, not reddish, tip to the
upper mandible. Juvenile and immature as Black-browed.
moult aND Wear Black feathers of adult become browner with wear. Grey wash on neck and nape of juvenile
and immature is either lost or becomes dirty brown. Moult not studied but probably identical to Black-browed.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults very similar to Black-browed, only confidently separable by Campbell’s yellow eye. Juveniles
and immatures not separable from Black-browed. See Black-browed for further discussion of separation of adults
from that species and also for separation of young birds of both species from other immature mollymawks.
shy albatross
Thalassarche cauta Plate 6
134
between great albatrosses and the smaller mollymawks. On average female smaller than male in all mea-
surements. T. c. steadi averages larger than the nominate in most measurements, but weights overlap considerably
and only males are consistently heavier.
PlumaGe Black-and-white albatross with black upperwings and tail, paler greyish-black back and white
underparts and underwings. Underwing the whitest of all mollymawks with all ages having only narrow black
leading edge and tip and very narrow trailing edge. Small black round patch, or ‘thumb mark’, where front of
underwing meets body; black wing-tip relatively small compared to other ‘shy’ albatrosses, with large amounts
of white visible on bases of primaries. Striking narrow line of bright orange skin at base of bill, especially on
sides of upper mandible and along gape, visible when feeding. When birds agitated this orange gape line is visible
under the white cheek feathers. Legs and feet fleshy blue-grey, becoming reddish on land during breeding season
due to vascular dilation. Adults, juveniles and immatures differ only in head and bill colour.
Adult Head white with silvery-grey wash on ears extending to below eye and sides of face, sometimes as
far as crown but never on forehead and throat. This grey wash is always present but in strong light may be
difficult to see. Dark eye highlighted by prominent black eyebrow that begins at eye and extends in a narrow
triangle nearly to bill. Sides of bill horn-coloured with bright yellow tip to upper mandible. The only dif-
ference between the two subspecies said to be colour of bill: New Zealand birds said to have fairly uniformly
horn-coloured bill with less intense yellow tip to upper mandible; Tasmanian birds have a pale yellow dorsal
plate which is especially intensely coloured near base and yellowish cutting edge to upper mandible. Some
adults of both subspecies may have a darker, smudgy tip to the lower mandible, usually considered a feature
of immatures.
Juvenile At fledging head, nape sides of neck and lower throat pale grey extending onto crown and forehead,
resulting in collared, hooded appearance. Grey on forehead and sides of neck wears off rapidly and becomes
mottled and ill-defined but always has more grey than adult. Dark tip to underside of wing often slightly more
extensive than adult, but bases of primaries rarely as dark as Salvin’s or Chatham Islands Albatrosses. Bill
at fledging varies; usually virtually black with even darker tip to upper and lower mandible, but others are
lighter brown with smudgy black tip.
Immature Maturation a process of gradual lightening of the grey on the head and development of colour
on the bill. Greyish-horn bill colour develops in patches during 3rd or 4th year, though tips of both mandibles
remain black until almost adult.
moult aND Wear Grey on head becomes less prominent with wear in birds of all ages. Moult poorly understood
but appears to be similar to great albatrosses with a biennial moult of primaries, alternating moult of outer pri-
maries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during breeding season and body
moult may begin during chick-rearing.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Shy easily separated from all other mollymawks by considerably greater size, mostly white head
and underwing and paler grey, not black, back. Separated from wandering and royal albatrosses by smaller size,
grey (not white or mottled) back and grey (not pink) bill. Adult Shy distinguished from Salvin’s and Chatham
Islands Albatrosses by pale bill, lacking dark tip (though note exceptions), and white head. Features useful at all
ages are slightly larger size (quite distinctive with experience) and whiter bases to primaries, resulting in smaller
dark tip to underwing. Shy is more likely to have a gap in the narrow dark leading edge to the underwing just
above the ‘thumb mark’, and less likely to have grey of back extending far down onto rump. In some lights even
adult Shy may appear dark headed, and tip of underwing should always be used in conjunction with head col-
oration to clinch identification. Probably only possible to distinguish between adult breeding nominate and steadi,
and then only by direct comparison at close quarters, an unlikely event as foraging ranges of breeding birds do
not appear to overlap. On average nominate has a smaller bill and body and during courtship most have yellow
wash at the base of the bill, especially on the dorsal surface. Fewer breeding nominate have any dusky tip to the
lower mandible. Non-breeding, immatures and juveniles of two subspecies indeterminable at sea.
135
eastern Chile but may be seen as far north as southern
Peru. Two recent South African records suggest some
wintering birds may return to the Chatham Is. via the
Indian Ocean.
beHavIour Flies using dynamic soaring; wings
becoming more curved in rough weather. Not overly
gregarious at sea except around The Pyramid breeding
site and rarely seen around fishing boats on Chatham
Rise, probably due to competition with commoner,
slightly larger, more aggressive Salvin’s Albatross. ? ?
JIZZ Medium-sized ‘shy’ albatross with long, broad
wings, short thick neck and comparatively short tail.
Bill large but not as proportionately massive as that of
a great albatross; feet may extend beyond tail in flight.
sIZe TL 90cm; W 54–59cm; WS 220cm; WT 3.1–4.7kg. Slightly smaller in all measurements than other ‘shy’
albatrosses but significantly larger than all other mollymawks. Female generally smaller than male, especially in
bill measurements.
PlumaGe Dark-headed mollymawk with strongly contrasting white underparts. Underwing similar to other ‘shy’
albatrosses. ‘Thumb mark’ present at junction of forewing and flanks is, like Salvin’s, smaller than Shy. Relatively
broad dark wing-tip, the outer two-thirds of each primary dark with little of the paler bases showing. Legs and
feet fleshy blue-grey.
Adult Uniform medium grey head and neck that fades only slightly between moults and whose appearance
changes little with lighting, forming obvious hood that joins to dark brown-grey mantle and is cleanly
demarcated from white underparts. Although dark eyebrow present, virtually impossible to see except at
close quarters due to lack of contrast with dark grey hood. Bill bright yellow all over with well-defined semi-
circular black spot on tip of lower mandible. Striking bright orange skin at base of bill, especially on sides
of upper bill and along gape, visible when feeding. When birds agitated this orange gape line is visible under
the white cheek feathers.
Juvenile and immature Plumage sequences poorly known. At fledging, head pale grey and scruffy looking,
lacking any well-defined paler parts or collar effects; bill dark olive-brown with darker tip to both upper
and lower mandible. Head becomes darker and bill yellower but details not known. Retains dark on upper
mandible longer than Shy and some breed with this feature.
moult aND Wear Dark hood may become paler as feathers age but grey never lost entirely, unlike other ‘shy’
albatrosses. Moult unknown, thought to be similar to Shy.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adult Chatham easily distinguished from all other mollymawks by combination of dark grey
head, white underwing with thin black border and yellow bill. Around breeding site, Northern Buller’s has a sim-
ilarly dark head but wider black borders to underwing and black and yellow bill. Young of both Chatham and
Salvin’s separable from Shy by smaller size, darker tips to underwing and, usually, more grey on head. Separation
of young Chatham and Salvin’s may not always be possible. Chatham is very slightly smaller; the dark back
extends further down onto the rump as a small triangle of darker feathers; the forehead is likely to be greyish
rather than white; and there is unlikely to be a break in the thin dark border to the leading edge of the underwing
just above the ‘thumb mark’. At all ages Chatham is the only ‘shy’ albatross with a grey, not white, forehead.
salvin’s albatross
Thalassarche salvini Plate 6
136
surements. Slightly larger than Chatham Islands
Albatross but not significantly so. On average female
smaller than male in most measurements.
PlumaGe Grey-headed mollymawk with contrasting
white underparts. Underwing similar to other ‘shy’
albatrosses. ‘Thumb mark’ at junction of forewing
and flanks is smaller than on Shy. Relatively broad
dark tip to underwing, the outer two-thirds of each
primary dark with little of the paler bases showing,
like Chatham. Legs and feet fleshy blue-grey. ?
Adult Medium-grey head and neck, forming an
obvious hood merging into darker brown-grey
mantle. Hood variable due to extent of white
on forehead and demarcation of grey neck from
white underparts. Head looks paler in bright sunlight. Black triangular eyebrow typical of ‘shy’ albatrosses,
broader in front of eye. Bill dirty olive-grey with dull yellow on dorsal surface and along lower edge of lower
mandible. Semicircular dark mark always present on tip of lower mandible, and in virtually all adults there is
a smudge of black on the curved bill tip of the upper mandible. Striking narrow line of bright orange skin at
base of bill, especially on sides of upper mandible and along gape, visible when feeding. When birds agitated
this orange gape line is visible under the white cheek feathers.
Juvenile Plumage sequences poorly known. At fledging, head smudgy grey with scruffy collar generally
extending onto breast and dark sooty-brown bill with dark tip to both upper and lower mandibles. Head
becomes darker and dorsal surface of bill yellower but details not fully known. At all ages bill generally darker
than that of Shy of similar age with more conspicuous black tip formed by black marking on both mandibles.
Darkness of grey wash on head varies individually and with plumage wear, usually becoming paler and
slightly patchy, but still covering all of head except for white forehead, most of neck and upper throat and in
many cases forming a darker half-collar.
moult aND Wear Hood may become paler as feathers age but grey never lost entirely. Moult unknown but
thought to be similar to Shy.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adult easily separable from all mollymawks except immature Shy Albatross by combination of
pale grey head with white forehead, white underwing with thin black border and pale, olive-grey bill with dark
tip. Some immature Shy can have similar grey wash on head and pale grey bill with dark tip from which Salvin’s
best distinguished by darker bases to primaries on tip of underwing and smaller size. Separation of young
Salvin’s from Chatham not always possible. See Chatham Islands Albatross for discussion of differences.
Grey-headed albatross
Thalassarche chrysostoma Plates 8, 9
137
PlumaGe Black-and-white mollymawk with grey hood; underwing dark at fledging, lightening with age, similar
to Black-browed; eye brown with white lower eyelid; legs and feet flesh-coloured.
Adult Hood grey, sharply demarcated from white underparts with marginally paler forehead and crown,
small black triangle in front of eye and white ‘teardrop’ behind and below eye. Back, mantle and upperwing
uniformly black-brown, merging with hood. White shafts to outer primaries show on upperwing. Rump
and uppertail-coverts white, contrasting with dark grey tail which also has cream or white feather shafts.
Underwing with white central panel framed by broad black leading edge with diffuse streaked pattern on
greater primary-coverts and elbow region, large dark wing-tip and narrow black trailing edge similar to
Black-browed. Bill glossy black with yellow dorsal surface and narrow yellow line three-quarters of way
along base on lower edge of lower mandible. Reddish tinge to hook of upper mandible most noticeable in
breeding season.
Juvenile Hood paler than adult, usually with whitish cheeks; eyebrow smaller and less conspicuous; and
white tear drop behind eye indistinct in paler face. Underwing mostly black, with slightly paler grey central
panel to inner wing. Bill dark blackish-grey with dark tip
Immature Head paler and scruffier than adult, often with face, forehead and crown wearing to white,
but hindneck darker with mixture of brown and grey feathers extending as collar to throat and upper neck
to form a pattern similar to immature and juvenile Black-browed. Underwing gradually lightens to adult
pattern. Bill darkens with age apparently rather variably. In some, tip becomes pale first, followed by dorsal
surface of bill and finally narrow yellow line along base of lower mandible. In others, dorsal surface and base
of line on lower mandible lighten first and tip remains dark. Intermediates between white-faced immature
and dark-hooded adult have not been recorded, suggesting moult into adult head pattern happens rapidly.
moult aND Wear With wear grey hood of adult becomes paler, especially on face. As biennial breeder
moult similar to wandering albatrosses, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the
following year. Moult continues during breeding season and body moult assumed to be more extensive during
sabbatical years.
IDeNtIFICatIoN With experience, stocky, narrow-winged jizz distinctive, even at distance. Adult combination of
black, yellow-striped bill, grey hood and broad dark borders to underwing different from all other mollymawks.
Young birds separable from similar-sized Buller’s and the two yellow-nosed, and larger Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham
Islands Albatrosses by dark underwing. However, immature and juvenile difficult to distinguish from similar-aged
Black-browed and Campbell, which have similar dark underwings, dusky bill and scruffy greyish markings on
head and neck. At fledging, Grey-headed tends to have a darker grey head than Black-browed and Campbell,
with white cheeks. Older 2nd- or 3rd-year birds with some white on underwing, dusky collar and dull bill with
dark tips are the most difficult to identify. Moult can help but is complicated. For example, birds with three outer
primaries freshly moulted (and black) contrasting with the brown inner primaries are probably Grey-headed as
Black-browed and Campbell moult all flight feathers annually. Grey-headed tends to have darker, broader collar
and darker bill, while Black-browed and Campbell are paler-headed and start to attain an orange tinge to bill
earlier. Older birds with more white in underwing tend to have bill approaching adult colours – black in Grey-
headed and yellowish in Black-browed and Campbell.
138
PlumaGe Black-and-white mollymawk with underwing
pattern that does not vary with age. Legs and feet pale
pinkish bluish-grey.
Adult Ear-coverts, sides of crown, feathers around
bill and nape washed with pale grey, whiter on
forehead and throat. Grey may extend onto lower
neck, especially when freshly moulted. Large dark
eyebrow and triangular eye patch in front of eye
with white ‘teardrop’ just behind and below eye.
Underwing white, bordered by the narrowest of ?
dark trailing edges, narrow black leading edge that
is relatively clearly defined but may be smudgy on
inner wing, and comparatively large, black wing-
tip. Bill glossy black with narrow bright yellow
dorsal surface, rounded demarcation where bill plate meets feathering and prominent orange-red tip.
Juvenile Similar to adult but head white, only rarely having dirty grey collar typical of other immature mol-
lymawks. Dark eye patch much smaller than that of adult, often barely distinguishable from dark eye. Bill
entirely black for first year. Underwing much like adult’s but may have more dusky smudging on elbow and
along leading edge of inner wing.
Immature Grey on head more extensive than on juvenile but still patchier and scruffier than adult. Eye
patch becomes larger. Dorsal surface of bill becomes dull brownish-yellow, then creamy; tip of bill becomes
yellow but often dark subterminally; adult plumage acquired before adult bill colour.
moult aND Wear Black wings become browner with wear and grey wash on head of adults fainter, though
rarely lost entirely. Moult unknown but thought to be similar to other mollymawks that breed annually.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults and young of the two yellow-nosed albatrosses are relatively easy to tell from other small
mollymawks but can be very difficult to tell from each other. Small, slim jizz with small head, longish neck and
slim-looking bill often distinctive enough to separate both species of yellow-nosed from all other Thalassarche,
even at a distance. Adult Atlantic with pale grey hood most likely to be confused with Buller’s, Grey-headed
or Salvin’s. Best separated by slender build, combined with distinctly clear-cut black leading edge to white
underwing, narrower than Buller’s but broader than Salvin’s. Adults of both species have black bill with only
one yellow stripe (along the top), whilst Buller’s and Grey-headed have yellow stripes on lower mandibles as well.
Young birds of both species are usually separable from young of other small mollymawks by combination of
white underwing with narrow dark border, white head and black bill.
Adult Atlantic separable from Indian Yellow-nosed by greyer head and larger black eye patch. The shape
of the base of the yellow stripe on the top of the bill tends to be more rounded in Atlantic than Indian but this
does not appear to be a reliable identification feature. Juvenile and immatures of both species have white head,
black bill and small dark eye patches and are inseparable. At a distance, when details of the bill cannot be seen,
white-headed adult Indian birds are inseparable from young of both species.
139
JIZZ Small, slender mollymawk with slender neck, small square head, slim body, long narrow bill and narrow
pointed wings.
sIZe TL 200cm; W 45–50cm; WS 176cm; WT 1.75–2.93kg. May average smaller than Atlantic Yellow-nosed,
but data limited.
PlumaGe All ages similar to Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross.
Adult Head mostly white, any grey wash confined to cheeks, dark eye-patch small.
Juvenile and immature Similar to Atlantic; head white, dark eye-patch very small; bill black at fledging,
becoming yellow on top over 3 to 5 years.
moult aND Wear Dark back and wings may become browner as feathers age. Moult unknown but thought to
be similar to other mollymawks that breed annually.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults and young of the two species of yellow-nosed albatross are relatively easy to tell from
other small mollymawks but can be very difficult to tell from each other. Small, slim jizz with small head, longish
neck and slim-looking bill often distinctive enough to separate both species of yellow-nosed from all other Thal-
assarche even at a distance. Adult Indian with whiter head most likely to be confused with Black-browed and
Campbell. Best separated by slender build, combined with narrow dark border to white underwing. Adults of
both species have black bill with only one yellow stripe (along the top), whilst Buller’s and Grey-headed have
yellow stripes on lower mandible as well. Young birds of both species are usually separable from young of other
small mollymawks by combination of white underwing with narrow dark border, white head and black bill.
Adult Indian usually separable from Atlantic Yellow-nosed but young birds almost identical. See Atlantic Yellow-
nosed for discussion of differences.
buller’s albatross
Thalassarche bulleri Plates 8, 9
140
nostrils. Underwing as adult but may have slightly more smudgy black, especially on outer wing. With wear
grey hood becomes whiter, especially on crown and face, until almost white-headed.
Immature Not well known. Likely to be similar to juvenile but grey hood closer to adult in colour and
uniformity, and any collar less pronounced. Like juvenile, wear makes crown and face whiter thus making
collar more prominent. Bill slowly becomes darker on sides, and pale yellowish-brown dorsal surface to upper
mandible develops first. Yellow line at base of lower mandible last colour to show, usually in fifth year.
moult aND Wear Dark back and wings may become browner as feathers age and grey hood may fade slightly.
Moult poorly described but thought to be similar to other annually breeding mollymawks.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Only adults of two subspecies separable at sea, and then only if seen well. Adult Northern
has dark grey hood and indistinct white forehead, compared with medium bluish-grey hood and white cap of
Southern. Darker head of Northern most prominent on lores at base of bill, where some appear sooty-grey.
Separation of worn birds is difficult and only birds in fresh plumage regularly separable. Some cannot be iden-
tified in the hand. Measurements indicate that Northern has deeper bill and, in most, the yellow stripe on lower
mandible is narrower. Variation in plumages makes separation of young impossible.
Adult Buller’s may be confused with other grey-headed mollymawks, especially Grey-headed which has
similar bill pattern and is best told from all by underwing pattern; white with broader, tidy, dark leading edge and
narrow trailing edge. Grey-headed has shorter neck and tail and deeper bill than Buller’s with much broader,
scruffier dark leading edge to underwing. Close up sitting on the water, Buller’s has wider yellow stripes on bill,
especially at base of top. Immature Grey-headed, Black-browed and Campbell provide the greatest challenge
but all have dark or partially dark underwings; Buller’s underwings are neatly white with black border at all ages.
Most are also separable, with experience, using the distinctive jizz of each species. However, remember that
juveniles can look slimmer and less typical than adults of the same species. However, when sitting on the sea
there are very few features to distinguish them although shape and colour of bill and pattern of grey on head and
collar can help. Buller’s bill looks relatively long and thin and is never completely black but mostly dull greyish-
yellow with darker tip. Black-browed and Campbell usually have much whiter head than Buller’s and Grey-
headed, often developing white cheeks on otherwise scruffy grey head. All three, however, can have a varied
array of dusky collars. A feature that has been mentioned is that juvenile Buller’s may have distinctive pale, scaly
fringes to scapulars and inner upperwing-coverts, but this feature may simply be true of the fresh plumage of
any newly fledged mollymawk and we recommend that more study is needed before relying on this. Some ages
of Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham Islands Albatrosses can appear to have bicolored bills and have scruffy dark hoods
like immature Buller’s but are distinctly larger and longer-winged than Buller’s and have much narrower dark
borders to underwings. Both yellow-nosed are noticeably smaller, more lightly built and slimmer-billed, with
whiter heads and narrower, dark borders to leading edges of underwings.
sooty albatrosses
These two dark albatrosses comprise the genus Phoebetria.
sooty albatross
Phoebetria fusca Plate 10
141
cliffs of breeding islands, and sometimes at sea, in astonishing tight formation, inches away from one another.
JIZZ Medium-sized albatross with small, slender body, long, narrow wings and long, pointed, wedge-shaped tail.
Along with Light-mantled, most accomplished and manoeuvrable fliers of all the albatrosses; flight effortless,
rarely flapping wings.
sIZe TL 84–89cm; W 49–54cm; WS 203–207cm; WT 1.8–3.03kg. Sooty smaller than Light-mantled in most
measurements. Similar size and wingspan to giant petrels but considerably lighter.
PlumaGe Uniform sooty-brown albatross. Eye brown; legs and feet greyish-flesh, sometimes with blue shade.
Adult Dark chocolate-brown with uniform dark-greyish wash in fresh plumage and sides of face and ear
slightly darker but never contrasting strongly with back and underparts like Light-mantled. In strong light,
contrast enhanced, but in cloudy conditions or at any distance appears uniformly dark. In very worn plumage
slightly paler areas – especially nape to upper mantle – may be bleached paler and browner. Partial white eye-
ring, broken only in front. Conspicuous straw-white shafts to outer primaries and tail feathers, visible even at
distance. Bill black with narrow orange ‘racing-stripe’ along sides of lower mandible (sulcus).
Juvenile and immature Similar to adult, but, when fresh, feathers of nape and mantle have ghostly pale
edging resulting in a dappled effect. Bill, including sulcus, entirely grey-black; eye-ring pale brown or grey;
and shafts of outer primaries and tail brown. Due to pale feather bases, some immatures in heavily worn
plumage have distinct paler collar from nape onto neck-sides which may extend to upper mantle. Sulcus
gradually lightens, becoming orange by 5th year.
moult aND Wear Fresh dark brown feathers fade to chocolate-brown. Heavily worn immatures may have
distinct paler collar. Moult poorly documented but probably similar to other species that breed biennially,
alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during
breeding season and body moult assumed to be more extensive during sabbatical years.
IDeNtIFICatIoN In most cases easily distinguished from Light-mantled by dark, not light, grey body. See Light-
mantled for further discussion. May be confused with immature giant petrels, which are also uniformly dark.
However, Sooty Albatross is dark-billed and considerably less heavy with long, narrow wings, whilst giant petrels
have massive pale bill, massive bodies, and are bull-necked with short tails. In light winds giant petrels have
flapping flight typical of petrels and in strong winds, although they soar, giant petrels’s flight never appears as
effortless as Sooty Albatross.
light-mantled albatross
Phoebetria palpebrata Plate 10
142
more uniform, with paler parts difficult to pick out. Individuals vary; some are slightly darker, tinged browner
and less contrasting. As plumage wears, pale areas, especially nape and neck to mantle, bleach paler and
buffer. Upperwing dark slate-brown, primaries darker, outer primaries and tail with straw-white shaft. White
eye-ring broken only in front of eye. Posterior part of eye-ring broad and noticeable at moderate distances.
Bill black, with bluish sulcus on sides of lower mandible.
Juvenile and immature Similar to adult, but some juveniles have darker, scalloped markings on back.
Bill, including sulcus, entirely grey-black; eye-ring pale brown or grey; and shafts of outer primaries and tail
brown. As feathers have pale bases, some heavily worn immatures may have paler collar from nape onto
neck-sides but never as extensive or as obvious as Sooty Albatross. Sulcus gradually lightens, becoming blue
by 5th year
moult aND Wear Fresh dark brown feathers fade to chocolate-brown. Some birds in very worn plumage can
have a dark ‘bandit’ face mask, paler throat, nape and crown. Moult poorly documented but probably similar
to other species that breed biennially, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the
following year. Moult continues during breeding season, and body moult assumed to be more extensive during
non-breeding years.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Given good views and in duller light easily separated from Sooty Albatross by contrast between
pale body and dark head and wings. In strong light, contrast between body and wings may be difficult to judge
but jizz often useful. Sooty Albatross has shorter, thinner looking wings and flatter forehead than Light-mantled.
In flight Sooty looks more angular, even reptilian. Close up, colour of sulcus diagnostic but difficult to see and
only present in full adults. A few immature or moulting Sooty Albatross have paler, scruffy collars but even
the palest-collared Sooty has a darker back than Light-mantled, and even the scruffiest Light-mantled has a
paler back and underparts than Sooty. May be confused with giant petrels, which can look similar in some
plumages. Light-mantled is dark-billed and considerably less heavy with long, narrow wings whilst giant petrels
have massive pale bill, massive bodies, and are bull-necked with short tails. In light winds giant petrels have
flapping flight typical of petrels and in strong winds, although they soar, giant petrels never appear as effortless
as Light-mantled.
FulmarINe Petrels
The two species of giant petrels, along with the Northern Fulmar and seven species of petrels from the Southern
Hemisphere, form this distinctive high-latitude group, which is believed to be most closely related to the alba-
trosses. They are distinguished from all other petrels by their prominent nostrils, most noticeable in the giant
petrels. In general they are stocky with long narrow wings and tails and large bills. The exact relationship of the
snow petrels is debatable and it is possible they are more closely related to the Kerguelen Petrel. Blue Petrel is
included in this group but some studies suggest it is more closely related to prions.
143
JIZZ Massive, barrel-bodied, albatross-sized petrel, with protruding neck and humpbacked appearance, relatively
short tail and narrow pointed wings. Huge, bulbous bill with remarkable single nostril tube. Typically flies with
stiff wings.
sIZe TL 85–100cm; W 46.0–57.7cm; WS 150–210cm; WT 3.8–5.0kg. Larger and heavier than Northern Giant
Petrel. Female smaller in most measurements and weight.
PlumaGe Polymorphic: albino, white and typical grey-brown phases. Typical phase fledges entirely dark,
becoming progressively paler and more mottled over many years. Juveniles of white phases similar to adults. Eye
generally dark but with paler iris (similar to Northern) in some adults. Bill yellowish-horn with greenish tip. Legs
and feet dull flesh-grey. Hybrid population on Gough I. apparently has similar plumage to Northern except for
greenish bill tip.
Typical phase adult Mainly mottled grey-brown with paler, almost white throat, face, nape, forehead and
crown, resulting in a white-headed appearance contrasting with darker underparts. Diagnostic white leading
edge to inner upper- and underwing. Incorrectly assumed to be variable due to lack of knowledge of plumage
differences with age and sex. Full adult plumage may not be attained until as late as 13th year; males of
similar age are considerably whiter than females.
Juvenile Uniformly glossy grey-black but with wear and sun-bleaching quickly becomes brown; bill pale-
horn or pinkish-yellow, with indistinct pale green tip. A few birds have bill entirely pinkish-yellow, lacking
greenish tip. Eye dark and legs mainly grey.
Immature With each moult slowly becomes a paler, heavily mottled grey-brown. Becomes especially paler
around head, commencing on face and throat. Often breeds in immature plumage.
White phase Uncommon (10% of birds fledged on Macquarie I.). Entirely white with exception of a few
scattered dark brown feathers on body, wing and, rarely, flight feathers; juvenile and immature indistin-
guishable from adult except for those adults with paler eyes.
Albino Very rare (c. 1% of birds fledged on Macquarie I.) and possibly fatal as only immatures are known.
All-white with uniform pink bill and pink legs and feet.
moult aND Wear Body moult prolonged; all plumages can look heavily mottled with worn brown and fresh
grey feathers. Adults begin wing moult while raising chicks. Moult rapid after leaving breeding grounds with
some individuals having only 2–3 outer primaries during July.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Size and jizz, especially huge bill, usually identifies birds as one of the giant petrels. White
and albino phases unmistakable though could possibly be confused with extremely white adult male Snowy or
Southern Royal Albatross, both of which have broad, dark trailing edge to upperwing. Separation of all but
a few juvenile Southern from Northern simple if colour of tip of bill is seen: Southern is greenish, Northern
reddish. The bill-tip of a few young birds, especially those just fledged, can lack any greenish tinge and they may
not be separable from Northerns. The contrast between Northern’s pink bill and dusky, red bill-tip is visible at
surprisingly long range compared with Southern’s greenish bill-tip. At a distance, when bill details cannot be
seen, adult Southern has a white head, mottled belly and white leading edge to inner upperwing and underwing
whereas Northern retains darker cap to head but has a paler belly. Younger Southern just developing white face
may not be separable from Northern until it develops white leading edge to inner upperwing and underwing in
3rd or 4th year. For separation from sooty albatrosses see those species.
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anything thrown from a boat. Often follows ships for offal. Where the two species breed together Northern not
commonly found feeding on seal corpses due to competition with larger, more aggressive Southern and diet seems
to be more pelagic. Whilst common on beaches in subantarctic, never comes ashore in temperate areas in winter.
JIZZ Massive, barrel-bodied albatross-sized petrel, with protruding neck and humpbacked appearance, relatively
short tail and narrow pointed wings. Huge, bulbous bill with remarkable single nostril tube. Typically flies with
stiff wings.
sIZe TL 80–95cm; W 47–56cm; WS 150–210cm; WT 3.8–5.0kg. Smaller and lighter than Northern Giant
Petrel. Female smaller in most measurements and weight.
PlumaGe Single dark morph. Fledges entirely dark becoming progressively paler and more mottled over many
years. Bill pinkish-horn with dusky-red tip. Legs and feet dull flesh-grey often with bluish tinge. Iris brown
at fledging, pale yellow in many adults. Hybrid population on Gough I. apparently has similar plumage to
Northern but greenish tip to bill.
Adult Mottled brown crown and nape with ill-defined whitish face (especially white around bill) and throat.
Feathers immediately surrounding eye often remain dark, resulting in a spectacled appearance and white
throat often appears to be bordered by sooty collar. Rest of underparts mottled silvery grey-brown, paler than
scruffy, grey-brown upperparts. Never has white inner leading edge to upperwing, and underwing usually rela-
tively dark.
Juvenile Uniformly glossy, grey-black but with wear and sun-bleaching, quickly becomes brown. Bill pale
horn or pinkish-yellow, with indistinct red tip. Bill-tip colour usually stronger, contrasting more with rest of
bill than Southern; thus if colour on bill-tip difficult to see then bird is more likely a Southern. A few birds
have entirely pink bills and are therefore indistinguishable. Eye dark and legs mainly grey.
Immature Similar to adult. Throat first area to become paler. Throat, face and belly become paler with
successive moults, taking about 7–8 years to attain adult plumage.
moult aND Wear Body moult prolonged and at all ages can look heavily mottled with worn brown and fresh
grey feathers. Adults begin wing moult whilst raising chicks and once breeders leave breeding grounds moult
becomes rapid with some individuals only having 2–3 outer primaries during July.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Very similar to Southern Giant Petrel. Northern has dusky-reddish tip to bill, no white leading
edge to inner upperwing and does not develop as white a head. See Southern for further discussion of differences.
Best told from all other large petrels and albatrosses by size and jizz, and especially the massive, bulbous bill.
Northern Fulmar
Fulmarus glacialis Plate 12
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sIZe TL 43–50cm; W 30–33cm; WS 101–117cm; WT 450–1,000g. Similar in size but heavier than Flesh-footed
and Pink-footed Shearwaters. Smaller than larger gulls and Great Skua.
PlumaGe Polymorphic petrel with dark and light plumage phases and a range of intermediates. Ratios of light
to dark and intermediate morphs vary between populations. Pacific Northern Fulmars show a wider range of
light and dark phases than Atlantic populations. Bill variable; mandibles yellow-grey or blue-grey; tips of both
mandibles yellow; nasal tubes generally darker than rest of bill. Dark blotches common on bill, especially in
darker-plumaged individuals. In dark-morph all-black bills recorded.
Light morph Head and neck white, with small dark patch in front of eye visible at close range. Rest of
upperparts slate-grey, tail darker in Pacific birds. Outer upperwing bordered by diffuse dark grey trailing edge
with blackish outer primaries and tips of secondaries; inner primaries mostly white, forming a diagnostic pale
patch contrasting with the black outer primaries. Underwing predominantly white with back tips to outer
primaries and faint black trailing edge, especially to outer underwing.
Dark morph Uniformly dark smoky-grey; pale wing patch absent in darkest individuals.
Intermediate morphs In reality, variation is continuous from lightest to darkest morphs, yet the following
system of four categories is widely used to classify Northern Fulmars in the hand and at longer range:
LL (double light): Head, neck, and underparts white, except for small dark patch in front of eye; white on
head may be tinged with yellow in Atlantic.
L (light): Crown of head, nape, and hindneck grey, grading into grey of mantle. Breast white; remainder of
underparts may be white, light grey, or flecked with grey.
D (dark): Head, neck, and underparts light or medium grey; breast in most cases lighter, but never white.
DD (double dark): Almost uniformly dark or very dark grey; wings almost as dark as their tips.
There is little change with age but juvenile feathers can be narrowly fringed paler, especially on mantle and inner
upperwing-coverts. Immatures and failed breeders moult earlier so will appear worn early to mid-summer and
freshly moulted by late summer.
moult aND Wear Crispness of grey and black plumage lost with wear and bleaching, black becoming brown.
Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid primary
moult at end of breeding season which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so.
IDeNtIFICatIoN At a distance, lighter morphs may be confused with grey-backed gulls, but stocky jizz and stiff-
winged flapping and gliding flight close to sea surface should identify most. Darker morphs at a distance may be
confused with Pink-footed or Flesh-footed Shearwaters among other species. However, should be distinguishable
from all petrels at close to moderate range by jizz and stubby, yellowish bill, although this may be dark in darkest
individuals. Pale window on primaries diagnostic in light and intermediate morphs.
southern Fulmar
Fulmarus glacialoides Plate 12
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PlumaGe Single gull-like colour morph. White underparts and head, and pale blue-grey upperwing and back.
Outer upperwing bordered by broad black trailing edge with black outer primaries and tips of secondaries; inner
primaries mostly white, contrasting strongly with the black outer primaries and forming a diagnostic pale patch
on outer wing. Underwing predominantly white with black tips to outer primaries and faint black trailing edge
(especially to outer underwing). Eye large and dark. Bill bicoloured, with pinkish mandibles with black tips, and
nasal tubes blue-grey. Legs and feet greyish-pink. Little change with age but juvenile may have feathers narrowly
fringed slightly paler, especially on mantle and inner upperwing-coverts and will appear worn early in summer.
Immatures and failed breeders moult earlier, thus appearing worn in mid summer and many freshly moulted
by late summer.
moult aND Wear Crispness of grey and black plumage lost with wear and bleaching, black becoming brown.
Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult begins during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid
primary moult at end of breeding season, which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Similar to Northern Fulmar. Although never recorded together should be separable on bill and
rump coloration. In Antarctic waters the only large, predominantly grey-and-white bird. On wintering grounds
may be confused with smaller grey-backed gulls at distance, but stocky jizz, petrel-like flight and bill colour
should identify most.
antarctic Petrel
Thalassoica antarctica Plate 13
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in cold waters of southern
oceans. Breeds (eggs late November) at more than 35
colonies, up to 350 km inland, on Antarctica. Whilst
breeding does not travel far from colony and rarely
seen far from icebergs and pack-ice zone. Disperses
widely in southern oceans to Antarctic Convergence.
Less prone to vagrancy than Southern Fulmar and
mainly recorded as beach wreck during storms.
Recorded at Bouvet, Prince Edwards, Crozets, Ker-
guelen and Heard Islands, South Georgia, Falklands,
South Africa, Australia, New Zealand.
beHavIour A bird of pack-ice and surrounding
iceberg zone. Extremely gregarious during breeding
season, often in tight flocks, but vagrants at northern end of wintering range generally solitary. Surface feeder
but will dive to shallow depths. Not a habitual ship-follower, rarely behind trawlers and not readily attracted to
chum. During post-breeding moult may only have 2–3 primaries and become flightless or have to flap rapidly to
fly. During this period huge congregations often seen on icebergs sometimes with Southern Fulmar.
JIZZ Medium-sized petrel with typical petrel flight. Wings long and pointed and tail long and slightly wedge-
shaped compared to other fulmarine petrels. Flight a mixture of long dynamic glides and shallow, stiff-winged
fluttering, but flaps wings less than Cape Petrel or fulmars.
sIZe TL 40–46cm; W 29.2–33.1cm; WS 100–110cm; WT 675g. Considerably larger than Cape Petrel. Female
very slightly smaller.
PlumaGe Dark brown and white. Plumage varies little with age. Sexes alike. Bill olive-brown; eye brown; legs
and feet flesh-grey; head, neck, back, and rump chocolate-brown. Upperwing brown except for broad white
wing-bar on secondaries and inner primaries. Underparts white except for underwing with broad, dark brown
leading edge and narrower trailing edge. Tail white with broad brown tip. When freshly moulted, brown back
and wing feathers have pale edges, crown and face blacker, and chin may have white spots. Chocolate-brown
fades to patchy lighter brown, especially on nape and hindneck, which may become white enough to form a
pale collar, isolating the brown head from mantle. Throat may also become white. Juvenile plumage similar
to adult in fresh plumage, but with a black bill. Immature similar to adult, but immatures and failed breeders
moult earlier and appear brown and worn, with pale collars, early to mid-summer and freshly moulted by late
summer.
moult aND Wear Crispness of brown plumage lost with wear and bleaching, brown becoming pale or even
fawn. Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch, and primary moult begins during late chick rearing. Undergo
rapid primary moult at end of breeding season, which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Usually unmistakable but given poor views may be confused with the smaller, more round-
winged Cape Petrel. However, Antarctic has all-dark back and very different wing pattern with a clear-cut,
broad, white wing-stripe, as opposed to Cape Petrel’s chequered back, rump and wings.
147
Cape Petrel
Daption capense Plate 13
taxoNomy Subject of considerable debate. Treated here as separate from Greater Snow Petrel based on dif-
ferences in size, weight and behaviour that are greater than between many other forms of petrel regarded as a
single polytypic species. The two forms hybridise in eastern Antarctica.
DIstrIbutIoN Breeds on coasts and up to 300km inland in Antarctica, the Peninsula, South Georgia and
148
islands of Scotia Group. Pure Lesser colonies (eggs
Dec) known from Bouvetøya, South Georgia, South
Orkneys, South Shetlands, Davis, Cape Denison and
Svathamaren, Forages in open pack ice. Disperses
north at sea during non-breeding season but never
seen alive far from pack-ice. Vagrant to Macquarie
I. in years of extensive pack-ice; other records from
Heard and Kerguelen probably this species. Mixed
colonies at Pointe Geologie Archipelago, Terre Adelie,
Peterson Is, Ardery I. Status of those at Proclamation
P. confusa
I, South Sandwich, Cape Hallet and Cape Hunter
confusing.
Behaviour Solitary or in small foraging groups,
occasionally in mixed species flocks. Feeds among
pack-ice floes primarily by surface-seizing, but sometimes by foot-pattering like storm petrel. Commonly seen
sitting on icebergs and probably roosts there (unlike any other petrel). During moult, in late summer and
autumn, flocks congregate on icebergs, but rarely with other species.
Jizz Medium-sized petrel with long, narrow wings and long, slightly wedge-shaped tail. Flight distinctive among
petrels in Antarctica, being erratic and buoyant with rapid, jerky, shallow wingbeats and frequent changes of
direction without long periods of gliding. Often flies very close to the water, like a giant storm-petrel. In stronger
winds may arc way up into air similar to Kerguelen or gadfly petrels.
Size TL 30–35cm; W 24.5–27.8cm; WS 75–84cm; WT 200–378g. Lesser apparently smaller than Greater in all
measurements, without overlap. Females smaller than males in weight and most measurements. Hybrids inter-
mediate in measurements.
Plumage All-white petrel with prominent black eye and bill. A scattering of dark feathers immediately behind
the eye and dark shafts to the outer primaries are more prominent in Lesser. Fresh plumage tinged slightly
grey with upperwings and upperparts finely vermiculated, but virtually impossible to see except in the hand.
Vermiculations probably more prevalent in Lesser Snow Petrel and less likely to be lost with wear. Juvenile and
immature may appear greyer and it is sometimes possible to see fine vermiculations in the field.
moult and wear Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult begins during late chick-
rearing. Undergo extremely rapid primary moult at end of breeding season, which may leave individuals
flightless or nearly so. Tatty-looking birds in midsummer likely to be immatures
identiFiCation Always near ice. Records elsewhere likely to refer to albinos of other species. Known to have
been mistaken for Albino Cape Petrel, from which very difficult to separate. Within range only likely confusions
are Arctic and Antarctic Terns, from which separated by completely white plumage, wider and rounder wings
and more petrel-like flight. Lesser and Greater separable in flight when present together by size difference.
Greater more barrel chested, stockier and longer-winged, with stouter bill and more prominent dark feathering
around eye. Greater generally looks whiter as faint grey vermiculations on plumage less extensive than Lesser.
taxonomy Subject of considerable debate. Treated here as distinct from Lesser Snow Petrel, based on
differences in size, weight and behaviour that are greater than between many other forms of petrel regarded as
a single species. The two species hybridise in eastern Antarctica.
diStriBution Coastal eastern Antarctica. Pure Greater colonies (eggs Nov–Dec) known only from the Balleny
Is. Status of those at Proclamation I., South Sandwich, Cape Hallet and Cape Hunter confused. Forages in
open pack-ice. Disperses north at sea during non-breeding season but never seen alive far from pack-ice. Mixed
colonies at Pointe Geologie Archipelago, Terre Adelie, Peterson Is., Ardery I. For map see Lesser Snow Petrel
above.
Behaviour As Lesser Snow Petrel.
Jizz As Lesser but more barrel-chested, stockier and somewhat longer-winged with stouter bill.
Size TL 35–40cm; W 28.5–31.1cm; WS 84–95cm; WT 317–570g. Lesser apparently smaller than Greater in all
measurements without overlap. Females smaller than males in weight and most measurements. Hybrids inter-
mediate in measurements.
Plumage As Lesser but small dark patch immediately behind the eye slightly larger, and dark shafts to the outer
primaries less prominent. Faint grey vermiculations on plumage less extensive.
moult and wear As Lesser Snow Petrel.
identiFiCation See Lesser Snow Petrel.
149
Kerguelen Petrel
Lugensa brevirostris Plate 14
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in colder waters
throughout southern oceans. Breeds (eggs October)
on Gough I. and islands of Tristan da Cunha group,
Prince Edward, Marion, Crozet Is. and Kerguelen
group. During breeding, forages south of breeding
grounds and is common along ice edge. Disperses
north and south throughout southern oceans from
pack-ice north to 40°S, but less common in south
Pacific and south of South America. Irregular vagrant
to South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Records
from off Brazil (24°S), Somalia and Red Sea.
beHavIour Solitary, very rarely following ships.
Never seen behind fishing boats and not attracted to
offal or chum. In stronger winds, flight unique, flying up to 30 m above water in wide, effortless arcs. Often glides
well above sea facing into the wind, maintaining position with slight jerks of the wing almost like a Kestrel Falco
tinnunculus or other falcon, and quite unlike any other petrel. In lighter winds, soars like other petrels but still
adjusts position with slight jerks of the wing and can alter flight direction abruptly like storm-petrel.
JIZZ Remarkably similar to snow petrels. Medium-sized petrel, bull-necked and big-headed with steep forehead,
extremely large eye and long, narrow wings. Squat little body tapers to rounded or slightly wedge-shaped tail.
sIZe TL 33–36cm; W 246–272mm; WS 80–82cm; WT 357g. Marginally smaller than Soft-plumaged but a fair
bit smaller than all other dark petrels and shearwaters in southern oceans. Female slightly smaller than male.
PlumaGe Head, upperparts and upperwing dark slate or sooty-grey; back, mantle and underparts slightly paler
than wings and tail. Appears black or dark brown at a distance. Underwing slate-grey, similar to underparts,
but with pale white leading edge to inner wing formed by pale fringes to feathers. This white patch is widest at
point where wing meets body and tapers to elbow. Flight feathers and coverts of outer wing have silvery sheen,
appearing as a pale wing-tip in bright light. Darker feathers around eye may appear like a mask and in strong
light whole head may appear hooded. In worn plumage, white bases of feathers of chin and throat may show.
Bill black; eye brown; legs and feet brown to grey. Young birds may be recognized by worn plumage during early
breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer.
moult aND Wear Slate-grey feathers wear to greyish-brown. Body moulted during chick rearing, flight feathers
immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Rare, slightly larger dark-morph Soft-plumaged Petrel likely to look very similar; the rarity of
reports of dark-morph Soft-plumaged may be due to misidentifications as Kerguelen. With experience, jizz and
bizarre flight pattern useful but Kerguelen does not always fly in the ‘diagnostic’ manner. Kerguelen’s stouter
and shorter bill, pale leading edge to inner underwing and more extensive silvery sheen on underwing helpful
but only visible in good viewing conditions. Great-winged Petrel and other dark petrels and shearwaters all much
larger and heavier; Kerguelen appears grey rather than brownish except in very worn plumage and has a bull-
necked appearance with steep forehead. In general Kerguelen flies higher above water than the other species
although Great-winged is also prone to fly high; dark shearwaters usually fly much lower.
blue Petrel
Halobaena caerulea Plate 27
taxoNomy Monotypic. Affinities of genus debatable. Given similarities in appearance to prions status as close
relative seems plausible, but other studies suggest a close relationship with the fulmarine petrels.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar throughout colder waters of southern oceans; generally found south of the Ant-
arctic Convergence. Breeds (eggs September–October) on South Georgia, Prince Edward, Marion, eastern
islands of Crozet group, Kerguelen, Macquarie, and Diego Ramirez and Cape Horn group in southern Chile.
Forage near breeding grounds during summer. Non-migratory but in winter may disperse northward as far as
20°S to southern Australia, New Zealand and southern South America where common to 40°S in Chile and
southern Argentina. Also occurs in southern Peru and South Africa in winter.
beHavIour Gregarious, often in flock with prions and occasionally other species. Occasionally follows ships but
rare around fishing boats and difficult to attract to chum.
JIZZ Looks like large prion with small petrel-like bill. Flight similar to Broad-billed Prion but, unlike prions, soars
like a gadfly-petrel.
sIZe TL 26–32cm; W 19.8–23.3cm; WS 62–71cm; WT 152–251g. Slightly larger than Broad-billed Prion and
150
thus noticeably larger than all other prions. Signifi-
cantly smaller than any other blue or grey-and-white
petrel of southern oceans. Female marginally smaller
than male in some measurements.
PlumaGe Grey-blue upperparts with white-tipped tail
highlighted by very narrow black subterminal band.
Forehead, face throat and ear-coverts white. Black
crown extending around eye, dark nape and broad
half collar give white-throated appearance. Distinct,
dark M marking across upperwing. Underparts and
underwing white. Eye dark; bill mostly black with blue
lower mandible; legs and feet blue with flesh-coloured
webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn
plumage during early breeding season and freshly
moulted appearance in late summer.
moult aND Wear Grey-blue feathers wear to bluish-brown. Body moulted during chick-rearing, flight feathers
immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Easily separated from all prions and petrels by white tip to tail, which may be visible in poor
light even at a distance. If tail not seen well then separated from prions by combination of white forehead, dark
cap without any white around the eye, black bill and pure white undertail. Smaller than any cookilaria petrel,
with pure white underwing.
PrIoNs
Relationships between prions are unresolved and require further study. Here we have recognised seven species,
but DNA work has yet to done and opinions are likely to change.
Prions are easily distinguished from all but Blue Petrel by diagnostic plumage pattern, unique jizz and
behaviour. However, they are one of the most difficult groups of petrels to separate at sea and in many cases,
even with perfect views, identification to species may not always be possible.
151
Salvin’s and MacGillivray’s are indistinguishable in the field, but the bill of MacGillivray’s is intermediate
in size between Salvin’s and Broad-billed Prions. Thus this key summarises what an observer should do with
every prion they see: ‘look at the tail first, then the face and then the bill’. With this mantra, prion separation becomes
a lot easier!
However, there are still some pitfalls:
The tail-tip is not always easy to see. The broad dark tail-tip of Fairy and Fulmar Prions is readily
separable from the narrow tail-tip of the whalebirds, but this feature is difficult to assess in swift-
flying birds, and when the tail is in moult may be impossible to determine. Unfortunately wintering
prion flocks off New Zealand, Australia and South America contain mostly moulting birds, thus
separation is problematic.
Some races of some species differ significantly. Fairy Prions of the race subantarctica are more
similar to Fulmar Prions than commonly believed, and some may have blue on undersides.
Appearance varies depending on distance and light conditions. The apparent darkness of the
collar varies with light conditions. A collar that appears dark in dull light may be virtually invisible
in strong light. Also, light does not always allow the bill colour to be seen. Only exceptional views
(or proximity to breeding islands) will allow whalebirds to be confidently identified.
Prion bill measurements
In the hand, bill measurements can be helpful in separating the species but note that there is considerable overlap
and that, on average, measurements are smaller for old, dried museum specimens and for juveniles, the birds
most often found storm-driven or dead on beaches.
broad-billed Prion
Pachyptila vittata Plate 26
152
Size TL 25–30cm; W 18.1–22.5cm; WS 57–66cm; WT 170–237g. Largest of all prions, only slightly smaller
than Blue Petrel. No significant difference in sexes.
Plumage Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151). Narrow black tip to tail may extend onto outer tail
feathers. Undertail white with blackish central streak. Darker head than other prions, with only narrow white
supercilium above and behind eye. Hind-neck bluish-grey, extending to sides of neck and sides of upper breast
and forming a broad partial collar. Prominence of collar and limited amount of white on face add to dark-
hooded appearance. Young birds paler on head. Huge bill is broad, deep and duck-like; sooty-grey, appearing
black at sea. Baleen-like lamellae may be seen given exceptional views. Young birds may be recognised by com-
paratively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer.
moult and wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers imme-
diately after breeding.
identiFiCation Blue Petrel has white tip to tail. Distinguished from other prions by combination of larger size;
large head; massive all-dark bill unlike any other prion; steep forehead giving baseball cap-like appearance; dark-
head; pronounced collar and narrow dark tail-band (broad in Fairy and Fulmar Prion). Salvin’s/MacGillivray’s
most difficult to separate and probably only possible given exceptionally good views. Look especially for blue,
not black, bill; otherwise range helpful during summer. With practice by far the easiest of the prions to identify
by size, flight and large-headed jizz. See also key and bill measurements above.
Salvin’s Prion
Pachyptila salvini Plate 26
153
macGillivray’s Prion
Pachyptila macgillivrayi Plate 26
antarctic Prion
Pachyptila desolata Plate 26
154
slender-billed Prion
Pachyptila belcheri Plate 26
Fairy Prion
Pachyptila turtur Plate 27
155
beHavIour Very gregarious but rarely follows ships. Large flocks will fly across a ship’s bow, ignoring it com-
pletely, yet may play in large ship’s bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement. Rarely
attracted to fishing vessels or chum.
JIZZ Small-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, short, broad, round-tipped wings and long, rounded or
wedge-shaped tail. Flies close to surface of sea with wings held at right angles to body, quick, flickering indistinct
wingbeats and sudden changes of direction. When foraging, faces into wing with wings slightly bowed, jumping
from wave to wave with legs dangling down. In strong winds, flies by dynamic soaring but usually lower to the
water than gadfly petrels.
sIZe TL 23–28cm; W 16.8–18.9cm; WS 56–60cm; WT 88–175g. Smallest of all prions.
PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and
a broad dark tail-tip that extends a third to halfway up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, with short, white
supercilium and short, often indistinct dusky eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of
upperbody. With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white
with indistinct pale grey-blue sides to breast that are lost with wear. Some individuals (especially those in subant-
arctic New Zealand) may have blue wash on parts of underside and even underwing. Underwing generally white
with indistinct grey trailing edge. Black undertail mark obvious and may be more pronounced at tip, forming
T-shaped undertail marking. Bill pale blue and rather stubby looking with relatively larger tip than all other
prions except Fulmar Prion. Juveniles and subantarctic birds are paler, especially around the face.
moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers imme-
diately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Smallest prion. Broad dark tail-tip most useful identification feature, but combination of small
size, short stout bill, blue upperparts, indistinct collar and pale head, and in some cases almost white face,
separate it from most other prions, except Fulmar Prion. Separation from Fulmar Prion difficult but the latter
has bizarre flight pattern (for which see) and generally has a combination of longer, more massive bill, especially
the tip. Fulmar Prion upperparts often reported as lighter, M as less distinct, tip to underside of tail darker
and black tail band broader, but these are subtle, if correct, differences and may be due to geographical or age
variations. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and vent, but
some Fairy Prions of race subantarctica in New Zealand waters also have this feature and it is also very difficult
to observe at sea.
Fulmar Prion
Pachyptila crassirostris Plate 27
156
PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and a broad
dark tail tip that extends way up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, generally with smaller white supercilium
than Fairy and indistinct blue-grey eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of upperbody.
With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white with indistinct
pale grey-blue sides of breast that are lost with wear. Many individuals have blue wash on rear underside, on
extreme examples extending onto underwing. Underwing mostly white with indistinct greyish trailing edge. Black
undertail mark obvious, often extending a third of way up undertail, often more pronounced at tip, forming T-
shaped undertail marking. Bill short, stout and pale blue with proportionally the largest tip of any prion.
moult aND Wear Upperparts may wear to duller grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers imme-
diately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Most easily recognised by bizarre loop-the-loop aerobatic play flights, unlike any other prion,
but unfortunately they do not always do this. Separation from Fairy Prion difficult, generally only reliably separable
if stouter bill can be seen. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and
vent, but some subantarctica Fairy Prions also have this feature, and it is very difficult to observe at sea.
bulwer’s Petrel
Bulweria bulwerii Plate 15
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN A species of tropical waters. Breeds
(eggs generally May–June) on islands of eastern North
Atlantic, Indian and Pacific between 10°S and 40°N.
In main Hawaiian Is. breeds on islets off Hawaii,
Maui, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau: Hulu,
Kaeoi, Kaohikaipu, Kapapa, Kaula, Lehua, Manana,
Moke’ehia, Mokolea Rock, Moku Lua, Moku Manu,
Mokuho’oniki, Molokini, and Popoi’a. In north-west
Hawaiian Is. breeds on Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lisianski
I., Laysan I., Gardner Pinnacles, French Frigate Shoals,
Necker I., and Nihoa I. On islands off coast of southern
China and from Bonin Is. south and east to Marquesas
Is. Possibly also islands off Taiwan, Phoenix Is., Ryukyu
islands in East China Sea and Marshall Is. In central North Atlantic, breeds on Azores (Graciosa and Santa Maria),
Madeira Is., Desertas, Great Salvage I., Canary Is. (mostly on Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera, Hierro, Lanzarote and
islets off Lanzarote), and Cape Verde Is. Unconfirmed on St Helena. Recently discovered breeding on Round I. off
Mauritius. Forages near breeding islands during breeding season. Disperses during tropical winter but movements
poorly known: Pacific birds probably move south to central and eastern Pacific waters and to Indian Ocean west
to Maldives; Atlantic birds move mostly into western and South. Atlantic. Vagrants recorded in Caribbean and off
east coast of USA, British Isles, Italy, Spain, France, South Africa and northwest Australia.
beHavIour Generally seen at sea alone or in pairs. Does not usually follow ships. Seizes food from surface, flying
in wide circles over the water, fanning wedge-shaped tail as it manoeuvres in flight.
JIZZ Like a giant storm-petrel. Wings long and pointed, tail long, wedge-shaped, and thick at base, appearing
bluntly pointed in flight. Bill short and stout, with small, round nostrils directed forward; nasal tubes approxi-
mately one-third of length. Legs short and rarely visible. Flight bat-like or storm-petrel-like: buoyant and erratic,
zig-zagging, and quickly altering height and direction. In stronger winds, flies close to water, alternating short
series of shallow wingbeats with brief, twisting glides.
sIZe TL 26–28cm; W 18.3–21.4cm; WS 67cm, WT c. 100g. Intermediate in size between gadfly petrels and
storm-petrels. Larger than any completely dark storm-petrel. Male tarsus and bill longer than female but similar
in other measurements.
PlumaGe Sooty-brown above with pale band across greater wing-coverts usually visible up to 250m away; at
greater distances, wings appear uniformly dark above. Dull, sooty-brown below; chin and face sometimes paler.
157
beHavIour Very gregarious but rarely follows ships. Large flocks will fly across a ship’s bow, ignoring it com-
pletely, yet may play in large ship’s bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement. Rarely
attracted to fishing vessels or chum.
JIZZ Small-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, short, broad, round-tipped wings and long, rounded or
wedge-shaped tail. Flies close to surface of sea with wings held at right angles to body, quick, flickering indistinct
wingbeats and sudden changes of direction. When foraging, faces into wing with wings slightly bowed, jumping
from wave to wave with legs dangling down. In strong winds, flies by dynamic soaring but usually lower to the
water than gadfly petrels.
sIZe TL 23–28cm; W 16.8–18.9cm; WS 56–60cm; WT 88–175g. Smallest of all prions.
PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and
a broad dark tail-tip that extends a third to halfway up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, with short, white
supercilium and short, often indistinct dusky eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of
upperbody. With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white
with indistinct pale grey-blue sides to breast that are lost with wear. Some individuals (especially those in subant-
arctic New Zealand) may have blue wash on parts of underside and even underwing. Underwing generally white
with indistinct grey trailing edge. Black undertail mark obvious and may be more pronounced at tip, forming
T-shaped undertail marking. Bill pale blue and rather stubby looking with relatively larger tip than all other
prions except Fulmar Prion. Juveniles and subantarctic birds are paler, especially around the face.
moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers imme-
diately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Smallest prion. Broad dark tail-tip most useful identification feature, but combination of small
size, short stout bill, blue upperparts, indistinct collar and pale head, and in some cases almost white face,
separate it from most other prions, except Fulmar Prion. Separation from Fulmar Prion difficult but the latter
has bizarre flight pattern (for which see) and generally has a combination of longer, more massive bill, especially
the tip. Fulmar Prion upperparts often reported as lighter, M as less distinct, tip to underside of tail darker
and black tail band broader, but these are subtle, if correct, differences and may be due to geographical or age
variations. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and vent, but
some Fairy Prions of race subantarctica in New Zealand waters also have this feature and it is also very difficult
to observe at sea.
Fulmar Prion
Pachyptila crassirostris Plate 27
156
mascarene Petrel
Pseudobulweria aterrima Plate 15
beck’s Petrel
Pseudobulweria becki Plate 17
159
IDeNtIFICatIoN As plumage is so similar, Beck’s may not be distinguishable in the field from Tahiti unless seen
together, or with another petrel species when the difference in size may be assessed. Beck’s is quite small. At
29cm long it is a similar size to Black-winged Petrel, though longer-winged and only slightly larger and much
longer-winged than Heinroth’s Shearwater, both of which occur in the same area. Tahiti Petrel, however, at
39cm is slightly larger than Phoenix Petrel. See Tahiti Petrel for plumage differences from those species.
tahiti Petrel
Pseudobulweria rostrata Plate 17
160
Fiji Petrel
Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi Plate 17
gaDFly Petrels
A monophyletic group of small to medium-sized, mainly tropical and subtropical seabirds with the following
features in common: short, comparatively deep-based black bills; long, relatively rounded, narrow or relatively
broad-based wings; tapering, slightly wedge-shaped tails. Plumage of many characterised by dark brown or black
primaries and median/greater coverts, which in flight form an open M that continues across the lower back and
rump. The underparts are largely white and the underwings variable. They fly with carpals held well forward,
and in moderate to strong winds typically have a remarkable, highly manoeuvrable flight consisting of rapid,
towering arcs and strong glides, appearing almost to bound through the air. They breed mainly on undisturbed
offshore islands and remote islets. Gadfly petrels are amongst the most truly oceanic of birds, coming to land
only to breed.
Given the complexities of identifying Pterodroma petrels, we have tried to limit our discussions to the principal
characters visible in the field, and have especially attempted to emphasise each species’ most pertinent and diag-
nostic characters and point out pitfalls and problems, in the hope that observers can use these in order to build
their own storehouse of impressions of the different forms.
The difficulties of identification at sea should never be underestimated; differences in face and underwing
markings are often difficult to see as birds fly past rapidly and erratically, often at distance and sometimes in
unhelpful weather and lighting conditions. The appearance of upperwings and upperparts varies considerably
according to light, distance and angle of view, plumage wear, bleaching and state of moult. Structural or jizz
differences are also difficult to appreciate because flight patterns vary in response to wind direction and strength.
Variation related to sex and age can be even more difficult to assess, as information is decidedly incomplete for
many forms and several species. Even measurements of a bird in the hand cannot always be reliably used to sex
or even identify some of these taxa, there being very considerable overlap in many measurements. In summary,
nothing compensates for time spent gaining field experience with this group.
Cookilaria petrels
These 10 (or 11) small to medium-sized gadfly petrels are so similar in plumage that here we have chosen to
give a generalised description of a typical member of the group and then highlight distinctive differences in the
plumage text. Identification of this group poses similar challenges to that of separation of the prions, and in
many cases, especially with less than perfect views, identification may only be possible to group. Range is useful
in separating some species but be aware that due to the difficulties in identification, vagrancy is poorly known.
Taxonomy of this group is also poorly understood, with the tropical species being especially confusing.
161
a generalised description of cookilaria plumage
All species have a similar plumage, the main features of which are as follows: pale forehead and lores; darker
crown and neck collar; medium-grey upperparts with a darker M marking visible across upperwings and rump
in flight; underwing white, with variable pattern of dark markings, though all have a dark trailing edge to the
outerwing; dark wing-tip and some dark extending from the elbow to the centre of the armpit. All but dark-
phase Mottled and Collared have pure white underparts. Uppertail mainly grey, often with a darker tip and paler
webs to outer tail feathers. All species have fairly uniform dark bills typical of pterodromas, that vary only slightly
in depth and width so are rarely useful for identification. Eyes are always dark; legs and feet are flesh-coloured or
blue-grey with grey or flesh-coloured webs and variable amounts of black on the toes.
the general cookilaria jizz
Compared to other petrels, wings are relatively short, and appear rather rounded. They are held stiffly out from
the body and are slightly bowed, even when gliding. The tail is long for a petrel and is usually described as gently
rounded or wedge-shaped, but in some individuals appears square. Flight typical of Pterodroma petrels with high
sweeping arcs, rhythmically rocking from side-to-side in a pendulum motion. In strong winds, flight fast and
swooping on bowed, angled wings.
Even in good light and calm conditions distinguishing features can be difficult to ascertain in fleeting sightings
of these fast-flying species. Experience and an ability to pick out the critical identification features quickly are
helpful. Things to look for when identifying cookilarias, in order of priority:
• Underwing pattern
• Crown and neck pattern
• Forehead pattern
• Comparative tail length
• Presence or absence of dark tail-tip
• Presence or absence of pale feathers on outer margin of tail
• Conspicuousness of M marking across wings
• Presence or absence of white supercilium
Much has been written about the comparative size differences of the 10 species, but with the exception
of Mottled, which is much larger, overall size is rarely much help in identification. However, the relative mea-
surements of, for example, tail to wing can often give an idea of jizz and shape which in some cases, for example
long-winged, short-tailed Cook’s, is a relatively easy way to identify a species. Comparison of size and pro-
portions in the table below are mostly from Marchant & Higgins (1990).
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endangered petrel endemic to Chatham Is. Breeds (eggs December) only on South-East I.
although recently attempts have been made to reintroduce it to adjacent Pitt I. Probably forages southeast of
Chathams during breeding but not known whether migratory or dispersive.
beHavIour Probably solitary and highly pelagic.
JIZZ Medium-sized cookilaria. Jizz said to be similar to Black-winged but this is probably incorrect. Chatham is
relatively longer-bodied with shorter, narrower wings than Black-winged and is likely to look different at sea.
162
Size TL 30cm; W 20–22cm; WS 63–71cm; WT 165–
231g. Male probably slightly larger than female.
Plumage Typical cookilaria. Differs from other
cookilaria species primarily in underwing pattern,
having striking black armpit covering much of
innerwing-coverts and axillaries, leaving only narrow
mottled white patch along the leading edge of
underwing. Black extends to the elbow in a broad,
dark, diagonal line and continues onto outerwing
along leading edge. Undersides of outer ends of flight
feathers dark grey, forming indistinct black wing-tip.
Has dark M but this is indistinct since much of the
?
upperwings are dark. Darker feathers of M often
extend well down onto upper rump. Tail has broad
dark tip. Crown and broad collar slightly darker than rest of upperparts. Prominent black eye-stripe beginning at
ear and extending just forward of eye. Traces of a white supercilium usually visible over front of eye. Stout black
bill, bluish-pink legs and feet with variable pink and black webs and mostly black toes. Young birds recognised by
relatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer.
moult and wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown and M on upperwing becomes even less distinct. Adults
moult body during chick-rearing and moult flight feathers immediately after breeding.
identiFiCation Easily told from all other pterodromas if black armpit is seen. If underwing not seen well,
Black-winged (which also breeds on Chatham Is.) difficult to separate.
Black-winged Petrel
Pterodroma nigripennis Plate 23
taxonomy Monotypic.
diStriBution Tropical and subtropical south Pacific
Ocean. Breeding (annually, eggs December–January)
on islands off New Caledonia; islands off Lord Howe
I.; Philip I. (Norfolk Is.), Cape Maria van Dieman,
Portland and East Is. (North Island, New Zealand),
all islands of Kermadec group, Three Kings, South-
East, Mangere, Star Keys (Chatham Is.), Tubuai,
Rapa (Austral group) and probably off northeast
Queensland and New South Wales. Probably forages
near breeding islands during summer. Disperses
through south central Pacific west to northeast Aus-
tralia, north to 31°N southeast of Japan, east to
Baja California and Central America, and south to
Galápagos and Peru.
Behaviour Gregarious but rarely follows ships and not readily attracted to offal or trawlers. Flight similar to
other pterodromas but comparatively rapid and strong; will soar extremely high and hang motionless, head into
wind.
Jizz Long-tailed, slim-bodied, medium-sized cookilaria with long, relatively broad wings and rather short,
rounded outer wing. More manoeuvrable than other cookilarias, in strong winds rocking erratically and rapidly
from side to side.
Size TL 28–30cm; W 21.5–23.6cm; WS 63–71cm, WT 170–200g. Larger and bulkier than Cook’s and Pycroft’s,
but smaller than Soft-plumaged. Male probably larger than female.
Plumage Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in having broad black triangular
mark on inner underwing from elbow nearly to armpit. Upperparts somewhat variable. Typically, crown darker
grey than body; dark eye-stripe shorter and less obvious than in other species as colour similar to crown, but
some have pale grey crown and obvious dark eye-patch. Reasonably prominent collar often nearly encompasses
neck. Most show obvious white supercilium extending nearly to bill where it becomes more indistinct due to dark
flecks generally present in front of eye. M marking on upperwings and back can be prominent, highlighted by
paler secondaries, or indistinct in almost completely dark upperwing. Extension of M marking across back may
extend down onto rump. Rump and uppertail same or paler than back. Distinct dark tail-tip. May show white
edges to outer tail feathers when tail spread. Young birds recognised by relatively worn plumage during early
breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer.
163
moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown and head colour becomes similar to rest of body. M
marking on upperwing becomes less distinct. Adults moult body during chick-rearing and moult flight feathers
immediately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark mark on underwing longer and broader than on other cookilarias except Chatham
Islands, Bonin and Mottled Petrels. Chatham Islands Petrel has considerably larger dark patch on armpit, and
when underwing pattern seen well separation of two species is simple. For further features see Chatham Islands
Petrel. Bonin Petrel has a large, dark patch on outer underwing as well as inner and blacker head. Mottled is
considerably larger with a dusky belly patch. If the underwing is not seen well Cook’s and Pycroft’s may, with
practice, be identified by smaller size, narrower wings and shorter tails; De Filippi’s may be identified by longer
tail lacking dark tip; and Gould’s and Stejneger’s Petrels by much darker heads.
mottled Petrel
Pterodroma inexpectata Plate 23
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to New Zealand. Breeds (eggs
late December) on islands off Fiordland, Solander Is.,
islands in Foveaux Strait, islands around Stewart I.
(including Big South Cape group, Titi Is., Codfish,
and islets in Port Pegasus) with small numbers on
Snares Is. On the mainland, a small number remains
on an island in Lake Hauroko, Southland. May forage
as far as ice edge during breeding season and majority
of population may disperse to Indo-Pacific Antarctic
ice as far east as Prydz Bay in late summer to begin
moult. Transequatorial migrant in non-breeding
season, spending boreal summer in far north Pacific
and Gulf of Alaska, generally along central subarctic
front, though also numerous in Bering Sea. Recorded California, Oregon, Washington state, British Columbia,
Galápagos, eastern tropical Pacific, Chile (south to Drake Passage and Tierra del Fuego), with a recent record
southeast of Falklands. Accidental to southeast Australia.
beHavIour Strictly pelagic, rarely seen near land. Large flocks of tens of thousands seen foraging along ice
edge. Occasionally seen following boats but never behind trawlers.
JIZZ Very large robust body yet comparatively short-winged and short-tailed. Typical cookilaria flight but more
direct and less aecrobatic and manoeuvrable due to larger size.
sIZe TL 34–35cm; W 24.2–27.1cm; WS 85cm; WT 315g. Largest cookilaria, intermediate between rest of
cookilarias and large black-and-white pterodromas of tropics. Only slightly smaller than Great-winged and
White-headed Petrels and Sooty Shearwater.
PlumaGe Least typical cookilaria (see group account on p. 161–162). Differs from other cookilaria species
primarily in having dusky patch on belly, and upper breast which sometimes appears almost sepia coloured.
Dark patch may wear off during breeding season, especially from upper breast, but is never lost completely.
Underwing has narrow dark margin to trailing edge and tip with wide dark boomerang-shaped mark from
carpal onto inner wing. Small white patch on forehead with variable amount of dusky flecking and short,
indistinct white supercilium. Dark mark principally behind eye; rest of face and chin white. Crown and nape
slate-grey, merging into paler, medium-grey mantle. All feathers of upperparts scalloped with white fringes
when fresh. Broad black M across upperwing and lower back. In fresh plumage juveniles and immatures have
more conspicuous white edges to grey feathers than adults, less white mottling around face and a more variable
dark patch on underparts.
moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown and head colour becomes similar to rest of body. M
on upperwing becomes less distinct as whole of upperwing darkens. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing.
Some flight feathers moulted in Antarctic waters immediately following breeding then moult suspended until
completion of migration to north Pacific.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark belly diagnostic in southern oceans. Width and shape of dark, boomerang-shaped
mark on underwing also distinctive. Black-winged underwing is similar but marking is triangular, becoming
gradually thinner, whereas Mottled’s is square, although this is not important since if you can see this you
should also be able to see belly! Surprisingly, the biggest identification problem at any distance is with White-
headed Petrel, which has similar upperparts and jizz and is easily mistaken for Mottled when flying away.
Also, Mottled has so much white on the face that in bright light it can look very white-headed. White-
headed is slightly larger and has all-dark underwing. The only other Pterodroma with a dusky belly, the darker
form of Collared, may overlap in distribution during Mottled’s migration. Collared is considerably smaller
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and narrower-winged, with more buoyant, jerky flight; a dark cap that contrasts with grey mantle; and much
less obvious, narrower dark mark on inner underwing. Other than belly patch, useful distinctions from other
cookilarias include size and flight.
bonin Petrel
Pterodroma hypoleuca Plate 23
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Subtropical western and central north
Pacific. Breeds (eggs January–February) in North-
western Hawaiian islands, from French Frigate Shoals
to Kure Atoll, except for Gardner Pinnacles; also,
Volcano and Bonin Is. south of Japan. Disperses
widely over central and western Pacific to about
35–40°N from July through April. Hawaiian popu-
lation move northwest towards Japan whilst majority
of Japanese population apparently moves north to
waters off Sanriku and east Honshu. Vagrants in
north Mariana Is., Taiwan, Japan and Sakhalin.
beHavIour Solitary and pelagic; does not follow
ships.
JIZZ Typical cookilaria flight, fast and erratic on downcurved wings with slightly bent elbows.
sIZe TL 30cm; W 21.6–23.7cm; WS 63–71cm; WT 152–308g. Intermediate-sized cookilaria similar to Black-
winged in dimensions but on average slightly heavier. Male slightly larger than female.
PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily by having underwing with dis-
tinctive triangular, smudgy-black patch on leading edge of the outerwing. The underwing has comparatively
broad black trailing edge and comparatively short black bar extending diagonally from elbow inward across
inner underwing. Forehead and front of crown generally mainly white, merging into grey-black crown, nape,
hindneck, and sides of face. Dark grey extends down sides of breast, forming partial collar. Rest of upperparts
dull blue-grey, feathers narrowly fringed white, creating faint scaly effect. In fresh plumage, back appears silvery-
grey with sooty-grey head, neck and flight feathers. Upperwing darker than back, and M mark on wings dif-
ficult to discern on dark wing. Black patch across lower back extends in obvious V on upper rump. Rump and
tail usually entirely blackish-grey, though in some as pale as back with darker tip. Legs and feet pink and black.
Young birds can also be recognised by relatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted
plumage in late summer.
moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown, and head and wings becomes closer to rest of body in
coloration. Adults moult body during chick-rearing; flight feathers moulted immediately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinctive underwing pattern of broad black bar across inner wing and black patch on outer
wing, plus black crown, generally distinguish Bonin from other cookilarias. In addition, Black-winged has light
grey collar that extends further down breast; Chatham Islands Petrel has black underwing bar extending to base
of wing and axillaries; significantly larger Mottled has dark grey belly. Paler forms of Collared could look very
similar and best separated by underwing pattern. Cook’s, Stejneger’s and Gould’s are smaller, have relatively
narrow black borders to white underwing, bluer-grey feet, and different head patterns. Galápagos is much larger,
darker above, with longer wings and narrower black border to white underwing. Hawaiian Petrel is larger, with
longer wing and browner upperparts lacking M mark.
Gould’s Petrel
Pterodroma leucoptera Plate 24
taxoNomy Two subspecies. Nominate leucoptera breeds in very small numbers off southeast Australia; race
caledonica, the New Caledonia Petrel, in New Caledonia. Separation at sea very difficult but differences in biology
suggest that they may well be separate species.
DIstrIbutIoN Southwest Pacific Ocean migrating to central eastern Pacific. Nominate leucoptera breeds (eggs
Oct–Nov) only on Cabbage Tree I., New South Wales, though chicks have recently been transferred to nearby
Boondelbah I. Race caledonica breeds (possibly throughout year) only in the mountains of Grand Terre, New
Caledonia (at least six breeding sites of 100–200 pairs are known between Mts Dzumac and Poya, at 400–650m)
and perhaps Vanuatu. Probably forages south huge distances from islands during breeding season, as seen in
Tasman Sea to 45°S, south of Tasmania in summer and east as far as South Australia. Migrates into tropical
Pacific after breeding to 10°N and east to 90°W, south of Galápagos.
165
beHavIour Solitary or in small loose groups. Does
not follow ships.
JIZZ Medium-sized short-tailed cookilaria. In stronger
winds, flight appears slower than other cookilarias but
still typically nimble and erratic with rapid banking
turns, long periods of gliding and dynamic soaring up
to 10m.
sIZe TL 30–31cm; W 21.3–23.8cm; WS 70–71cm;
WT 134–220g. Slightly smaller than Black-winged.
Male slightly larger than female.
PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other
cookilaria species primarily in black-brown crown,
nape, area above eye, sides of neck and breast, and
upper mantle, forming a distinctive half-hood that is
cleanly demarked from a white face and forehead. Some nominate Gould’s have a complete collar joining
narrowly across foreneck while caledonica does not. Both subspecies have a white forehead and face beneath eye
and throat. Upperparts and upperwing medium brownish-grey, paler grey on mantle, upper back and outer
secondaries but dark M across spread wings not particularly prominent. Hood and rump to tail usually appear
much darker than greyish mantle and upper back. Short, rounded tail with dark tip. Outer tail feathers mostly
dark in nominate, whiter in caledonica. Underwing with typical cookilaria tick-mark, though this is neither par-
ticularly prominent nor indistinct.
moult aND Wear In worn plumage upperparts more uniform greyish-brown. Adults moult body during chick-
rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during
early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Population on Cabbage Tree I. tiny, thus majority of birds seen in Tasman Sea must be of
race caledonica. On average, slightly larger caledonica is paler than nominate, with less extensive dark hood and
less contrast between hood and back, a narrower dark tip to the tail, whiter underwing and more white on outer
tail feathers. Given exceptional views inner web of outer tail feathers are white in caledonica and speckled grey in
nominate, thus caledonica more likely to show noticeable white edges to tail.
Dark head of Gould’s should allow easy separation from other cookilarias in southwest Pacific, but may
be confused with Stejneger’s in eastern Pacific. Black-winged smaller and slighter with much more obvious
tick-mark on underwing, whilst Cook’s is paler blue-grey on top with a prominent M, and is slightly larger
and bulkier, broad-necked and large-headed, with proportionately broader, longer wings. Pycroft’s is never
as black-hooded as Gould’s, and De Filippi’s is a much paler bird in all respects. Separation from Stejneger’s
is difficult and many are probably not separable. Stejneger’s is paler on the wing and blue-grey rather than
dusky-grey. The M marking on Stejneger’s is more prominent than on either Gould’s race, and the demar-
cation between the hood and back is less abrupt. Jizz is more important than any other identification feature.
Stejneger’s is long tailed with comparatively long wings whilst Gould’s is short-tailed. For separation from
Collared see that species.
Cook’s Petrel
Pterodroma cookii Plates 22, 23
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic.
Majority of population breeds (eggs October–
December) on Little Barrier I., with small population
on Codfish I. off Stewart Is. Unsuccessful breeding
attempts on Great Barrier I. During breeding season
majority of population forages in subtropical New
Zealand waters, flying across North Island to forage in
Tasman Sea. During summer occasionally recorded
off New South Wales. Individuals (presumably) from
Codfish I. population seen in south Tasman Sea and
along Otago coast and Chatham Rise. Migrates to
north Pacific to at least 34°N north of Hawaii, and
to 46°N off Aleutian Is. In the eastern Pacific occurs
between Baja California and Chile, apparently most common off Peru.
beHavIour Generally solitary but vast flocks seen in Hauraki Gulf leaving Little Barrier I. in early morning.
Flight typical of cookilarias, flying in high arcs with short bursts of rapid wingbeats. In strong wind flight may
166
be erratic, with sudden sharp changes in direction, steeper arcs and less gliding. May land briefly around pelagic
tour boats in calm weather but generally does not follow boats. Not attracted to trawlers
JIZZ Medium-sized, short-tailed, long-winged cookilaria. Body stout and bulky, with a short, wide neck and large
head.
sIZe TL 30cm; W 22.3–24.5cm; WS 65–66cm; WT 220g. Larger than Pycroft’s and smaller than caledonica
Gould’s. Female smaller than male.
PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in uniformity of upperpart coloration
with pale blue-grey head merging into similarly coloured back and rump. M marking obvious and highlighted
by pale flight feathers. Upper rump has some dark feathers but rarely as prominent as other species. Neck collar
indistinct, rarely reaching any distance down sides of neck. Indistinct variable narrow white supercilium may
extend from behind eye nearly to lores. Most have small dark eye-patch around, below and behind eye, but ear-
coverts pale as rest of crown. Tail has dark tip to central feathers that may be lost with wear, and inner web of
outer tail feathers is whitish, causing sides of tail to appear pale in some lights and at some angles. Underwing
has variable, but usually small, short black tick-mark at carpal. Legs and feet fleshy, tinged blue, with black toes
and darker webs. Newly fledged juveniles are very pale blue-grey, and young birds may be recognised by worn
plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer.
moult aND Wear M marking across back becomes less prominent as upperwings darken. Grey feathers of
head and back become greyish-brown and in some birds crown can become darker than back. Adults moult
body during chick rearing, flight feathers immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN In northern New Zealand, separation on water from Pycroft’s problematic. Typical fresh-
plumaged Pycroft’s has dusky-grey head, nape and mantle whilst the head and mantle of Cook’s are generally
paler and have a distinctly blue tone. In worn plumage both species can have crowns darker than back. However,
plumage colour and tone varies with light conditions, plumage wear and moult and should never be used as the
sole source of separation. Pycroft’s is slightly smaller overall with a shorter, less robust bill than Cook’s. Close
up, Pycroft’s can be seen to have a larger, more prominent white forehead while Cook’s is more likely to show
a white supercilium and on the water, at very close range, it may be possible to distinguish Cook’s pinker legs
from Pycroft’s bluish-flesh legs. Pycroft’s usually has a more noticeable dark eye-patch that extends further below
and behind the eye. Pycroft’s collar is generally darker than Cook’s and extends further down the sides of the
neck. In flight, jizz is useful: Pycroft’s is 2–3cm shorter than Cook’s and has shorter, slightly more rounded wings.
However, the most significant structural difference is in tail length: Cook’s averages about 90mm; Pycroft’s is
nearer 100mm on a smaller bird, thus – relatively – Pycroft’s gives the impression of being ‘all tail’. Cook’s best
separated from slightly larger Black-winged by underwing pattern. On migration, Cook’s overlaps with most
other cookilarias; see those species for separation.
Pycroft’s Petrel
Pterodroma pycrofti Plate 22
167
similarly coloured back and rump. White forehead usually prominent and supercilium, if present, very short and
narrow. Neck collar reasonably wide, extending a little way down sides of neck but never complete. Very narrow
white supercilium above eye. Small dark eye-patch around, below and behind eye merging into ear-coverts
which are variable but usually paler, occasionally forming a pale notch. Upper rump usually has small triangle
of black feathers. Tail dark-tipped, and inner web of outer tail feathers smudged grey so that outer tail is less
likely to appear as pale as Cook’s. Underwing has small, black tick-mark at carpal, which on average is slightly
more extensive than Cook’s. Legs and feet fleshy blue with variable fleshy markings, and black toes and webs.
Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance
in late summer.
moult aND Wear M marking across back becomes less prominent as upperwings darken. Grey feathers of
head and back become greyish-brown and in some birds crown can become darker than back. Adults moult
body during chick-rearing and flight feathers immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN For separation from Cook’s see that species. For differences from De Filippi’s and Stejneger’s,
both of which may occur in same areas on migration, see respective texts. Both Chatham Islands and Black-
winged Petrels are larger, have more obvious grey collars and far more extensive black markings and broader
dark trailing edges to underwings.
Collared Petrel
Pterodroma brevipes Plate 24
168
some Black-winged by complete brown collar, but Black-winged has larger dark tick-mark on underwing. Some
browner-bellied birds may be confused with Mottled but latter is considerably larger with paler upperparts and
large boomerang-shaped marking on underwing. Intermediate phases of Herald and Kermadec easily told by
pattern of underwing. Pale phase very difficult to separate from Gould’s but Collared has wider black trailing
edge to underwing, smaller black tick-mark on elbow of underwing and dark inner webs to outer tail feathers.
De Filippi’s Petrel
Pterodroma defilippiana Plate 22
stejneger’s Petrel
Pterodroma longirostris Plate 22
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Chilean endemic breeder. Only breeding (eggs November–December) at high altitude on Ale-
jandro Selkirk I. (Mas Afuera) in the Juan Fernandez group. Probably confined to area around Juan Fernandez
and adjacent Chilean coast (south to 49°S) during breeding. Migrates to north-east Pacific in April–June. There
may be a clockwise movement through the north Pacific in late summer and autumn, with birds recorded off
California. Vagrant to New Zealand but no Australian records.
beHavIour Solitary, rarely following boats and not attracted to chum or offal.
JIZZ A small to medium-sized, long-tailed, small-billed cookilaria with relatively short, narrow wings. Flight
reported both as being the fastest of the group and also languid, having a slower and less erratic flight pattern
than De Filippi’s.
sIZe TL 28cm; W 21.6–23.0cm; WS 66cm; WT ?. Similar size to Pycroft’s; smaller than Black-winged and
Cook’s.
169
Plumage Typical cookilaria. Differs from others
by combination of extensive white, sparsely flecked
forehead that generally reaches back to just above
the eye. No white supercilium. Dark dusky black
eye-patch merges into dark cap and nape, resulting
in dark-headed appearance contrasting with paler
dark bluish-grey upperparts. Most have white notch
that curves up into dark hood behind eye, but in a few
the demarcation between dark cap and white throat is
straighter. In fresh plumage black M marking across
upperwings is comparatively prominent, but dark
smudge on upper rump indistinct. Underwing variable
but usually relatively white with narrow dark trailing
and leading edges and tip and small, short black tick-
mark at carpal, similar to Cook’s, although broader and longer in some. Tail dark greyish-blue with prominent
dark tail-tip and little white on inner webs of outer tail feathers. Legs and feet pale flesh, legs with dark smudging
at joints; black toes with flesh or flesh-grey webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early
breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer.
moult and wear Grey feathers of head and back wear to paler sooty-brown and M marking on back becomes
less prominent as upperwing darkens. Whole of upperparts can look quite dark. Adults moult body during chick-
rearing and flight feathers over a long period following breeding and migration (April–September),
IdentIFICatIon Probably best identified by combination of smaller dark markings on underwing, prominent
white forehead contrasting with dark cap and short-winged, long-tailed jizz. Most have white crescent between
dark eye-patch and strongly marked collar, but these features and the extent of dark markings on the underwing
are variable. Most likely to look very similar to paler-phase Collared but has more prominent white forehead,
smaller dark markings on underwing and ranges are not known to overlap.
Phoenix Petrel
Pterodroma alba Plate 17
taxonomy Monotypic.
dIstrIbutIon Tropical and subtropical central Pacific Ocean. Breeds (annually, no fixed breeding season) on
Canton I. (Phoenix group), islets of Ua Pou, Fatu Huku and Hatutaa (Marquesas group), Kiritimati (Line Is.),
Ono I. (Pitcairn group.). Status on Tuamotu and Tonga uncertain. Disperses into equatorial Pacific, north to
25°N north of Hawaiian Is. and south-west to Kermadec group. A few sight records from Fiji, Kermadec group.
and near Galápagos Is.
170
JIZZ Similar to the Pseudobulweria petrels Tahiti and
Beck’s in plumage, but with Herald-like jizz and
typical Pterodroma flight.
sIZe TL 35cm; W 26.5–29.1cm; WS 83cm; WT 269g.
Medium-sized Pterodroma, similar in size to Herald with
marginally shorter wings, but smaller than Magenta.
PlumaGe Uniform chocolate-brown head, neck,
upper breast, upperparts, upperwing and tail.
Mottled white may be visible on chin and throat and
become more visible with wear. White lower breast
sharply demarcated from head, with white belly and
undertail, though tip of undertail often has some dark
flecking. Flanks white or variably and patchily marked
darker. Underwing mostly dark brown, with thin
white leading edge to inner wing that may reach carpal. Paler bases to flight feathers and coverts visible as pale
crescent on outer wing, sometimes extending onto inner wing as paler central panel. Dark eye; black bill; flesh-
pink legs; feet pink proximally, black distally. Separation of immatures from adults by differing moult schedules
not possible as there is no fixed breeding season.
moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. With wear white on chin and throat
becomes more obvious. Adults moult body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers at any time of year
following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Plumage similar to Tahiti and Magenta Petrels. For separating Tahiti see that text. Magenta is
larger and heavier, dark grey-brown, not chocolate-brown, above with a larger bill and a longer, wider, wedge-
shaped tail. Magenta more likely to have white on face and even show a short, white supercilium. Underside of
outer flight feathers of Magenta more silvery and reflective, appearing as pale flash on outer underwing. Similarly
plumaged intermediate-phase Kermadec and Herald Petrels have more white on the underwing, especially on the
outerwing, and tend to have dark undertail-coverts. Kermadec has white primary shafts on the upperwing.
Herald Petrel
Pterodroma heraldica Plates 16, 17, 20, 25
171
white tips. Mantle and back dark, ash-brown, with paler greyer edges visible to feathers at close range;
tail blackish brown. Upperwing darker than mantle, grey-brown, with faint M across wings and back only
in fresh plumage; primary shafts dark. Underwing dark brown and grey, with whitish patch on outerwing
formed by pale bases to primaries and coverts. Small dark crescent formed by tips to primary coverts varies
in size and sometimes absent. Extension of pale panel onto innerwing varies with paleness of greater coverts
and inner flight feathers. Thin white line on leading edge of inner underwing extending almost to carpal. Bill
black, eye dark brown and legs and feet pinkish and black.
Intermediate morph Generally as pale morph, but with darker head, upper breast and undertail-coverts,
and variable amounts of brownish-grey mottling and smudging on lower breast and belly but with relatively
clean-cut look and pale lores.
Dark morph M mark on upperwing rarely visible except on immatures and juveniles when slightly darker
M may be visible in certain lights. Head and body slate or chocolate-brown. Underwing usually darker with
dark innerwing and reduced, more broken pale patch on outerwing. Thin white line along leading edge of
innerwing still present. Legs and feet black. Throat usually patchy white and lores often still pale.
moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. With wear, white on chin and throat
of darker birds becomes more obvious. Adults moult body feathers during chick-rearing, flight feathers at almost
any time of year following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Separation of Herald from Trindade problematic but probably only an issue in western Indian
Ocean. Trindade is a larger, heavier, less delicate-looking bird with a deeper, more robust bill, but assessment of
such differences would require lots of experience. Lores, in all but the lightest Trindade, are usually dark, but
pale on Herald. Paler forms of Trindade tend to have more white on the innerwing than Herald. See plumage
above for other possible differences. It has been suggested that pale-morph Trindade has dark legs while Herald
does not, but this feature need further examination. In tropical northeast Pacific dark-phase birds are just as
likely to be Henderson as Herald. They are the same size and there are no known plumage differences. In all
plumage phases, all three species are distinguishable from Kermadec by the lack of white primary shafts on
upperwing, more delicate shape, longer and more pointed tail and more buoyant flight. Dark phases are blacker
than Murphy’s with obvious white patch, rather than reflective gloss on outer underwing. Dark phases are also
similar to Providence and Great-winged. Providence Petrel is considerably larger with a wedge-shaped tail, is
grey-brown rather than chocolate brown, and has a paler face yet often appears dark-headed or hooded. Great-
winged is much larger and longer-winged with entirely dark underwing, though in bright light reflection from
primaries may give the impression of pale patches.
In light winds, when not soaring in typical Pterodroma fashion, dark morph Herald (and Henderson) can
be mistaken for Sooty Shearwater or dark-morph skua, but absence of Sooty’s distinctive pattern of white on
underwing and skua’s white on outer upperwing should separate them. See also Kerguelen and dark-morph
Soft-plumaged Petrels.
trindade Petrel
Pterodroma arminjoniana Plates 20, 25
172
than Herald yet appear to have more white on inner underwings and bases of primary coverts.
Intermediate morph As Herald but Trindade tends to have smudgier underparts and dark lores.
Dark morph As Herald but Trindade tends to have dark lores and pale throat, although dark forms from
Round I. appear to have entirely dark throats. .
moult aND Wear As Herald Petrel.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See Herald Petrel.
Henderson Petrel
Pterodroma atrata Plate 16
Kermadec Petrel
Pterodroma neglecta Plates 16, 20, 25
173
winds, flight unhurried with deep wingbeats and long unhurried glides, banking in broad arcs. In stronger winds,
develops classic Pterodroma dynamic soaring, often high into air.
sIZe TL 38cm; W 27.6–30.9cm; WS 92cm; WT 370–590g. Smaller than Providence but larger than Herald or
Henderson Petrels.
PlumaGe Polymorphic with pale and dark morphs and a wide variety of intermediate plumages. All morphs
show: white skua-like flash on outer upperwing formed by white shafts and bases to flight feathers; grey-brown
underwing with eye-catching white patch at base of outer flight feathers; and narrow white leading edge to
underwing between carpal and body.
Pale morph Head pale, with forehead, crown and nape variably mottled dirty white and light brown; some
have darker eye-patch. Mantle and back light brown with white edges to fresh feathers; tail blackish-brown.
Underparts white, with variable brown partial collar on sides of upper breast. Underwing variable but in
palest birds white can extend well down centre of wing towards dark armpit. Upperwing blackish-brown
with no M mark; flight feathers, other than white flash, black. Bill black; eye brown; and legs flesh-pink with
variable pink and dark feet and black toes.
Intermediate morph Continuous progression between light and dark morphs. Mantle and back darker
and more uniform brown. Upperwing as pale morph but underwing with more dark coverts. Underparts
variable, from white with dirty brown breast-band, through rather clean-cut dark breast and undertail and
white belly, to patchy grey-brown and white or entirely dark greyish-brown.
Dark morph Plumage entirely dark brown except for whitish scalloping on forehead, base of bill and chin.
Underwing darker, often with reduced white patch divided by dark tips to coverts; white patch especially
likely to be less prominent in juveniles. Legs and feet dark.
moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. Any white tips to fresh feathers of pale
morph lost with wear. In dark morphs white on chin and throat becomes more obvious with wear. Adults moult
body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers at any time of year following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN White flash on upperwing the best way to identify all morphs of Kermadec, but note that in a
few dark, especially young, birds this flash may consist of little more than a few white feather shafts. White patch
on outer underwing reaches the forewing at base of primaries, except in young birds, and is larger and more
eye-catching than in all other similar petrels. Palest Kermadec has much whiter head than Herald or Trindade.
Long, broad-winged, square-tailed jizz reasonably distinctive with experience. Dark morph resembles many
other dark petrels and shearwaters and is best identified by white flash on upperwing.
murphy’s Petrel
Pterodroma ultima Plate 16
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Tropical Pacific. Breeds (eggs May–July)
on Henderson, Oeno, Ducie (Pitcairn group); Mururoa
and Fangataufa (Tuamotu group), islets off Rapa
(Austral group) and Manui in Gambier group; possibly
also Cook Is. Probably feeds around breeding islands
during breeding season. Dispersal poorly understood
but mostly north as far as northwest Hawaiian chain
in west yet most frequently seen in eastern tropical
Pacific as far as Californian Current. Vagrant to North
American Pacific coast as far as 54°N.
beHavIour Solitary and does not follow ships. Fast,
buoyant flight even in calm conditions; generally steep
dynamic soaring followed by long glides; in stronger
winds flight more like a shearwater.
JIZZ Heavy-bodied, medium to large Pterodroma with large head and comparatively small bill. Wings relatively
narrow and short, especially compared to Providence or Kermadec. Tail rounded.
sIZe TL 40cm; W 26.5–29.0cm; WS 97cm; WT 375–435g. Heavier than Kermadec and Herald. Body similar
size to Providence, slightly smaller than Great-winged but wings short. Female only slightly smaller than male.
PlumaGe Uniform grey-brown, with indistinct M across upperwings. White flecking to throat, base of bill and
forehead, especially when worn, but throat always whiter than forehead. Head and nape slightly darker and in
strong light can look hooded; back slightly paler than wings with grey wash when fresh, becoming browner with
wear; rump and tail uniformly brownish-grey. Underparts uniform, medium dark grey. Underwing generally
dark, with bases of underside of outer flight feathers silvery and reflective, not white like Kermadec or Herald.
Bill black; eye dark; legs and feet flesh-coloured with black toes and outer webs. Young birds may be recognised
by worn plumage during early breeding season.
174
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and M marking on back becomes less
prominent. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Flight feathers moulted following breeding and migration
(September–January).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark-phase Kermadec and Herald Petrels brown, not blackish-grey, and both have white
patches on the underwing, Note, though, that Murphy’s underwing can look pale in bright light due to reflective
nature of silvery underwing. Kermadec has white skua-like flash on outer upperwing. Providence also has white
patches on outer underwing, is larger, longer-winged and has a wedge-shaped tail and robust bill. Range of
Great-winged luckily rarely overlaps as very similar to Murphy’s, and both have mainly dark underwings. Great-
winged is larger, has especially long wings, browner plumage and different flight. Range of Kerguelen not known
to overlap but separated by significantly smaller size, pale leading edge to underwing, distinctive jizz and flight.
Providence Petrel
Pterodroma solandri Plates 14, 16
175
TOTAL LENGTH WING WINGSPAN WEIGHT TAIL
SPECIES (cm) (cm) (cm) (g) (cm)
White-necked 43 30.3–32.3 97–100 445 (380–545) 12.9 (12.1–14.0)
Vanuatu 40 28.2–29.3 ? ?300–350 12.5
Juan Fernandez 43 30.9–33.6 97 495 13.6
Barau’s 38 27.7–29.9 96 400 12.2
Hawaiian 43 23.3–37.4 98 448 (330–629) 13.9
Galápagos 41 31.0–31.8 102 408–421 14.5
Cahow 36 (35–38) 26.0–26.2 90–91 ? 12.2
Black-capped 40 28.0–29.5 95 ?278 12.7
Jamaican 40 26.7–28.4 ? ? 117
White-necked Petrel
Pterodroma cervicalis Plate 18
176
vanuatu Petrel
Pterodroma occulta Plate 18
177
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with
wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M, and the tail may also darken. White U-shaped mark on
rump becomes increasingly prominent with wear. Moults body during chick-rearing and flight feathers following
breeding and migration (May–September).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguished from similar White-necked by absence of white collar and smaller dark tick-
mark on leading edge of underwing. For separation from other species see White-necked Petrel.
barau’s Petrel
Pterodroma baraui Plate 20
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Reunion I. Nests (eggs
November) at high altitude (c. 2,700m) on the Massif
of Piton des Nieges. Pelagic in tropical and subtropical
Indian Ocean. Whilst breeding, forages south to sub-
tropical convergence, although one record from near
Heard I. Disperses northeast through tropical and
subtropical Indian Ocean towards Western Australia,
Sumatra and Christmas I. (off Java). Not recorded in
northwest Indian Ocean or New Zealand. Has been
recorded in southwest Australia.
beHavIour Generally solitary at sea, rarely following
ships. Typical Pterodroma flight, slower than that of
cookilaria petrels; wings bowed more in strong winds,
flying in broader arcs. Less sturdy flier than Soft-plumaged or Great-winged Petrels.
JIZZ Smallest and lightest of group with proportionally long wings and tail.
sIZe TL 38cm; W 27.7–29.9cm; WS 96 m; WT 400g. Smallest of the large black-and-white pterodromas. Sexes
very similar.
PlumaGe Forehead, feathers around bill and cheeks white. Crown and nape grey-black, forming dark cap that
extends below and slightly in front of eye, where darker still. Back and sides of neck medium-grey, forming narrow
half-collar. Mantle, upper back and scapulars medium grey-brown; when fresh, feathers have pale fringes, giving
scalloped appearance. Back and rump dark brown becoming blacker with wear. Uppertail medium-grey with
darker tip. Underparts white; undertail has narrow dark border and may show dark smudges or tips to feather.
Upperwing medium-grey with black-brown outer flight feathers and inner coverts forming narrow M that does
not extend strongly across back Underwing predominantly white, with sharply defined, narrow, dark trailing
edge to the inner underwing that becomes broader, but less defined towards the tip. Smudgy moderately wide
dark leading edge to outer underwing and moderately large black tick-mark. Bill black; eye dark; legs pinkish-
flesh with fleshy outer webs and dark outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage
during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in late summer.
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with
wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. Tail may also darken. Moults body during chick-rearing and
flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (May–September).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Only Pterodroma with cookilaria-like underwing pattern known to breed in Indian Ocean.
Barau’s has long-winged, long-tailed, small-bodied jizz. It is the only Pterodroma with smudging on undertail and
the only Pterodroma where dark M marking on the upperwing does not continue prominently across the lower
back.
Hawaiian Petrel
Pterodroma sandwichensis Plate 18
taxoNomy Sometimes considered subspecies of Galápagos Petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia but differences in biology
and morphology warrant separation (see Brooke 2004).
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to larger islands of Hawaii. Breeds (annually, eggs Apr–May) at Pu‘u Kole (southeast
Mauna Kea, Hawaii); southwest slope of Mauna Loa; in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park; Kumoa Gulch
(Läna‘i I.); Wailau Valley & Pu‘u ‘Öhelo (Moloka‘i I.); Waimea Canyon, (Kaua‘i I.), Haleakalä National Park
(Maui I.) and almost certainly elsewhere. Forages in Hawaiian waters (from South Point, (Hawaii) to French
Frigate Shoals in northwest Hawaiian Is. (May to Oct). Absent from Hawaiian waters about Nov to April. Dis-
perses to pelagic equatorial waters of eastern tropical Pacific generally between 20°N and 10°S. In spring found
to 25°N; in Jul and Aug to 50°N in southern Gulf of Alaska but few between 120°W to 130°W and south of
10°N, suggesting little overlap in at sea ranges of Galápagos and Hawaiian. W of 120°W presumed Hawaiian
178
found south to 3°S. Vagrants (Apr to Oct) in Oregon,
California, Philippines, Moluccas, northern Honshu,
Japan. Those in western Pacific possibly juveniles.
beHavIour Generally solitary but may be gregarious
when feeding, joining mixed-species flocks and often
with cetaceans. Typical Pterodroma flight, flapping less
in high winds.
JIZZ Very large Pterodroma with long pointed wings and
proportionately longer tail than other black-and-white
pterodromas. Longer-bodied and heavier with shorter
wider wings, shorter, deeper bill and proportionately
shorter tail than Galápagos.
sIZe TL 43cm; W 23.3–37.4cm; WS 97–98cm; WT
448g (330–629g). Among the largest Pterodroma. Little
sexual dimorphism.
PlumaGe Forehead, feathers around bill, lower cheeks, chin and throat white. Forehead clean white with a
black hood extending from crown to below eye to sides of neck, forming smudgy tabs on sides of breast. In
fresh plumage back grey, contrasting with black head and darker rump, upperwings very dark, paler secondaries
and triangle on inner leading edge forming prominent dark M across open wings. With wear upperparts quite
quickly become more uniform dark, greyish black. Uppertail and rump may appear uniformly black. Uppertail
when spread may show narrow white edges. Underbody white with narrow black edges to tail. Underwing
mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and comparatively large dark tip. Leading edge of the outer wing
dark with large dark ‘tick-mark’ extending from elbow half way to armpit. Bill black, eye dark, legs and feet
flesh-pink, the distal two-thirds of the webs black. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early
breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in late summer.
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with
wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. Tail may also darken. Black plumage of breeding adults
acquires a brownish tinge late in breeding season due to abrasion. Moult body during chick-rearing, flight
feathers following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Hawaiian and Galápagos difficult to distinguish at sea. Hawaiian is longer bodied, heavier, and
has shorter but wider wings, shorter but deeper bill and entirely white forehead, while Galápagos usually has
dark speckled forehead, although a few are all white. Galápagos often (but not always) has dark wash or mottling
on flanks near where the trailing edge of the wing meets the body, while Hawaiian can have more-prominent M
and a darker rump. Juan Fernandez and White-necked paler overall, best distinguished by whiter underwings
with smaller dark tick mark and white collar in White-necked. Range of smaller Barau’s unlikely to overlap but
it is paler, appearing less black-and-white, and has less black in underwing with shorter tick mark that does not
extend as far onto inner wing. Bonin Petrel is smaller, lacks strikingly white forehead, has dark patch on outer
underwing, has thicker, darker tick mark and broader dark trailing and leading edges to underwing. In Hawaiian
waters, Newell’s Shearwater is smaller, has all dark forehead and has typical shearwater flight close to water with
occasional rapid wingbeats, rather than the dynamic soaring of a Pterodroma.
Galápagos Petrel
Pterodroma phaeopygia Plate 18
179
and-white pterodromas. Has slightly different proportions than Hawaiian, which is longer bodied and heavier,
with shorter wider wings, shorter, deeper bill and a proportionately shorter tail.
sIZe TL 41cm; W 31–32cm; WS 102cm; WT 408–421g. Amongst the largest of the pterodromas. Little sexual
dimorphism.
PlumaGe Forehead, feathers around bill, lower cheeks, chin and throat white. Forehead generally mottled with
dark feathers. Black hood extends from crown to below eye to sides of neck, forming smudgy tabs on sides
of breast. In fresh plumage back grey, contrasting with black head and darker rump, upperwings very dark,
paler secondaries and triangle on inner leading edge forming dark M across open wings less conspicuous than
Hawaiian. With wear, upperparts quite quickly become more uniform dark, greyish black. Uppertail and rump
rarely appear uniformly black. Uppertail when spread may show narrow white edges. Underbody white with
narrow black edges to tail. Often has dark mottling on flanks near armpit. Underwing mostly white with broad
dark trailing edge and comparatively large dark tip. Leading edge of the outer wing dark with large dark tick-
mark extending from elbow halfway to armpit. Bill black, eye dark, legs and feet flesh-pink, the distal two-
thirds of the webs black. Long breeding season makes ageing using moult and wear differences impossible for
Galápagos.
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with
wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. Tail may also darken. Black plumage of breeding adults
acquires a brownish tinge late in breeding season due to abrasion. Moult body during chick-rearing, flight
feathers following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See Hawaiian Petrel.
Cahow
Pterodroma cahow Plate 21
180
black-capped Petrel
Pterodroma hasitata Plate 21
Jamaican Petrel
Pterodroma caribbaea Plate 21
181
Pterodroma petrels with dark underwings
This disparate group includes four large species (Grey-faced, Great-winged, White-headed and Atlantic) and
members of the soft-plumaged group of four small to medium-sized species. Similarities in flight and call
suggest that Magenta is more closely related to Soft-plumaged than Grey-faced, to which it has previously been
aligned.
Things to look for when identifying dark-underwinged Pterodroma petrels (in order of priority):
• Head colour
• Extent of collar
• Presence of white chin
• Colour of undertail-coverts
• Comparative tail length
Great-winged Petrel
Pterodroma macroptera Plate 12
182
for separation from that species. other dark pterodromas separated by uniformity of Great-wing’s plumage,
long wings, heavy bodied, bull-necked jizz and rounded head, powerful soaring flight and stout black bill. In
bright light, silvery flashes on underwing due to reflection can look like white patches of other species. Kerguelen
best eliminated by its smaller size, distinctive jizz and flight, overall silvery wash and pale leading edge to inner
underwing.
Grey-faced Petrel
Pterodroma gouldi Plate 14
White-headed Petrel
Pterodroma lessonii Plate 19
taxoNomy monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters. Breeds (eggs November–December) on Crozet I.,
Kerguelen Is., Macquarie I., Auckland Is. and Antipodes I., and perhaps Prince Edward I. and Campbell I.
Forages south of breeding grounds in summer to the ice edge. disperses north throughout southern oceans to
30°S but commonest in south Pacific. Rare South Africa and western Australia, more numerous in south-east
Australia, new Zealand and southwest south America.
beHavIour Solitary; may do a ‘fly-by’ of boats, approaching them briefly to investigate, but rarely follows
ships or is attracted to trawlers. Strong, slow flight with typical Pterodroma dynamic soaring and frequent short
mollymawk-like glides even in strong breezes.
183
JIZZ Large, robust Pterodroma with similar jizz to Great-
winged and Grey-faced. Very long wings and propor-
tionally long, wedge-shaped tail; heavy bodied with
bull-neck and extremely stout bill and rounded head.
sIZe TL 40–46cm; W 29.1–33.2cm; WS 109cm; WT
580–810g. Largest Pterodroma with dark underwings.
Males slightly larger than females.
PlumaGe Most of face white with ill-defined small,
dark eye-stripe extending only a short distance in
front of and behind eye. Back of crown and hindneck
variably light grey in some, forming an indistinct
partial collar down the sides of the neck which
merges with mottled grey mantle and uniformly grey
back and inner upperwing. Rest of upperwing darker
brownish-grey with poorly defined darker M marking. Underwing uniformly blackish-grey, appearing black at
distance; base of outer flight feathers slightly lighter. Bill black; eye dark; and legs and feet fleshy-pink with dark
outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season.
moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to uniform blackish-brown. Adults moult body feathers during chick-
rearing and flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (May–September).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of white head and dark underwing unique. Most likely to be mistaken for equally
pale Southern Fulmar which should be easily distinguished by white underwing and dark tips to upperwing. At a
distance, Mottled Petrel has so much white on the face that in bright light it can look very white-headed. It also
has similar back coloration and jizz, especially when flying away from boat. White-headed is slightly larger and
has all-dark underwing.
magenta Petrel
Pterodroma magentae Plate 19
184
dark grey-brown (not chocolate-brown) above, with a larger bill and a longer, wider wedge-shaped tail. Magenta
more likely to have white on face and even show a short, white supercilium. Underside of outer flight feathers
of Magenta more silvery and reflective, appearing as pale flash on outer underwing. Atlantic easily recognised
by dark undertail. Soft-plumaged may look dark-hooded in poor light but is smaller, more compact and has grey
upperparts with dark M marking across open wings.
soft-plumaged Petrel
Pterodroma mollis Plates 14, 19, 21
185
Fea’s Petrel
Pterodroma feae Plate 21
Zino’s Petrel
Pterodroma madeira Plate 21
186
atlantic Petrel
Pterodroma incerta Plate 19
ProCeLLaria Petrels
The five species of Procellaria petrels are generally considered intermediate between the Calonectris shearwaters
and Pterodroma petrels, and have features common to both. Grey Petrel is the only member of the group with
white underparts and is readily identifiable by a combination of grey-brown upperparts, white underparts and
dark underwing. The identification of the other four ‘black’ Procellaria petrels is more problematic; they are dif-
ficult to distinguish from other all-dark petrels and shearwaters, and separation from each other and from Flesh-
footed Shearwater is often very difficult, especially when details of head and bill cannot be seen.
Separating ‘black’ Procellaria petrels from other petrels and shearwaters Both Sooty and Short-tailed
Shearwaters have longer, thinner bills and long, narrow, stiffly-held wings. Typical flight consists of short bursts of
rapid wingbeats between glides. Sooty has pale flashes on underwings.
Grey-faced and Great-winged Petrels have stout, dark bills and, close nostril or nares
naricorn
up, the pale face of Grey-faced is diagnostic. Separation at a distance
depends on recognising the high arcing flight of the two dark culminicorn
Pterodroma petrels and their longer, sickle-shaped wings. Dark
subtropical Pterodroma petrels are separable by the presence of
white flashes in the outer upper- or underwing. maxillary unguis
Separating “black’ Procellaria petrels from
each other and Flesh-footed Shearwater At a collectively
distance, Parkinson’s Petrel and Flesh-footed ungues
Shearwater are c. 10–15% smaller than Westland and
latericorn sulcus
White-chinned Petrels. Spectacled is the same size as
White-chinned but may look slimmer. Parkinson’s mandibular unguis ramicorn
187
more slender head and neck may allow recognition, as may Flesh-footed Shearwater’s smaller head, slimmer
body, longer bill and narrower, shorter wings. Close up, Spectacled is easily distinguished by white patches on
head, although in some birds these are small. White-chinned can be separated by pale tip to bill. A few Parkinson’s
and Westland Petrels can have very little dark on the bill-tip, but they very rarely look as pale as White-chinned’s
bill-tip. When present, white on the chin is diagnostic but most White-chinned in the south Pacific have little or
no white on chin. Parkinson’s is difficult to separate from Westland even under the best conditions; Parkinson’s
is smaller, longer-necked and less bulky, and sits lower on water. Shape of bill is useful, Parkinson’s having longer
nostrils and a shorter latericorn. On average, Parkinson’s has more yellow on the distal edges of the ungues, so
there is often a yellow patch between them, creating the appearance of a black tip, rather than a black upper bill
surface. Flesh-footed Shearwater can be distinguished from all Procellaria petrels by pink (not black) feet; bill looks
longer and slimmer with smaller nostrils, and is pinkish-yellow with a darker tip.
White-chinned Petrel
Procellaria aequinoctialis Plate 28
spectacled Petrel
Procellaria conspicillata Plate 28
188
vast flocks. Flight in calmer conditions powerful,
heavy and forceful wingbeats, occasional low glides
on slightly bowed wings. In stronger winds it flies
quickly, alternating long arcing glides with very few
lazy, wingbeats.
JIZZ Large, heavily built, long-winged Procellaria with
stout bill. Feet hardly project beyond rather short,
slightly wedge-shaped tail.
sIZe TL 55cm; W 36.9–39.7cm; WS ?; WT 1.01–
1.31kg. Similar size to White-chinned but lighter, with
less heavy bill.
PlumaGe Like White-chinned but with striking head
pattern of two broad white bands that extend from
chin to ears towards the hind-crown and from chin
up across the forehead. There is significant individual
variation in width, length and shape of bands. The white can be scalloped with brown crescents and can be
limited to small patches on the forehead or ear-coverts. Bill pale with variable amount of dark on tip.
moult aND Wear Plumage, especially upperparts, becomes browner and paler with wear. Body moult occurs
during chick-rearing. Adults moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See introduction to Procellaria petrels on p.187. Separation of Spectacled from White-chinned
generally straightforward if white head-pattern visible. Partially albino White-chinned never show white spec-
tacles, but may have extensive white on chin and throat and white on nape. The dark bill tip of Spectacled is
similar to Westland and Parkinson’s, but neither of these has any white on the face.
Parkinson’s Petrel
Procellaria parkinsoni Plate 29, 30
189
yellow, especially on proximal edges of ungues. Some juveniles have so little black on bill-tip that they are difficult
to tell from White-chinned. Ungues, sulcus and culminicorn gradually darken with age.
moult aND Wear When plumage is worn in June–August, some individuals can appear two-toned with variably
brown coverts contrasting with darker flight feathers. Adults moult after breeding, immatures probably moult
2–4 months earlier.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See introduction to Procellaria petrels on p.187.
Westland Petrel
Procellaria westlandica Plate 29
190
Grey Petrel
Procellaria cinerea Plates 29, 32
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in cold waters of southern
oceans. Breeds (eggs March–April) on Tristan da
Cunha group, Gough I., Marion I., Crozet Is., Ker-
guelen Is., Campbell I., Antipodes I., and possibly
St Paul I. While breeding, forages north of breeding
grounds as far as 25°S. Disperses south during austral
summer as far as ice edge.
beHavIour Solitary; attracted to fishing boats but
shier than White-chinned Petrel. Flight direct, effortless
mollymawk-like glide with only occasional shallow
wingbeats. Dynamic soaring only in strong winds.
JIZZ Robust, heavy bodied, almost podgy, bird with
very long narrow wings, comparatively slender
shearwater-like bill and moderately long wedge-shaped tail. Wings usually held stiff and at right angles to body.
sIZe TL 50cm; W 29.0–36.4cm; WS 115–130cm; WT 0.76–1.52kg. Slightly smaller than Westland, White-
chinned and Spectacled Petrels; slightly larger than Cory’s and Streaked Shearwaters.
PlumaGe Pale sooty-grey upperparts with darker tail, forehead, crown and area around eye. Underparts white
with grey undertail. Underwings uniformly dark grey. Bill olive-yellow with dark tip; eye dark; and feet and legs
flesh-grey.
moult aND Wear Upperparts become browner with wear. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Adults
moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (October–January).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of grey upperparts, white underparts and dark underwings diagnostic. Possibly
confusable with similarly dark underwinged White-headed, but the latter has mostly white head, dark M marking
across upperparts and is smaller, more compact with a short, stout, dark bill. The large shearwaters – Buller’s,
Great, Cory’s and Pink-footed – often cause the greatest problems. All four have pale, not dark, underwings but
in poor light or when birds are flying away this feature may not be visible and identification may be difficult due
to similar jizz. Buller’s has distinct dark M marking across upperparts, Great has a white rump patch and neck
collar, and Cory’s and Pink-footed have uniformly brown, not sooty-grey, upperparts.
sHearWaters
larger shearwaters
The large shearwaters are separated into two genera, Calonectris and Puffinus. When seen well, Calonectris shear-
waters can be separated readily from all other shearwaters and petrels by the combination of scruffy brown
plumage, pale underwing and undertail and presence of yellow or horn-coloured bill. Calonectris are most likely
to be confused with Grey Petrel, pale-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater, and Pink-footed, Great and Buller’s
Shearwaters, though ranges of some of these species do not overlap. The anomalous, medium-sized Christmas
Island Shearwater is tentatively included in this group.
191
When details of head, bill and feet cannot be seen, the large dark shearwaters are very difficult to tell apart and
can also be confused with the dark Procellaria petrels. With experience, the shearwaters have a different jizz, being
slighter and more likely to fly in graceful arcs in heavy winds, or shear low over waves in moderate winds.
Cory’s shearwater
Calonectris diomedea Plate 33
192
Cape verde shearwater
Calonectris edwardsii Plate 33
streaked shearwater
Calonectris leucomelas Plate 33
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN North-west Pacific. Breeds (eggs May–
June) on islands between Ryuku Is. in south through
Izu, Ryuku, Daito and Senkuku groups to islands off
Hokkaido in north, with major concentration on Izu
Is., Japan. Also on islands off eastern China, Korea
and south-east Russia. Forage near breeding islands
during breeding season. Absent from seas off the
breeding grounds in boreal winter; migrate to tropical
south-east China Sea, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua
New Guinea, Coral Sea and Indian Ocean as far as
Sri Lanka and Maldives and Abrolhos Is. Recorded in
eastern and western Australian waters but not New
Zealand. Vagrant to South Africa, eastern Pacific off
California, USA, and Eilat and Aqaba in Red Sea.
beHavIour Generally gregarious, sometimes forming vast flocks. Attracted to fishing vessels and chum. Flight
similar to Cory’s but even lazier, more direct and mollymawk-like, with dynamic soaring in strong winds.
JIZZ Long, slim bill, small head, long neck, and long broad wings with elbows held angled well forward. In light
winds wings held in slight downward bow whilst gliding.
193
sIZe TL 48cm; W 29.3–32.4cm; WS 122cm; WT 468–538g. Marginally larger than Cory’s.
PlumaGe Head variably streaked brown. Base colour of head white with brown streaking becoming increasingly
heavy towards the neck and hind crown, highlighting white eye-ring. Chin, throat and foreneck mostly white,
rarely streaked. Mantle, back, scapulars, rump and uppertail dark brown with white tips to feathers in fresh
plumage; uppertail has traces of pale U-shaped mark formed by pale bases to coverts that become more
prominent with wear. Tail dark brown. Underparts white, with variable dark brown partial collar from hindneck
onto sides of neck and upper breast; undertail white with narrow blackish tip. Upperwing has dark brown flight
feathers and paler coverts with white fringes and indistinct darker brown M when fresh. Underwing mainly
white, with black-brown flight feathers, dark smudge on leading edge of outerwing and broad dark tip. Bill, horn
with smudgy-grey tip; eye dark; legs and feet flesh-pink. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during
early breeding season (May) and may be freshly moulted by November.
moult aND Wear With wear, pale tips to feathers of mantle and wings lost, and brown plumage becomes
lighter. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar due to exposed pale bases to flight feathers on upperwing.
Adults moult body during chick rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (November–March).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Resembles Cory’s Shearwater in jizz and plumage but weighs less and has longer, narrower
bill. Only in very poor views would separation be a problem as recognisable by paler head and pale fringes to the
feathers of the upperparts giving a greyer, scaly appearance. Diagnostic dark smudge on palm of the underwing
(white in Cory’s). Buller’s Shearwater may occur in the same area but is recognised by slightly smaller size,
distinct M across back, lack of any dark markings on underwings and dark bill. Immature gulls can look similar
but fly higher above the water and, in all but high winds, constantly flap wings.
Wedge-tailed shearwater
Puffinus pacificus Plates 15, 30, 32
194
moult aND Wear Majority undergo leisurely moult of flight feathers one at a time during non-breeding
season. Therefore, seldom show large steps or gaps in flight feathers. Plumage wear and stage of moult
useful to age individuals and indicate their breeding areas. During non-breeding period, non-moulting,
fresh-plumaged birds would be juveniles, birds moulting their flight feathers adults. Birds late in their 1st
year appear worn when breeders are in fresh plumage. For example, in the Kermadec population birds in
worn plumage in period September–November would be juveniles, whilst those that are in active wing-moult
in February–April would be 2nd-year birds from this or other populations that follow the Southern Hemisphere
breeding schedule.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark morph Among dark shearwaters and petrels most readily recognised by slight frame
and long wedge-shaped tail. Flesh-footed Shearwater readily distinguished in good light, even at a distance, by
pinkish bill and close up by flesh-coloured legs. Sooty Shearwater distinguished by silvery flash on underwing and
both Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters separated by shorter, less pointed tails and narrower, straighter wings.
However note that in strong light, like many other dark petrels and shearwaters, undersides of flight feathers
of Wedge-tailed Shearwater do reflect light, so care must be taken with this character. Typical Pterodroma flight
patterns can distinguish species such as Bulwer’s, Grey-faced, Great-winged and Kerguelen Petrels. The greatest
identification challenge is separating dark-morph Wedge-tailed from Christmas Island Shearwater. Christmas
Island Shearwater is slightly smaller than Wedge-tailed with short, rounded tail, a shorter, stubbier bill and pro-
portionally longer, narrower wings.
Pale morph Best told from Buller’s Shearwater by absence of well-defined M on back, smaller size with
proportionately longer bill, and dark trailing edge and tip to underwing. Great Shearwater has not been recorded
in same range but has well-defined dark cap, smudgy marking on underwing and belly and white crescent on
upper tail. See also Pink-footed Shearwater.
buller’s shearwater
Puffinus bulleri Plate 32
195
Flesh-footed shearwater
Puffinus carneipes Plates 29, 30
196
Pink-footed shearwater
Puffinus creatopus Plate 32
197
Great shearwater
Puffinus gravis Plate 32
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Breeds
(eggs November) on Nightingale I. and Inaccessible
I. (Tristan da Cunha group), Gough I., Kidney I.
(Falklands). Forages in South Atlantic and southwest
Indian Ocean while breeding (c. 38°S–50°S), and
may get as far east as 65°E in Indian Ocean. Transe-
quatorial migrant to North Atlantic (April–October),
moving north-west to South America, up to Canada,
past Greenland and into the northeast Atlantic
before returning south in October–November to the
breeding islands.
beHavIour Pelagic and gregarious; regularly follows
ships and trawlers, diving to some depth for food.
Flight strong, usually with stiff, rapid wingbeats
followed by long glides low to water. In strong winds may dynamic soar, similar to mollymawks.
JIZZ Large, heavy, big-headed, long-tailed shearwater with broad, long wings and long, slender bill. Wings held
straighter than Cory’s though still slightly bowed.
sIZe TL 46–51cm; W 32.1–34.2cm; WS 108–115cm; WT 715–950g. Similar size to Pink-footed and Cory’s.
PlumaGe Chin, lower face, throat and front of neck white, sharply demarcated from blackish-brown forehead,
crown, nape and ears, which form blackish cap extending below eye. White sides of neck extend narrowly across
back of neck, forming partial collar separating dark cap from brown mantle. Rest of upperparts dark grey-
brown with pale tips to feathers in fresh plumage. Lower uppertail-coverts white, forming U-shaped mark imme-
diately above blackish tail. Underparts white with indistinct, brownish-grey partial collar and variable brownish
mottling or wash on belly, both of which can be gradually lost with wear. Greyish-brown rear flanks, blackish-
brown undertail-coverts and undertail. Upperwing has darker flight feathers and leading edge, and paler central
panels with narrow white fringes to feathers. Underwing mainly white with black flight feathers forming dark
trailing edge and tip; narrow dark border to leading edge wider on outer wing; two diagonal, parallel dark lines
extending from base of trailing edge across lesser coverts towards elbow, the anterior line being generally less
prominent. Variable dark markings also present in armpit. Bill and eye dark; legs and feet fleshy-pink. Stage of
moult can be used distinguish immature birds during summer.
moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight-feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of
feathers lost at once creating large steps or gaps in trailing edge of wing and severely compromising ability to
fly. In the northern summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers
will be adults. Birds in worn plumage in September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in
February–April may be 2nd-year birds.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of dark cap, white collar and dark belly patch diagnostic. White collar may
cause confusion with White-necked Petrel but Great Shearwater has shearwater jizz, pale rump patch and dif-
ferent underwing pattern. Best separated from Cory’s group by Great’s black bill, well-defined cap, and diagonal
parallel bars on underwing as well as dark belly patch. Audubon’s much smaller but can look similar when size
difficult to assess, as it often can be at sea. Audubon’s generally has thin and weak-looking bill, less pronounced
cap, cleaner underwing and sharper demarcation between vent and tail. See also other bicoloured shearwaters:
Pink-footed, pale Wedge-tailed, Buller’s, Cory’s and Cape Verde.
Sooty Shearwater
198
sooty shearwater short-tailed shearwater
Larger and heavier-bodied with deeper ‘barrel’-shaped chest Comparatively slight with shallow chest
On average longer-bodied with TL to WS ratio of approx. 4.5 Short, squat body with short tail, TL to WS ratio approx. 4
Comparatively long, slightly wedged tail Stumpy tail with square or slightly rounded tip
Head has a more uniform, less hooded appearance In strong light has a darker hood and collar
3 parallel brown-and-white stripes along secondary Greater secondary underwing-coverts mostly brown
contrasting with thin line of pale median and lesser
underwing coverts secondary underwing-coverts
Invariably darker axillaries contrast with other brown Axillaries same pale brown as rest of brown feathers on
feathers on underwing underwing
Adults with moulting, mottled body plumage Jan–Mar Adults with moulting, mottled body plumage May–July
sooty shearwater
Puffinus griseus Plates 14, 31
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Ubiquitous in all oceans. Breeds
(eggs November–December) on temperate and sub-
antarctic islands of New Zealand, south-west South
America, Falkland Is., Tristan da Cunha group and
Australia. Forages from breeding grounds along
South Polar front. Transequatorial migration (May
to September); majority of population apparently
flies to waters off Japan in June, south of Aleutians in
July and the Californian Current in August, although
numbers at the last may be lower than in former years.
Small numbers, possibly from Falklands and Staten Is.
migrate to North Atlantic, reaching 60°N.
beHavIour Most commonly observed in shelf and
littoral waters, sometimes feeding in wave break. However, also found in huge flocks along subantarctic frontal
zone. Not generally found in colder Arctic or Antarctic waters, the majority of dark shearwaters in Bering Sea
being Short-tailed, and early records of huge flocks along the Antarctic ice edge also likely to have been Short-
tailed Shearwaters. Readily attracted to chum or offal, descending in large flocks on fishing trawlers. Huge flocks
are seen around breeding islands, especially in morning and evening. Feed in packs, leap-frogging one another
in noisy, frantic chaos and diving up to 60m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill.
JIZZ Medium-large, dark shearwater with typical ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-flap-glide – down
into a wave trough then up out again – then flap-flap-flap-glide. Wingbeats brisk. Head appears angular and
flattened with no obvious forehead adjoining long, narrow bill. Long but narrow wings make body appear bulky.
In flight, feet rarely project beyond slightly wedged-shaped tail.
sIZe TL 40–46cm; W 26.0–31.8cm; WS 94–105cm; WT 650–950g. Deceptively large shearwater with similar
dimensions to larger gulls but less bulky. Male on average only slightly larger than female but considerable
overlap in measurements.
199
PlumaGe In worn plumage predominantly chocolate-brown with a slightly darker brown cap and collar. Freshly
moulted birds and juveniles have a greyish tone to dark brown plumage. All ages have pale panel on underwing,
mainly made up of white on primary-coverts and bases of outer secondary-coverts. Tips to secondary-coverts
are variably marked with brown giving appearance of three parallel brown stripes that join up with mostly dark
axillaries. Some authors have speculated that variation in amount of white on underwing may be due to age
but large sample of freshly fledged birds from Snares I. turned out to be similar to adults. Adult bill mostly dark
brown with dark-horn base to lower mandible. Flaking on nostrils and bill tip can make these areas appear paler
from a distance. Immature bill same as adult but usually smoother with slightly paler edges to lower mandible.
In hand, bill of some fledglings may look blue at base. Legs and feet, pinkish-black.
moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight-feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of
feathers lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In northern
summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds
in worn plumage in September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in February–April may be
2nd-year birds. Timing of moult can be useful in separating Short-tailed from Sooty Shearwater. Adult Sooty
Shearwaters moult body plumage from January–March during chick-rearing whilst Short-tailed Shearwaters
wait until they reach the Northern Hemisphere in May. Thus birds with moulting, mottled body plumage during
January–March are more likely to be Sooty Shearwaters and those moulting body plumage May–July are more
likely to be Short-tailed Shearwater.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Among dark shearwaters and petrels instantly separated from all but the few Short-tailed Shear-
waters with whitish underwings by pale underwing flashes. See table for separation from Short-tailed. Some
individuals of Heinroth’s Shearwater may also have mostly dark underparts and pale underwings but this species
is only half the size of Sooty Shearwater. In most dark shearwaters and petrels, shiny surfaces to otherwise dark
underwing flight feathers and coverts can look like pale patches in strong, contrasting light. It is a good idea to
watch a bird for as long as possible to ensure that an apparently pale underwing is not just caused by reflection.
In good light, pale bill of Flesh-footed Shearwater and dark Procellaria petrels should be visible at considerable
distance; otherwise for dark procellarias, stout body and broad wings are helpful. At great distance flight pattern
can distinguish species such as Grey-faced, Great-winged and Kerguelen Petrel. Dark-phase Wedge-tailed
Shearwater can be recognised by long, narrow bill, long neck, wedge-shaped tail and dark underwings.
short-tailed shearwater
Puffinus tenuirostris Plate 31
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Pacific and southern Indian Oceans.
Breeds (eggs November) only in southern Australia,
mostly in southeast Australia and Tasmania. Transequa-
torial migrant to north Pacific from May–September;
majority of population apparently flies to waters off
Japan in June, the Bering Sea in July, and on to the
central Pacific during August on the way south again.
beHavIour Commonly observed in shelf and littoral
waters, and huge flocks also found along Arctic and
Antarctic Frontal Zone. The majority of dark shear-
waters in Bering Sea and huge flocks along Antarctic
ice edge are Short-tailed Shearwaters. Birds feeding
chicks in Tasmania have been shown to commute to
ice edge to gather food. Readily attracted to chum or offal, descending in large flocks on fishing trawlers. Huge
flocks are seen around breeding islands especially in morning and evening. Feed in packs, leap-frogging each
other in noisy, frantic chaos and diving up to 50m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill.
JIZZ Medium-sized shearwater with ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-flap-glide ... flap-flap-flap-glide.
Somewhat less graceful than Sooty Shearwater; flight appears hurried and sometimes quite erratic, similar to
jerkiness of a Slender-billed or Fulmar Prion. Head appears a little rounded with a slight forehead joining a com-
paratively short, thin, yet stumpy, bill. Long, narrow wings appear to be slightly rounded at tips. Feet occasionally
project beyond square-ended tail.
sIZe TL 40–45cm; W 26.1–28.8cm; WS 95–100cm; WT 480–800g. Moderately sized shearwater, slightly larger
than smaller gulls but with similar bulk. Male on average only slightly larger than female but considerable
overlap in measurements.
PlumaGe In worn plumage predominantly chocolate-brown with darker brown cap and collar. Birds in fresh
moult and juveniles may have a slight greyish tone to dark brown plumage. Underwing mostly dark, paler
200
primary-coverts suffused with variable brown speckling, and greater secondary-coverts variably marked brown.
A few birds have white on median and/or lesser secondary-coverts so underwing looks pale like Sooty. Bill dark
brown; legs and feet pinkish-grey.
moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of
feather lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In northern
summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds
in worn plumage in September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in February–April are likely
to be 2nd-year birds. Timing of moult can be useful in separating Short-tailed from Sooty Shearwater. Adult
Sooty Shearwaters moult body plumage from January–March during chick-rearing whilst Short-tailed Shear-
waters wait until they reach the Northern Hemisphere in May. Thus birds with moulting, mottled body plumage
during January–March are probably Sooty Shearwaters, while those moulting body plumage in May–July are
more likely to be Short-tailed Shearwater.
IDeNtIFICatIoN All but the few birds with whitish underwings are separable from Sooty Shearwater by dark
underwings. See table above for separation from Sooty. There are many other similar, all-dark petrels and shear-
waters with dark underwings, and it is worth learning Short-tailed’s jizz: narrow-winged, stumpy-tailed and
short-billed, with gliding flight interspersed with short bursts of brisk wingbeats. Short-tailed is dark-billed, and
smaller and less bulky than the three dark Procellaria petrels and Flesh-footed Shearwater. Dark-phase Wedge-
tailed is longer in bill and tail, has broader wings held angled back at carpal and a more leisurely flight. Christmas
Island Shearwater tends to fly lower, is smaller with slightly broader wings and paler wash to flight feathers of
underwing, yet may be difficult to distinguish when ranges overlap in central Pacific.
201
less pointed than Short-tailed. In stronger winds, flight lower than Sooty and Short-tailed which fly in higher,
careening arcs. Differs from dark-morph Wedge-tailed by smaller size; darker brown overall plumage, narrower
wings with shorter tail; and stiffer, rapid wingbeats. In stronger winds Christmas Island flies higher than Wedge-
tailed which keeps close to surface of sea. Best separated from mostly dark Heinroth’s Shearwater by larger size,
dark underwing, absence of any white on belly and dark (not pink) legs and feet.
manx-type shearwaters
Slightly larger than the Little/Audubon’s group, these medium-sized shearwaters have brown upperparts (darkest
in Manx), white or scruffy pale brownish underparts and relatively small, inconspicuous white tabs that reach up
onto the sides of the rump. Newell’s and Townsend’s are sometimes considered members of this group, as they
have pinkish, not blue, legs, but we have included them within the Little/Audubon’s group as, in fresh plumage,
they have more prominent white tabs on the sides of the rump and blacker upperparts.
Range can help to identify members of this group:
Subtropical north Pacific = Black-vented
Subtropical, temperate south Pacific = Fluttering and Hutton’s
Atlantic, other than subantarctic = Manx and Balearic
Mediterranean = Yelkouan and Balearic
In order of importance, the most useful features for identification of the species in this group are:
• extent of dark on underwing
• extent of dark on undertail and underparts
• relative wing length
• relative tail length
• darkness of back
Size is not overly useful as measurements often overlap, but length of wing and tail relative to each other and to
body length can be helpful:
manx shearwater
Puffinus puffinus Plate 35
202
on rigid, straight wings, interspersed with short bursts of brisk flapping; during each flap wings usually rise above
the body. In strong winds flaps less and dynamic soars to 10–15m above waves.
JIZZ Long-bodied, long-winged shearwater with long, relatively stout bill and comparatively long tail.
sIZe TL 30–35cm; W 22.6–24.3cm; WS 71–83cm; WT 350–575g.
PlumaGe Forehead and crown brown-black, the dark colour extending to below eye and to base of bill, merging
seamlessly with dark upperparts, which contrast sharply with pure white underparts. Juveniles and fresh-plumaged
birds blacker. Chin, throat and lower cheeks white, usually with small white crescent extending upwards into
black behind ear. Small black thigh patch and thin, dark rim to undertail. When rump and uppertail are worn in
late summer, white may appear to extend upwards onto sides of rump, but rarely as noticeably as white tabs of
Audubon’s. Underwing entirely white except for indistinct, somewhat variably sized, triangle of dark feathers on
inner wing. Sexes similar though breeding adults, especially males, can have small white feathers in neck, crown
and nape (filoplumes). Bill black with lower mandible paler, greyish, or bluish-grey; eye dark; legs and feet pale
flesh and black.
moult aND Wear Dark plumage less prone than other members of the group to fade to brown, but adults
still browner than newly fledged juveniles. Adults begin slow wing-moult after transequatorial migration (Sep-
tember–October) and finish by January–March. Immatures begin moult earlier and can be easily recognised by
fresh plumage during breeding season.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Greatest challenge is separating Manx from Balearic and Yelkouan. Balearic is slightly larger
with shorter tail and projecting feet but is best separated by browner upperparts, smudgy-brown on underparts,
dark undertail, dusky inner underwing and dark partial collar. Yelkouan is intermediate in plumage between
Manx and Balearic and best separated from Manx by browner upperparts, dusky undertail and more distinct
dark triangle on inner underwing. In tropics Audubon’s may cause difficulties. Pure white undertail of Manx
usually diagnostic, but some Caribbean Audubon’s may show a pale undertail. Audubon’s usually shows white
‘tabs’ where the white of the undersides encroaches onto the rump. Only in worn Manx does this feature show
and it is rarely as prominent. Manx is about 10% larger with a proportionately shorter tail and longer wings,
has slower wingbeats, with longer periods of gliding and banking. Macaronesian Shearwater, the range of which
overlaps in parts of the eastern Atlantic, has a shorter bill and wings and more flapping flight, very low to the
water with wings held slightly bowed, rarely rising above body. Macaronesian also has white face.
yelkouan shearwater
Puffinus yelkouan Plate 35
203
balearic shearwater
Puffinus mauretanicus Plate 35
black-vented shearwater
Puffinus opisthomelas Plate 34
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic Mexican breeding species.
Breeds (eggs March) on islands off Pacific Coast of
Baja California, Mexico (Islas Natividad, San Benito,
Cedros, San Martin and Guadalupe). Forages in vicinity
of breeding grounds during summer. Disperses north,
reaching central California, USA, and rarely British
Columbia, Canada. A warm-water species that only
disperses northwards in large numbers during years
of high water temperatures in east Pacific. Present in
Gulf of California but not commonly recorded south
of breeding grounds although there are historical
records north of Galápagos Is.
beHavIour Gregarious; occasionally follows ships
and may be attracted to trawlers. Swims and dives for food in flocks of several hundred, birds leap-frogging each
other whilst foraging. Flight generally low and fast, with quick wingbeats interspersed with short glides.
JIZZ Medium-sized shearwater with comparatively long rounded-tail, stout bill and short neck. In flight, feet
frequently project beyond the tail.
sIZe TL 35–38cm; W 23.1–25.2cm; WS 79cm; WT 332–545g. Larger than Galápagos and slightly larger than
Townsend’s Shearwater, both of which may occur in same area.
204
PlumaGe Dull brown on crown and forehead extends below eye, merging with pale brown chin, throat, ears,
sides of neck and upper breast forming partial or occasionally complete collar or breast band. Dark head merges
seamlessly with dull brown back, upper wing, rump and uppertail. Underparts mostly white with brownish
undertail-coverts and variable amounts of brown mottling on flanks. Darker birds may show completely
brownish breast band, dark head and neck, and more rarely, underparts washed uniform, pale grey. Underwing
mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and tip formed by dark flight feathers and a narrower dark leading
edge. Armpit variably smudged brown with dark line running from inner hindwing towards elbow. Bill black; eye
dark; legs and feet light yellowish-flesh with paler webs.
moult aND Wear Brown plumage becomes paler and scruffier with wear. Breeders begin moult mid-May,
most in moult by mid-June and July. Non-breeders and immatures moult earlier and have fresh plumage during
breeding season.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Townsend’s and Newell’s are black- not brown-backed, with strong, neat demarcation between
upperparts and pure-white underparts and prominent white flank patches. Like Black-vented, Galápagos does
not have prominent white flank patches but can be recognised by smaller size and jizz: shorter, rather rounded
wings, longer wedge shaped tail and more fluttering flight. Manx rarely occurs in same range, is darker backed
with cleaner white underparts and whiter undertail.
Fluttering shearwater
Puffinus gavia Plate 36
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic New Zealand breeder.
Breeds (eggs September–October) in small numbers
on virtually all smaller New Zealand offshore islands
without rats. Larger colonies are found in Three Kings
group, Moturoa group, Motuharakeke (Cavalli Is.),
northwest Chicken Is., Bream I., Mokohinau group,
Channel Is., Mercury group, Aldermen group and
Trio Is. and many other islands as far south as Cook
Strait. Forages near breeding grounds and some may
visit all year round. Large post-breeding flocks moult
in Hauraki Gulf and outer Marlborough Sounds then
disperse west to southeast Australia and north to New
Caledonia. Vagrant to Vanuatu.
beHavIour Gregarious and commonly found inshore, often inside harbours, forming huge flocks in Hauraki Gulf
and outer Marlborough Sounds. Flight mostly low, fast and direct with deep, fast (fluttering), wingbeats and short
glides. In stronger winds, aerobatic, dynamic soaring.
JIZZ Medium-small, short-bodied shearwater with rounded head and relatively short bill. Wings appear narrow
and are held stiffly. Tail short, feet projecting only just beyond tail tip.
sIZe TL 32–37cm; W 18.0–22.1cm; WS 76cm; WT 230–415g. Similar size to Manx but with shorter wings
and bill.
PlumaGe Upperparts dark brown, becoming paler and more mottled with wear, when dark flight feathers may
stand out from paler coverts. Chin and throat and area immediately below ear white. Generally shows wide,
ill-defined brownish collar that is lost with wear. Underparts, including undertail, white with dark brown thigh
patch. Underwing pattern relatively uniform with mostly white coverts and dusky undersides to outer flight
feathers forming darker outer trailing edge and tip. Some smudgy-brown markings in armpit with an ill-defined
line running from inner hindwing towards elbow but rarely getting more than half way. White ‘tab’ markings
encroaching from flanks onto rump vary in size and occasionally look prominent. Darker newly fledged juveniles
can have pale tips to upperwing-coverts. Bill dark grey with paler lower mandible; eye dark; and legs and feet
pinkish brown with dark webs.
moult aND Wear Brown plumage becomes paler with wear. Breeders moult rapidly, usually in New Zealand,
beginning in February with most in moult by March. Large gaps present in wings during March–April cause
birds to become virtually flightless, especially in calmer waters such as Marlborough Sounds. Non-breeders and
immatures moult earlier and are in fresh plumage during breeding season. Birds moulting in Australia are likely
to be non-breeders.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Hutton’s occurs in the same flocks as Fluttering. It is slightly longer and skinnier with a less
rounded head, noticeably longer bill, darker face, darker collar and duskier underwings. Note, however, that young
Hutton’s has paler underwings similar to darker Fluttering. Tropical, which may overlap in range in Melanesia, is
smaller and black, rather than brown above and has white ‘tab’ markings that encroach up onto the rump. Beware
205
that Fluttering’s dark thigh patch, or moult, can make it appear as though it has white tabs at a distance. Little and
Subantarctic Little are smaller and blacker above, with shorter, stubbier, rounded little wings, a short tail and flight
more like diving petrel, regularly flapping wings and gliding short distances.
Hutton’s shearwater
Puffinus huttoni Plate 36
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand endemic, breeding (eggs
late October–December) only in northern South
Island in two colonies between 1200–1800 m. in the
Seaward Kaikoura Mountains. Forages in waters
off Kaikoura and in Cook Strait during summer
but virtually absent in winter, when most migrate
to southeast Australia and Tasmania. Records from
Northern Territory and Coral Sea suggest birds may
circumnavigate Australia but firm evidence lacking.
beHavIour Off Kaikoura almost always in huge,
noisy flocks, birds leap-frogging each other whilst
foraging. In Australia usually in small groups and
more pelagic than Fluttering. Flight less hurried than
Fluttering but otherwise similar.
JIZZ Medium-sized shearwater with long neck and body and flat-headed profile. Moderately long wings and
broad tail with feet projecting well beyond tail tip, when not tucked up under belly feathers.
sIZe TL 36–38cm; W 20.3–23.3cm; WS 72–78cm; WT 242–378g. Longer-bodied than Fluttering with shorter wings.
PlumaGe Upperparts blackish-brown becoming paler and more mottled with wear when dark flight feathers may
stand out from paler coverts. Chin and throat white with wide, dark brown collar that becomes less prominent
with wear. Underparts, including undertail, white with dark brown thigh patch. Some have small amount of
brown mottling on tips of some white feathers of undertail. Underwing pattern variable, young birds often paler
than adults but dusky undersides to flight feathers always forming darker trailing edge and tip. Outer underwing
can be predominantly white or mostly dark with only pale wash to palm on forewing. Inner underwing usually
mostly dusky brown with smudgy dark line running from inner hindwing to elbow. Bill and eye dark; legs and
feet pink with dark grey webs and toes.
moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with wear. Breeders moult rapidly, generally in Australia,
beginning in May with most in moult by June. Non-breeders and immatures moult earlier and are in fresh
plumage during breeding season.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to tell from Fluttering, but combination of slightly larger size, longer neck and body,
less rounded head, longer bill and narrower, more pointed wings should allow separation, especially when the
two species are together. Hutton’s has a darker, more substantial collar, can look almost completely dark-headed
from some angles and darker-crowned in some lights. However, feather wear may make both species look very
similar, especially late in breeding season. Hutton’s underwing usually darker than Fluttering, much duskier in
darker individuals. Note, however, that young Hutton’s can have paler underwings similar to darker Fluttering.
Tropical, which may overlap in range in Melanesia, is smaller and black, rather than brown, above and has white
‘tab’ markings that encroach up onto the rump. However, beware that Hutton’s dark thigh patch, or moult, can
make it appear as though it has a white tab at a distance. Little and Subantarctic Little are smaller and blacker
above, with shorter, stubbier, rounded little wings, a short tail and flight more like diving-petrel – with regularly
flapping wings and shorter glides.
206
Manx group, including P. newelli newelli and P. n. myrtae (formerly a race of Audubon’s)
Bannerman’s P. bannermani
P. persicus persicus
Arabian
P. persicus temptator
Heinroth’s P. heinrothi
Macaronesian P. baroli
P. lherminieri lherminieri
Audubon’s P. lherminieri boydi
P. assimilis tunneyi
P. assimilis assimilis
Little P. assimilis kermadecensis
P. assimilis haurakiensis
Galápagos P. subalaris
Thus we recognise:
Puffinus elegans Subantarctic Little Shearwater
Pacific and Atlantic.
Bollans Is., Antipodes I. and Star Keys, Chatham Is., New Zealand; Gough I., Inaccessible I.,
Nightingale I., Tristan da Cunha group.
P. assimilis Little Shearwater
Pacific Ocean
P. a. assimilis – Lord Howe I. and Norfolk I.
P. a. kermadecensis – Kermadec Is.
P. a. haurakiensis – Islands off North Island of New Zealand.
Indian Ocean
P. a. tunneyi – Amsterdam I. and St Paul I. and Roche Quille, as well as the Abrolhos group and other
islands off western Australia (in Leeuwin Current).
P. baroli Macaronesian Shearwater
Atlanctic Ocean – Azores, Madeira, Canary Is., Desertas, Salvage Is.
P. lherminieri Audubon’s Shearwater
Caribbean/North Atlantic
P. l. lherminieri – Bahamas and West Indies
P. l. loyemilleri – Caribbean Islands to Venezuela
Atlantic Ocean
P. l. boydi – Cape Verde Is.
P. bannermani Bannerman’s Shearwater
Pacific Ocean – Bonin Is.
P. persicus Arabian Shearwater
Arabian Sea
P. p. persicus
Indian Ocean
P. p. temptator – Comoro Is.
207
P. bailloni Tropical Shearwater
Indian Ocean
P. b. bailloni – Mascarene Is.
Pacific and Indian Ocean
P. b. dichrous – Fiji, Phoenix Is., Marquesas, Vanuatu, Amirantes, Seychelles, Maldives, Chagos, Aldabra
P. subalaris – Galápagos Shearwater
Pacific Ocean – Galápagos Is.
P. newelli Newell’s Shearwater
Pacific Ocean
P. n. newelli – main Hawaiian Is.
P. n. myrtae – Rapa I. in the Austral group
P. auricularis Townsend’s Shearwater
Pacific Ocean – Clarión, San Benedicto, and Socorro Is., Revillagigedo Is.
P. heinrothi Heinroth’s Shearwater
Pacific Ocean – Solomon Is.
Once the presence of white tabs on sides of rump is established, useful features in order of importance are:
• extent of dark on undertail
• extent of dark on face
• tail length
• leg colour
Size is not overly useful in the field but relative measurements of tail length to total length may help:
208
near breeding grounds during breeding season with
large numbers seen near Bounty Is., New Zealand.
Dispersal not documented. Unclear if birds captured
off Chile represent unknown Chilean population or
vagrants.
beHavIour Solitary and largely pelagic; not commonly
seen inshore. Flight similar to Little; if anything, even
more like diving-petrel.
JIZZ Small, very compact shearwater reminiscent of a
large diving-petrel with short, broad, rounded wings
sIZe TL 25–30cm; W 17.0–19.7cm; WS 58–67cm;
?
WT 226–275g. Heavier, with shorter wings and
slightly more robust, longer bill than Little.
PlumaGe Similar to Little but with distinctive face
pattern reminiscent of Audubon’s: dark of crown extends down to surround eye. Demarcation between black
and white on face very clean. Small dark partial collar on sides of breast generally present. Underwing also
darker with slightly wider trailing edge to underwing and dusky armpit. Generally shows some white tips to
feathers of back and upperwing.
moult aND Wear Black plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults moult January–February. Non-breeders
and immatures may be recognised by earlier moult.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distribution exclusively in cold waters combined with dark face diagnostic. Smaller and shorter-
winged than Audubon’s and lacks dark undertail. Given poor views, timing of moult useful with Subantarctic
Little being the only Audubon’s/Little species likely to be moulting in January–February.
little shearwater
Puffinus assimilis Plates 36, 37
209
regularly overlap, except possibly with Tropical. Tropical is slightly larger and heavier with longer bill, wing and
tail, darker face, slightly browner (though still blackish) upperparts, dark undertail and a duskier underwing with
a broader dark trailing edge. Subantarctic Little can only easily be separated at close range, by darker face and
(usually) larger, dark collar.
macaronesian shearwater
Puffinus baroli Plates 35, 37
audubon’s shearwater
Puffinus lherminieri Plates 34–37
taxoNomy See discussion above. We recognise three subspecies: P. l. lherminieri in north Caribbean; marginally
distinct P. l. loyemilleri in south and south-west Caribbean; and P. l. boydi on Cape Verde Is. Given the similarity of
boydi to nominate and loyemilleri, its inclusion within Macaronesian as suggested by Sangster et al. (2005), based
on Austin et al. (2004), is not recommended. See discussion above (p.206).
DIstrIbutIoN Tropical and subtropical Atlantic. Breeds year round. P. l. lherminieri breeds on Bermuda
(Bahamas), Saba Key, Virgin Is., Guadaloupe, Diserade, some Leeward Is. Rocher du Diamant, Martinique,
Bird Rock, Barbados, some smaller islets of the Grenadines (Lesser Antilles) and islets off Porto Rico. P. l. loy-
emilleri breeds year round on southwestern islets on Caribbean coast of Panama; islets off Providentia I., east of
Nicaragua, and Los Roques Is. off Venezuela. P. l. boydi breeds year round on Cape Verde Is. Probably mainly
sedentary but may move north and northeast into Atlantic. Recorded with increasing regularity off eastern
seaboard of US whilst records from Europe controversial.
beHavIour Generally solitary when searching for food but can form large foraging groups diving for prey. Often
seen on water. Not attracted to ships and rarely attracted to offal or chum. In light winds, flight 4–6 stiff wingbeats
followed by a short glide low over sea. In stronger winds, glides more often and flies higher above surface.
210
JIZZ Short and broad wings with comparatively long
neck and tail. Feet do not project beyond tail in flight.
sIZe lherminieri TL 29–31cm; W 18.6–21.6cm; WS
69–73cm; WT 197–301g. boydi TL 28cm; W 18.0–
19.3cm; WS 69cm, WT 220g. Smaller than Manx,
larger than Macaronesian or Little. loyemilleri maybe
slightly smaller than lherminieri but data incomplete.
PlumaGe Forehead, crown and hindneck blackish
brown, throat and cheeks white, usually with whitish
patch behind ears. Black of crown extends from base
of bill, just below eye, to behind ear. Generally shows
white eye ring. Small partial dark collar. Upperparts
including tail blackish-brown, becoming lighter and
brownish-grey with wear. Underparts white with
small black thigh patch and small extension of white
flanks up onto sides of rump. Upperwing blackish brown, with slightly darker flight feathers. Undertail mostly
dark with some white feathers at edge. Underwing mainly white, with broad dark trailing edge and wing tip,
formed by dark flight feathers, narrow dark leading edge and variable darker markings on innerwing. Bill grey
with significant amounts of blue at base of both mandibles. Legs of adults in Caribbean, pink with black edges
and toes. Legs said to be blue in boydi birds but as colour has been shown to be age-dependent in related Tropical
Shearwater more work may be needed.
moult aND Wear Browner when worn. As apparently breeds all year, moult not useful in distinguishing
immatures.
IDeNtIFICatIoN In North Atlantic only likely to be mistaken for Manx and Macaronesian. Macaronesian is more
like Little, with more flapping, whirring flight and more compact jizz and has whiter face, whiter underwing with
very narrow dark border and white undertail. Manx also has white undertail-coverts and a whiter underwing
with narrower dark trailing edge and is larger, with proportionately longer wings and shorter tail. Members of
Manx group are larger and generally do not show tabs of white on sides of rump, but beware that dark thigh
patches may give appearance of white tabs especially in worn plumage. Yelkouan and Balearic are considerably
browner than Audubon’s and may have dark undertail, but undertail rarely entirely dark and if dark undertail
present, Yelkouan and Balearic are browner than Audubon’s and may have dark undertail. However, undertail
rarely entirely dark and belly and flanks of Yelkouan and Balearic will also be dark, unlike Audubon’s.In South
Atlantic boydi may overlap with Subantarctic Little. Jizz and upperpart coloration are very similar but boydi has
dark undertail, wide dark trailing edge to underwing and longer tail.
bannerman’s shearwater
Puffinus bannermani Plate 37
211
arabian shearwater
Puffinus persicus Plate 37
tropical shearwater
Puffinus bailloni Plate 37
212
beHavIour Solitary and pelagic, generally ignoring boats. In light winds, flies with slower wingbeats than Little,
interspersed with low ‘shearwatering’ glides; in stronger winds, glides rise and fall rhythmically.
JIZZ Similar to Audubon’s. Small compact shearwater with relatively short, broad, rounded wings.
sIZe TL 31cm; W 18.7–21.3cm; WS 69cm; WT 168–217g. Smaller than Manx, similar to Audubon’s, slightly
larger than Little with comparatively longer wings, tail and bill.
PlumaGe Forehead, crown, hind-neck, mantle, back, rump and uppertail uniformly sooty-black. Black on head
extends to just below eye and includes dark feathering on ears and feathers against upper bill. Upperparts mostly
well demarcated from white underparts, but grey mottling on lower ear-coverts. Fore-neck, throat, breast and
flanks white with dark thigh patches and usually comparatively substantial mottled, black collar. Upperwings
black with white tips to feathers in fresh plumage lost with wear. Undertail colour variable within populations;
can be either entirely white (Réunion) or entirely dark (majority of population on Seychelles) or intermediate
with paler central undertail (e.g. Aldabra). Underwing white, with dark trailing edge and tip due to dark flight
feathers, comparatively wide, slightly smudgy leading edge and variable dark markings on centre of inner wing.
Bill grey with blue base to upper mandible and mostly blue-grey lower mandible; eye dark; inner leg and toes
blue; rest of legs and feet black with pinkish webs.
moult aND Wear Browner when worn. Due to lack of breeding season, moult may be seen at any time of year
and thus not useful for ageing.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Arabian but Tropical’s upperparts, in all but very worn plumage,
blacker, underwing likely to be lighter, and flanks usually white. Individuals with white undertail most difficult
to distinguish from members of the Manx group but smaller with shorter, rounder wing, blacker upperparts
and more prominent white tabs that reach up onto rump. Black of crown surrounds eye giving darker-faced
appearance than any species in Manx group. Especially good views may allow Tropical’s bluish legs to be seen.
Those with partially dark undertails may be difficult to separate from Newell’s, but Tropical is smaller, rounder-
winged with darker leading edge to underwing and more prominent collar. Those with dark undertail are smaller
and rounder-winged than Townsend’s but very difficult to distinguish from Audubon’s. Tropical has blacker
upperparts, except when plumage very worn, and dark face with dark feathering along edge of upper mandible.
However, exceptionally good views are required and in many cases individuals may not be identifiable. See
Galápagos for separation off Mexico.
Galápagos shearwater
Puffinus subalaris Plates 34, 37
213
Newell’s shearwater
Puffinus newelli Plate 34
townsend’s shearwater
Puffinus auricularis Plate 34
214
PlumaGe Chin, throat and lower cheeks white. Forehead, crown, ears, area immediately below eye to base
of upper mandible and nape blackish-brown with short, wide, mottled collar. Head merges seamlessly with
blackish-brown upperparts, upperwing and tail. Underparts white, with black thigh patch. White on flanks
extends as narrow tabs up onto sides of rump. Undertail blackish-brown with variable amounts of white around
vent and white fringes to feathers when fresh. Underwing mainly white, with broad dark trailing edge and tip
formed by dark flight feathers, narrow black leading edge and narrow, indistinct dark diagonal bar in centre of
underwing. Bill and eye black; legs and feet flesh with dark edges and pink webs.
moult aND Wear Black plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults moult September–November. Non-
breeders and immatures may be recognised by earlier moult and fresh plumage during breeding season.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Newell’s. Townsend’s tends to have more dark markings on
underwing and has a shorter tail with more uniformly dark undertail-coverts. Newell’s has more white on the
centre of the undertail. When seen well, facial pattern more sharply demarcated in Newell’s with prominent
white crescent curling up behind eye and no dark collar. Moult also useful, with adult Townsend’s in wing moult
September–November whilst Newell’s moult wing December–February. Tropical Shearwater of the north-east
Pacific is smaller with short, rounder-winged jizz and in fresh plumage has white fringes to dark feathers of
upperparts. Black-vented is slightly heavier and thus more podgy-looking, lacks the white rump tabs, and is
much browner and scruffier on head, breast, undertail and underwing. Other members of Manx group lack the
white flank patches or tabs, have whiter undertail and slightly browner upperparts. Pale-morph Wedge-tailed is
larger, has browner, less uniform upperparts and leisurely flight. Pink-footed is much larger, also has browner, less
uniform upperparts and longer, broader wings.
Heinroth’s shearwater
Puffinus heinrothi Plate 30
DIvING-Petrels
Diving-petrels are short, compact birds with very dense plumage. The tail and wings are short, and the latter are
rather paddle-like, presumably an adaptation to propulsion under water. Inshore, rather than pelagic, birds. Seen
at sea either singly or in small groups. At rest, float high on the water. In flight, they whirr along in straight lines
close to the water, travelling straight through waves without hesitation. Wingbeats faster than Little Shearwater.
When disturbed either dive or make a short flight then dive. Only likely to be mistaken for Little Shearwater.
Best recognised by extremely compact jizz and diagnostic flight which is described as like that of a bumblebee,
with constantly flapping, whirring wings.
215
Whilst size can be helpful for identification, four other features are usually more useful:
• underwing colour
• pattern of white behind ear
• shape of white scapular stripes (only in fresher plumage)
• tail length and projection of feet beyond the tail
Peruvian Diving-petrel
Pelecanoides garnotii Plate 38
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to waters of the inshore
Humboldt Current. Breeds (December–March and
March–October) from Isla Lobos de Tierra, Peru
(6°S), in north to Coronel, Chile (37°S), in south.
Breeding islands poorly known but reported from
Islas San Gallán, Islas La Vieja in Peru and Isla
Chañaral (where now extinct), Isla Choros, Isla Pan
de Azúcar, Isla Chañaral in Chile. Probably sedentary
but recorded off Isla Chiloé, Chile.
beHavIour Generally solitary except off breeding
islands. Flies low and fast on whirring wings.
Excellent swimmer and diver, commonly diving when
approached by boats.
JIZZ Large, fat diving petrel with very short, broad rounded wings, comparatively short tail and short, compara-
tively stout bill. Legs longer than other diving-petrels, often held hanging below body and may trail behind tail.
sIZe TL 22cm; W 13.0–14.4cm; WS ?, WT 202g. The largest, heaviest diving-petrel.
PlumaGe Forehead, crown, feathers around bill and eye blackish-brown. Ear-coverts and small wide collar
dusky. Rest of upperparts, including upperwing, black with long white feathers and feather tips to scapulars
forming obvious white stripes down either side of back, though these are lost as plumage wears. Underparts dull
white below. Underwing white with broad, pale grey trailing edge and tip formed by darker flight feathers. Bill
black, eye dark, legs bright blue, webs black.
moult aND Wear Becomes browner with wear; white scapulars and any white tips to inner flight feathers lost.
Moult recorded August–October, but this is inconsistent with breeding schedule.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Magellanic, which may overlap with Peruvian in central Chile, is noticeably smaller with
shorter wing, proportionately longer tail and feet rarely trailing beyond tail. It has a distinctive white crescent
extending up from throat behind eye to rear of crown and, in fresh plumage, more white tips to feathers on
upperparts but a less distinct white stripe on scapulars. See also Common and South Georgia, though both are
unlikely to occur in range. In the hand, shape of underside of bill helpful.
magellanic Diving-petrel
Pelecanoides magellani Plate 38
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Chile and southern Argentina. Distribution and population very poorly known but
probably breeds (eggs November–December) on small islands in Chilean fjords.
beHavIour Generally solitary except in Chilean fjords where small flocks may form. Flies low and fast on
216
whirring wings. Excellent swimmer and diver,
commonly diving when approached by boats.
JIZZ Small, short, compact diving-petrel with short,
broad, rounded wings and comparatively long tail.
Legs rarely trail behind tail.
sIZe TL 19cm; W 12.0–13.4cm; WS ?, WT 160g. Inter-
mediate in weight and wing length between Common
and Peruvian.
PlumaGe Forehead, crown feathers around bill and
area around eye, blackish-brown. Ear-coverts have con-
spicuous white crescent that extends well up towards
back of neck. Dark does not extend far down sides
of neck towards upper breast. Upperparts, including
upperwing, black. In fresh plumage, white tips to many
wing-coverts and inner flight feathers and white tips and outer webs to scapulars and some back feathers, forming
mottled white stripes down either side of back. Underparts dull white. Underwing white with broad pale grey
trailing edge and tip formed by darker flight feathers. Bill black, eye dark, legs bright blue, webs black.
moult aND Wear Black becomes browner with wear, white tips to feathers and scapular stripe lost. Moult
recorded April–June.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Differs from other diving-petrels in conspicuous white, crescent-shaped half collar. In the
hand, shape of underside of bill helpful.
Common Diving-petrel
Pelecanoides urinatrix Plate 38
taxoNomy At least six subspecies recognised: P. u. urinatrix in northern New Zealand and southeast Australia;
P. u. chathamensis in southern New Zealand (not subantarctic) and Chatham Is.; P. u. dacunhae on Tristan du Cunha
group and Gough I.; P. u. berard on Falklands; P. u. coppingeri in southern Chile; and P. u. exsul in rest of subantarctic.
217
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in southern oceans.
Breeds (July–December, later in southern colonies) on
numerous small islands off New Zealand, the Snares;
all the islands of the Chatham group; small islands
off southeast Australia and Tasmania; unknown
locations in southern Chile; Tristan da Cunha group
and Gough I.; South Georgia and surrounding
islands; smaller islands of Falklands; Marion I.,
Prince Edward Is.; Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard
I., McDonald I., islands off Macquarie I., smaller
islands of Auckland group, Antipodes I. and islets off
Campbell I. Generally thought to be sedentary but
huge numbers found far from land in southern Indian
Ocean in early summer.
beHavIour Generally solitary except off breeding islands in evening when small flocks may form. Flies low and
fast on whirring wings. Excellent swimmer and diver, commonly diving when approached by boats.
JIZZ Medium-sized, comparatively slim diving-petrel with short, rounded wings and comparatively long tail.
Legs may trail behind tail.
sIZe TL 20–23cm; W 11.2–13.2cm; WS 33–38cm; WT 154g. Larger than South Georgia Diving-petrel and
slightly smaller on average than Peruvian.
PlumaGe Forehead, crown, feathers around bill, ears and area around eye dark brownish-black. Generally has
distinct dusky collar extending onto upper breast. Upperparts including upperwing black, with very narrow
white tips to scapulars forming narrow white stripe down either side of back that is lost with wear. Underparts
dull white; birds in Chilean fjords often dusky on flanks. Underwing dusky white with broad grey trailing edge
and tip formed by darker flight feathers. Bill black, sometimes with blue base to lower mandible; eye dark; legs
bright blue with black toes and webs.
moult aND Wear Becomes browner with wear; white feather tips and scapular stripe lost. Moulting birds
recorded January to October are probably adults.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Extremely difficult to separate from South Georgia Diving-petrel and generally only possible in
exceptional circumstances. Moult may be useful in cold waters with birds moulting in January to March either
Common or immature South Georgia. Common has duskier underwing, less obvious white stripes down either
side of back, dark ears and duskier face and sides of breast. Common more likely to trail legs behind tail than
South Georgia Diving-petrel. In southern Chilean fjords occurs with Magellanic which is easily separated by
its conspicuous white, crescent-shaped half collar and by the dusky (not white) flanks of Chilean population of
Common. In the hand, shape of underside of bill helpful.
storm-Petrels
The texts for the tropical storm-petrels were difficult to prepare.
Neither author has extensive experience in the northern Pacific and
most available information seems to be a rehash of previously pub-
lished material. Many ‘facts’ appear to be based on hearsay and some
oft-repeated information is definitely wrong. Photographs in the major
books on seabirds are frequently incorrectly assigned to species and
many photographs on the web are either definitely wrongly identified
or are simply ambiguous as to likely species. In particular, photos of the
‘white-rumped’ storm-petrels off the Galápagos and the dark ‘forked-
tailed’ storm-petrels of the western Pacific are frequently spuriously
identified. Many rare bird committee files were examined whilst pre-
paring these texts, and we consider that there are a number of incor-
rectly identified species of storm-petrel on many national lists, and
a number of records where the local rare bird committee has made
judgments where we feel there is simply not enough information cur-
rently available to make an informed opinion.
Key to black and black-and-white storm-petrels
At first sight these small storm-petrels present a bewildering array of
similar, completely black birds, black ones with white rumps and black-
Dark-phase Leach’s Petrel.
and-white ones with white, or maybe black, rumps! These summaries
may help. They did in the preparation of this book.
218
Dark (or grey) rump White rump
summary of storm-petrel identification features (the pearly-grey Fork-tailed storm-petrel has been excluded from this table).
TAIL
TOTAL Wing bar Birds with
WINGSPAN WEIGHT TArSUS
Species LENGTH SIZE LENGTH FOrK DEPTH reaches white shafts
(cm) (g) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) carpel? to primaries?
Ashy 18.9 41.5 39 Med. 2.3 Med. 8.3 2.3 Moderate Sometimes None
Swinhoe’s 20.0 46.5 41 Med. 2.3 Med. 7.5 1.6 Moderate No All
Leach’s (dark) 19.0 45.0 45 Med. 2.4 Med. 8.0 1.6 Shallow Yes None
Markham’s 23.0 51.5 53 Large 2.4 Short 9.0 3.2 Deep Yes Few
Black 23.0 50.5 57 Large 3.2 Long 8.5 2.5 Moderate No Few
Matsudaira’s 24.0 56.0 62 Large 2.7 Med. 9.9 3.2 Deep No All
Tristram’s 24.0 56.0 86 Large 2.8 Long 10.3 3.6 Deep Yes Very few
This table gives morphometrics and identifcation criteria for all-dark storm-petrels with forked tails.
southern storm-petrels
Wilson’s storm-petrel
oceanites oceanicus Plate 39
219
Georgia, South Sandwich Is., South Orkney Is., South Shetland Is., Bouvetøy I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard
I., Macquarie I., Balleny Is., Scott Is. and Peter I.
beHavIour Most frequently seen foraging on the surface of the ocean, pattering with long dangling legs, but
also flies fast and swallow-like (though rarely for any distance), pausing frequently to patter. Often in groups,
easily attracted to boats using fish oil; sometimes seen behind fishing vessels hauling nets.
JIZZ Small, long-legged storm-petrel with square or slightly notched tail. Feet project beyond tail in flight. Wing
comparatively narrow and often described as sickle-shaped due to bend of wing being close to body. In fact, the
wing’s trailing edge appears straight in calm or in light winds, becoming more sickle-shaped as wind increases.
Whilst pattering on sea surface, wings held over back in a shallow V, never angled as steeply upwards as European
Storm-petrel.
sIZe TL 15–19cm; W 13.6–16.2cm; WS 38–42cm; WT 28–50g. Small Oceanites storm-petrel. In the Southern
Hemisphere smaller than White-bellied and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrels, noticeably larger than nominate
Elliot’s but similar size to Galápagos subspecies. In the Northern Hemisphere slightly larger than European
Storm-petrel but noticeably smaller than Leach’s and Madeiran Storm-petrels.
PlumaGe Dark brown, with paler, crescentic wing-bar on upperwing and obvious white rump, which wraps
down around the sides almost to the vent. Some individuals, especially those seen around Chile, can have smudgy
white patches around vent and even on lower belly. When seen from above, white on rump is V- or U-shaped
with black feathering of back intruding onto upper rump. Bill black. Legs and feet black with yellow webs.
moult aND Wear Grey wash over wing-coverts in fresh plumage. Pale bar on upperwing-coverts present all
year round but becomes more obvious in January–March due to plumage wear. Extensive wing moult seen
April–Aug usually in northern wintering grounds.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Other confusable, small, dark storm-petrels with white rumps and mostly dark underparts are
European, Madeiran, Leach’s, Wedge-rumped and Elliot’s. Wilson’s combination of yellow webs and dark toes
is diagnostic but usually impossible to see in field. European is smaller, lacks obvious pale crescentic wing-bar on
upperwing but has whitish central panel on underwing and holds wings in more acute V when feeding. Madeiran
and Leach’s are both larger. Leach’s has a forked tail and larger pale crescent on upperwing. Leach’s also has white
rump that is longer than it is wide that does not extend down sides towards vent, and often has a dark central streak.
Madeiran is best told by shorter legs, which do not extend beyond tail, longer wings from body to carpal, steadier
flight and different foraging behaviour. Wedge-rumped has a larger white rump, short legs that do not extend
beyond tail in flight and the wings are a different shape, longer from body to carpel but shorter from carpal to tip.
Elliot’s can be difficult to separate from Wilson’s, especially off northern Chile where some Wilson’s are more likely
to have smudgy pale patches on underparts. Elliot’s is small and slim, usually has slightly paler panel on underwing
and close up can usually be seen to have more scruffy white on the underparts. Nominate Elliot’s likely to moult
wings in southern summer and autumn, earlier than Wilson’s.
elliot’s storm-petrel
oceanites gracilis Plates 40, 45
220
and more sickle-shaped than Wilson’s, and the combination of relatively thin, long wings and longer body make
this species appear more delicate and slender-bodied, especially whilst feeding. In sustained flight has rapid
wingbeats, feet extending well beyond square ended tail.
sIZe TL 14-17cm; galapagoensis: W 13.0–14.6cm; WS 35-37cm; WT 17g; gracilis: W 11.7–13.2cm. Small, delicate
Oceanites storm-petrel. Nominate gracilis on average slightly smaller than Wilson’s and Wedge-rumped, and con-
siderably smaller than White-bellied Storm-petrels, all of which occur in the same waters. The larger Galápagos
subspecies is a similar size to Wilson’s and Wedge-rumped.
PlumaGe A small black-and-white storm-petrel with a white rump. Underparts vary. Most have a pale belly; a
few are entirely dark.
Nominate Upperparts mostly sooty-black, darkest on crown, lower back, rectrices and remiges, fading to dark
brownish black when worn. White uppertail-coverts and some white tips to feathers of upper rump form a
well defined semicircular patch of white across the uppertail. Upperwings brownish-black with a paler crescent
consisting of a greyish stripe formed by the paler tips of the median-secondary coverts present all year, and
a more obvious pale brown patch developes by late summer due to wear, especially of the secondary coverts.
Juveniles and freshly moulted adults have small white tips to upperwing coverts and retrices. Underwing smoky-
grey, slightly paler in centre. Throat, chest, upper breast, sides of lower breast and flanks a pale brownish-
black. Centre of lower breast, belly and vent white. Thigh patches brown, forming a narrow, well-defined line
between the white of the belly and rump. Boundaries between white and brown on the underside relatively
crisply divided except on the vent, where some birds may be smudged brown. Undertail-coverts brown, outer
ones streaked or smudged with white. Feet black with indistinct yellow patches on the centre of each web.
O. g. galapagoensis White belly patch usually smaller and smudgy around the edges, especially on the
flanks. Some birds have almost entirely dark underparts. Specimens in collections are generally a paler brown
than the nominate race but this may only be due to plumage wear.
In both races, comparatively small bill similar in dimensions to Wilson’s, with prominent nostrils typical of
Oceanites. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.
moult aND Wear
Nominate moult not recorded but, as a late winter and spring breeder, adults are likely to moult in summer
and immatures in spring.
O. g. galapagoensis Probably breeds in late autumn and winter so birds moulting wing and tail between
November and January are likely to be adults, whilst immatures would be moulting in spring.
IDeNtIFICatIoN One of the smallest storm-petrels, regularly occurring in the Humboldt Current and waters of
the Galápagos, where it can be confused with Wedge-rumped, Madeiran, White-bellied and Leach’s Storm-petrels.
Except for the darkest birds, the pale belly should be visible even at a distance and the combination of pale belly,
dark underwing with slightly paler central panel, square tail and small, slender appearance should be diagnostic
– with practice. Some White-bellied Storm-petrels from the Tasman Sea and New Zealand Storm-petrel may show
similar patterns on underparts, but none have been recorded from the eastern Pacific. See those species for identif-
cation. A few possibly, worn or immature Wilson’s have whitish vents and belly markings and could look like darker
birds of the Galapagos race. Jizz, season and timing of wing-moult may help distinguish such individuals.
221
sIZe Hauraki Gulf: TL 17.1–18.7cm; W 14.5–15.4cm; WS 37.4–38.0cm; WT 30–36g. Medium-small Oceanites-
type storm-petrel. Smaller than Black-bellied and White-faced Storm-petrels, larger than Elliot’s and probably
slightly larger than many Wilson’s. Similar size to the smaller of the White-bellied Storm-petrel subspecies.
PlumaGe Museum specimens: Head, breast and upperparts dark sooty-brown, with paler crescentic wing-bar on
upperwing and obvious white rump. Chin and throat white with dark tips to feathers. Underparts white with variable
amounts of dark streaking concentrated on lower breast, flanks and thighs. Pattern of dark and light on breast
feathers that forms streaks is different to Fregetta storm-petrels. Undertail-coverts dark with white tips. Underwing
white with broad dark leading edge, dark flight feathers and dark-centred, smudgy coverts, especially on the outer
wing. Bill black. Legs and feet black with dark webs. The birds observed and photographed in the Hauraki Gulf are
considerably more variable in the amount of dark streaking on the underparts than the three museum specimens.
moult aND Wear Not known. Pale crescentic bar on upperwing likely to become more obvious with wear, like
Wilson’s.
IDeNtIFICatIoN At any distance would appear similar to darker-bellied White-bellied and paler Black-bellied
Storm-petrels. New Zealand has jizz, flight and foraging action more like Wilson’s than the two Fregetta storm-
petrels; slimmer build, longer, narrower wings and longer legs projecting well beyond tail in flight. Close up, the
distribution of the streaks on underparts, breast, flanks and thighs rather than central belly separates even the
darkest of birds from slightly larger Black-bellied. Separation from the darker forms of the polymorphic Lord
Howe White-bellied Storm-petrels likely to be extremely difficult. White-bellied usually has some white fringes
to the dark feathers on the back and scapulars, except when plumage is very worn. White-bellied has border
between dark breast and lighter belly, even in the darkest birds with the most ragged division, higher up on breast
toward throat than New Zealand. Legs, and especially feet, of White-bellied are shorter and more robust and
toenails are broad, flattened, and spade-shaped rather than long and thin. Jizz and foraging behaviour may well
be the easiest way to separate the two. Elliot’s is also long-legged, slim and rather Wilson’s-like but is smaller with
darker underwing and smudgier dark markings on underparts.
Grey-backed storm-petrel
Garrodia nereis Plate 40
222
White-faced storm-petrel
Pelagodroma marina Plate 44
black-bellied storm-petrel
Fregetta tropica Plates 41, 45
223
JIZZ Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel; wings broad at base, short and moderately rounded with a straight trailing
edge; tail square with feet normally projecting beyond tail in flight. Feet relatively short with spade-shaped toes
typical of Fregetta.
sIZe TL 20cm; W 15.4–18.3cm; WS 45–46cm; WT 43–63g. Medium-sized storm-petrel, slightly larger on
average than White-bellied, smaller than White-faced and larger than Wilson’s. Grey-backed Storm-petrel is
considerably smaller.
PlumaGe Head black with variable whitish throat. Upperparts, breast, central line down belly to vent and
undertail sooty-black. Fresh dark feathers of back and upperwing-coverts may have pale tips, which quickly wear
away, unlike White-bellied. Pale crescentic upperwing bar present but only really obvious in birds in very worn
plumage. Rump and flanks white. Underwing dark with white central panel and some dark coverts making it
appear rather scruffy. Demarcation between the black breast and white belly low down on breast and irregular.
Black belly stripe variable, broader in some birds, patchy or even absent in a few.
moult aND Wear Juveniles and some adults may have pale tips to fresh coverts and back but these wear off quickly
and are rarely as extensive as on White-bellied. Secondary coverts on upperwing may wear pale brown, causing pale
crescentic wing bar to become more obvious. Wing-moult occurs May–July in subtropical wintering grounds.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Very similar in size and jizz to White-bellied; black belly stripe not always easy to see, and
sometimes absent. White-bellied also has dark-bellied forms! See White-bellied for differences. The common
names of the Fregetta storm-petrels are not helpful as presence of dark markings on the belly of a Fregetta storm-
petrel is not diagnostic of Black-bellied. Bulkier than Wilson’s and Elliot’s Storm-petrels, with whiter, though
somewhat smudgy underwing and more white on flanks and belly. For separation from New Zealand Storm-
petrel see that species.
White-bellied storm-petrel
Fregetta grallaria Plates 41, 45
224
browner forming an indistinct pale upperwing panel. Wing moult occurs after protracted breeding season, thus
may be seen any time between February–August.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Similar in size and jizz to Black-bellied, which is usually distinguishable by presence of black
line down central belly to black vent, but this can be surprisingly difficult to see at sea and some Black-bellied
have white underparts. Black-bellied feet usually, but not always, project beyond tail in flight; throat often whitish;
upperparts lack white feather tips but pale upperwing bar likely to be more obvious; white underwing-coverts
smudged brown. Demarcation between black breast and white belly on paler Black-bellied is further down
breast than White-bellied and usually slightly smudgy. Those darker forms of White-bellied confusable with
Black-bellied are usually dusky on flanks rather than central belly. Range can be useful: White-bellied is never
found in subantarctic waters and Black-bellied is only present in subtropical waters in late autumn, winter and
early spring. Separation of darker forms of White-bellied and New Zealand Storm-petrel dealt with under those
species. White-bellied is bulkier than Wilson’s and Elliot’s Storm-petrels, with whiter underwing and usually an
entirely white belly.
Polynesian storm-petrel
Nesofregetta fuliginosa Plate 44
225
moult aND Wear Where studied, breeds all year round, indicating that moulting birds may be found at any
time of year.
IDeNtIFICatIoN.In all phases, size, flight and foraging behaviour distinctive.
Pied phase The combination of size, white underparts with dark breast-band, white upperwing bar and
rump, and broad forked tail should make identification easy, even at some distance. Confusion is only likely
with the similarly patterned Hornby’s Storm-petrel where they occur together in the far eastern Pacific.
Hornby’s is smaller with narrower, pointed wings, a grey rump, dark underwing and more of a contrast
between the paler grey back, black head and wings.
Intermediates As for the pied phase but the smudgy underparts are also a helpful feature.
Dark phase The rare, completely dark phase may be difficult or impossible to tell from the other large,
all-dark, fork-tailed storm-petrels of the Pacific (Black, Markham’s, Tristram’s, Matsudaira’s and Swinhoe’s),
but Polynesian’s larger size, broader, more rounded wings, highly distinctive foraging method and habit of
holding wings horizontally should all be helpful. In sustained flight, especially at a distance, the large Tris-
tram’s Storm-petrel may be the most difficult to tell apart but its flight is likely to be more purposeful, less
fluttering and its feet do not project feet beyond the tail.
Northern storm-petrels
european storm-petrel
Hydrobates pelagicus Plate 39
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN The common storm-petrel of tem-
perate northeast Atlantic. Breeds (April–September)
on rat-free islands off Norway, Faeroe Is., Iceland,
Britain, Ireland, in the Mediterranean and the
Canary Is. Disperse southwards in boreal winter to
South Africa, as far west as Natal and up to 200 miles
south of Cape Agulhas. Rare in waters of America
and Canada.
beHavIour Most frequently seen pattering on the
ocean surface, long legs dangling. May fly low with
a flapping direct, bat-like flight, but rarely for long,
pausing frequently to patter. Often in groups. Easily
attracted to boats using fish oil and sometimes seen
behind fishing boats hauling nets.
JIZZ Small storm-petrel with short, narrow wings. Flight fluttering and busy. Whilst pattering on sea surface
wings held up in a steeper V than Wilson’s. In calm conditions or light winds, the trailing edge of the wing
appears straight, becoming more sickle-shaped as wind speed increases. Square tailed, short-legged, feet never
protruding beyond tail in flight.
sIZe TL 15–16cm; W 11.6–13.2cm; WS 32–36cm; WT 23–43g. Slightly smaller than Wilson’s, noticeably
smaller than Leach’s and Madeiran Storm-petrels.
PlumaGe Plumage dark sooty-brown, becoming browner with wear. White rump wraps down around the sides
towards the vent. Lacks obvious pale crescentic bar on upperwing, although juveniles have pale tips to greater
coverts. Underwing dark with broad, whitish central panel.
moult aND Wear Wing moult begins before chicks fledge in September–October and continues over winter.
Juveniles, first-year birds and possibly non-breeders recognisable by earlier onset of moult.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Usually identifiable by small size and white blaze on underwing. Leach’s is larger, has forked tail
and more determined, less fussy flight. Madeiran is larger, more solid. Wilson’s is slightly larger, holds its wings
more horizontal when foraging and has yellow webs.
least storm-petrel
oceanodroma microsoma Plate 42
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Subtropical eastern Pacific Ocean. Breeds in boreal summer along coast of Baja California only on
Islas San Benito. In the Gulf of California, where it is the most abundant seabird, probably breeds on all rat-free
islands. Majority disperse south to Central America, as far as Colombia, Ecuador and as perhaps down to northern
226
Peru. A few move north and are found in the large storm-
petrel flocks of Monterey Bay in August–October.
beHavIour In moderate winds Flight bat-like with
constant, deep, brisk wingbeats. Often found with
Black and Ashy Storm-petrels, sometimes in large
flocks. Wings held in steep V when feeding. Often
seen sitting on water, where it feeds by propelling
itself forwards, splashing breast against waves. Said
by some authors not to patter feet on water surface as
much as others.
JIZZ Very small size, with comparatively short, rounded
wings, and short wedge-shaped or rounded tail make
it look like a miniature bat. Feet do not extend beyond
tail in flight.
sIZe TL 13.5–15cm; W 11.8–12.5cm; WS 32–36cm; WT 20g. Very small Oceanodroma storm-petrel. The smallest
procellariiform.
PlumaGe Entirely blackish-brown on head, upperparts, underparts and tail, with greyish-brown greater-coverts
forming paler crescentic upper wing-bar. Upper mantle may be slightly paler greyish-brown.
moult aND Wear Pale bar on upperwing-coverts present all year round but most obvious in late summer and
indicative of wear. Extensive wing moult seen October–December usually in southern wintering grounds.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguishable from all other dark storm-petrels by small size, short, wedge shaped, unforked
tail and flight.
Wedge-rumped storm-petrel
oceanodroma tethys Plate 40
227
extending almost as far as the notch in the slightly forked tail. Some white rump feathers have black shafts. Rest
of the tail is black. Upperwing brownish-black with pale white tips to coverts in fresh plumage and in juveniles.
Paler crescentic upperwing bar not very prominent but more so as secondary coverts wear to paler brown by
late summer. Underwing dark with bases of primaries only occasionally reflective, rarely giving a silvery effect in
strong light. Feet, toes and webs black. Heavy black bill similar in dimensions to European Storm-petrel with less
prominent nostrils typical of Oceanodroma. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.
moult aND Wear Upperparts and most of underparts have a silvery gloss when fresh (fading to dark brownish
black). Recorded moulting July to October. As nominate is an early winter breeder, immatures likely to be
moulting in early winter and adults later. As kelsalli breeds earlier, in late autumn and winter, birds off South
America may have finished moult in spring and there is some evidence that wing moult may begin whilst nesting
is underway.
IDeNtIFICatIoN In range, the combination of white rump, dark belly, and medium size should eliminate all but
Wilson’s, Madeiran, Leach’s and darker-bellied forms of Elliot’s. Wedge-rumped has a larger white rump patch
than all four. Wilson’s has a distinctive foraging, foot-trailing habit. Madeiran is heavier-bodied and squarer-
tailed; Leach’s is heavier, longer-winged with a more deeply forked tail; Elliot’s is smaller and slighter, and even
the darkest birds usually have some trace of white on the underparts.
madeiran storm-petrel
oceanodroma castro Plate 39
228
amounts of black on the tips and form a white semicircular band that extends onto the underparts and edges of
the vent almost encircling the tail. Bases of outer tail feathers white. Pale crescentic bar on upperwing not par-
ticularly prominent. Underwing dark but sometimes secondary underwing-coverts can be paler brown, forming
a paler stripe. All-dark, comparatively long, heavy bill with less prominent nostrils typical of Oceanodroma. Nostrils
of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults. Feet, toes and webs black.
moult aND Wear As plumage wears the secondary wing-coverts become browner forming a distinct pale-
brown crescent but this rarely extends as far as the forewing. Moult begins near the end of the breeding cycle,
probably 2–3 months after the eggs hatch and is generally completed before the following breeding season
although some birds may have incompletely grown P10 whilst incubating. With all the variation in timing of
breeding, plus immatures moulting a few months earlier than adults, it is possible to see a Madeiran Storm-petrel
at any stage of moult at any time of year.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of white rump and dark belly should eliminate all but Wilson’s, Leach’s, Wedge-
rumped, European and the dark-bellied forms of Elliot’s and White-bellied. Whilst feeding, Madeiran holds
it wings more horizontal than Wilson’s, Leach’s and Wedge-rumped. Wilson’s is slightly smaller, shorter in the
wing from body to carpal, and the feet extend beyond the tail in flight. Leach’s is longer-winged, has a forked
tail, a more prominent pale crescent on the upperwing which usually extends to the carpal, and the white rump
is longer, does not extend down around sides towards underparts and often has a dark central stripe. Wedge-
rumped has a larger white rump. Elliot’s is smaller and slighter and even the darkest birds usually have some
trace of white on the underparts. The rare, darker form of White-bellied has a different wing shape and flight.
leach’s storm-petrel
oceanodroma leucorhoa Plates 39, 40, 42, 43
229
JIZZ Medium-sized but long tail can make Leach’s look large when seen with other storm-petrels. In flight long
wings usually held angled back at carpal. Even in calm conditions or light winds, the wing’s trailing edge rarely
appears straight. Has unusually long inner wing bones giving the wing tip a hooked appearance. When foot-pat-
tering, wings held out at shallow angle (10–20°). Strongly forked tail not always obvious as often held closed in
flight. Feet do not extend beyond tail.
sIZe TL 18–22cm; W 14.0–16.7cm: WS 45–48cm: WT 38-50g. Medium sized Oceanodroma. Larger than
European, smaller than Black.
PlumaGe Medium-sized, dark storm-petrel with prominent white rump that is usually longer than it is broad
and does not extend under the body. Dark blackish-brown, back often slightly paler; flight feathers and tail slightly
darker. Upperwing has prominent, broad pale crescentic wing-bar formed by greater secondary-coverts reaching
forewing at carpal. White rump usually, but not always, divided by variable median ‘smudge,’ which becomes
more prominent in populations further south in Pacific, with completely dark-rumped birds common in popu-
lations off California and Mexico. Dark-rumped individuals absent from Atlantic. Bill strongly hooked, black;
legs and feet black.
moult aND Wear Fresh sooty-grey feathers of mantle and coverts become browner with wear. Primary moult
begins after adults leave colonies, usually in August and continues at least until April. Non-breeders collected in
central and eastern Pacific showed primary moult beginning earlier in July and ending October–December.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguished at sea from Wilson’s and European Storm-petrels by significantly larger size;
more bounding, less fluttery flight; longer, more pointed wings with relatively longer inner wing giving outer
wing hooked appearance; somewhat lighter brown back contrasting less with white rump; and long forked tail
concealing the short legs, resulting in longer, more slender appearance. White rump does not extend as much
onto undertail-coverts as in Wilson’s and European Storm-petrels. Whilst feeding both Wilson’s and European
hold wings in a higher V. Distinguished from Madeiran by longer white rump that does not extend down
around sides towards underparts, and often has smudgy dark median line, more obvious pale wing-bar, longer,
more deeply forked tail, longer, narrower, more angular wings and more erratic, bounding flight with deeper
wingbeats and fewer shearwater-like glides. Larger than Wedge-rumped with a considerably smaller white rump
patch. Dark-rumped forms of Leach’s nesting off California and Mexico can be difficult to distinguish from
the other all-dark species in the region: Ashy, Black, Markham’s and Least. Distinctive erratic, bounding flight
may be helpful but the smaller, dark rumped forms may not fly in so characteristic a way. Leach’s is smaller than
Black and Markham’s, larger than Least and a similar size to Ashy which has pale underwing coverts. In east
Asian waters, Leach’s is only common storm-petrel with white rump, but if present, dark-rumped birds likely
to be almost indistinguishable from Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel. Swinhoe’s bill is shorter and heavier; base of outer
shafts of flight feathers are often white; flight may be slower, less swooping and worn birds show slightly paler
underwing-coverts. All dark Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s are larger with longer, deeply-forked tails.
swinhoe’s storm-petrel
oceanodroma monorhis Plate 43
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN An enigmatic, migratory species only
known to breed (eggs July) on islands of Japan, Korea,
and the Russian Islands in the Sea of Japan. Migrates
September–April to northeast. Indian Ocean. Recorded
widely at sea from Vladivostok to Somalia and the Red
Sea and once off north-west Australia. Since 1983
there have been a few records from the North Atlantic:
Salvage Is., England, Spain, France, Italy and Norway.
beHavIour Non-breeding birds may be highly pelagic
but during breeding season can be seen inshore. Gen-
erally solitary and not attracted to ships but may be
attracted to fish oil slicks.
JIZZ A medium-sized, comparatively slim all-dark
storm-petrel with relatively large, broad wings and moderately forked tail, usually held closed in flight. Flight
reported as more direct and less erratic than Leach’s. Feet do not extend beyond tail in flight.
sIZe TL 18–21cm; W 14.6–16.5cm; WS 45–48cm; WT 65–78g. A medium-sized storm-petrel, smaller than all
other all dark fork-tailed storm-petrels except Ashy and dark-rumped Leach’s.
PlumaGe Entirely sooty-black except for slightly paler, crescentic wing bar. Most birds have white bases to
shafts of outer primaries on upperwing but these are unlikely to be very obvious at sea. All dark, typically robust
Oceanodroma bill is relatively short and deep, with small indistinct nostrils. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are
less prominent than adults.
230
moult aND Wear As plumage wears all feathers become browner, and pale crescentic wing-bar likely to become
more obvious. Likely to moult on wintering grounds in Indian Ocean.
IDeNtIFICatIoN. In Pacific and Indian Oceans range overlaps with two all-dark storm-petrels, Matsudaira’s and
Tristram’s. Both are larger than Swinhoe’s with more deeply forked tails. Tristram’s has a larger paler crescentic
wing-bar and Matsudaira’s has more prominent white bases to the primary shafts, which can be seen relatively
easily at sea in good conditions. The all-dark storm-petrels of the eastern Pacific – Black, Markham’s, Ashy,
Least and dark-rumped Leach’s – have not been recorded in Swinhoe’s range. Black and Markham’s are larger,
Least much smaller, and the similar-sized Ashy is greyer with paler panel on underwing. Dark-rumped Leach’s
is likely to be most similar but it has more prominent pale wing-bars, a longer, slimmer bill and is likely to have
more erratic, dashing flight.
Guadalupe storm-petrel
oceanodroma macrodactyla Plate 40
tristram’s storm-petrel
oceanodroma tristrami Plate 43
231
beHavIour Non-breeding birds may be highly pelagic but during breeding season can be seen inshore. Generally
solitary and not attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks.
JIZZ A large, heavy, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail. Foraging action consists of a pattering of feet
on the surface of the ocean similar to Wilson’s but not sustained for long periods, unlike other storm-petrels.
Very long sickle-shaped wings generally held slightly bent in flight and at slight very angle when foraging. Feet
do not extend beyond tail in sustained flight. Flight is a mixture of fluttering wingbeats, steep banking turns and
periods of gliding.
sIZe TL 24–26cm; W 17.2–19.2cm; WS 56cm; WT 70–112g. The heaviest storm-petrel, considerably larger
than all other all-dark storm-petrels except dark-phase Polynesian. Slightly larger and considerably heavier than
Markham’s.
PlumaGe Head, nape and neck black; rest of upperparts and underparts sooty-black with shiny greyish cast in
fresh plumage, especially apparent on back. Darker head gives distinct hooded appearance. As plumage wears
all feathers become browner and hooded appearance lost. Lighter greater secondary coverts form a broad, pale,
crescentic wing bar from the carpal to the base of the trailing edge of the wing. Some birds may have white
shafts to base of primaries but in those examined this was indistinct and may not show up as a field mark. Rump
generally paler than surrounding feathers and contrast becomes more obvious with wear. All-dark, typically
robust, Oceanodroma bill shorter than most species, with small nostrils that reach a third of the way down the bill,
unlike Markham’s, which has an unusually long nasal tube that extends down half of bill. Nostrils of juveniles
and immatures are less prominent than adults.
moult aND Wear Where studied, breeds in winter; thus birds likely to moult in northern spring and early
summer (immatures several months earlier), but the timing may be different in unstudied populations.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of large size, dark plumage and forked tail is far from unique but when seen well
in fresh plumage Tristram’s is reasonably distinctive with its dark-hooded appearance, greyish back and paler
sides to the rump. The pale crescent on the upperwing is the largest and most obvious of the all-dark storm-
petrels but in worn plumage or in poor conditions Tristram’s can still look completely dark, similar to the three
other large all-dark storm petrels that occur in the central or western Pacific: Matsudaira’s, Swinhoe’s and the
dark form of Polynesian. Identification can be difficult. Dark-phase Polynesian is large and bulky with broader,
more rounded wings, feet projecting well beyond the slightly forked tail and a very distinctive foraging flight,
kicking off the water with its huge feet. Swinhoe’s is slightly smaller, the pale crescent on the upperwing being
less obvious and not reaching the forewing at the carpal, and the tail is less deeply forked although this is often
hard to discern at sea. Close up, the bill should look relatively robust and deep and on most birds the bases of the
primary feather shafts are white, but again this may be difficult to see in the field. Matsudaira’s is a similar size
and shape to Tristram’s but the pale panel on the upperwing does not reach the forewing and most birds have
white bases to the shafts of the primaries, at times distinct enough to appear as a white patch just beyond the
carpal. A few Tristram’s also have white shafts but these are unlikely to be as obvious at sea.
There are five other all-dark storm-petrels that occur in the eastern Pacific which should perhaps be con-
sidered: Markham’s; Black, Ashy, Least and the dark form of Leach’s, chapmani. Least is tiny with an unforked
tail. Ashy is small, tending to greyish-black, especially in fresh plumage, and has pale underwing-coverts. The
dark form of Leach’s is slightly smaller than Tristram’s and is likely to fly in the fast, bounding erratic style of
the Leach’s group, but it does have slightly shorter and rounder wings than most and its flight may not be as
distinctive. Both Black and Markham’s are large and dark with forked tails and although slightly smaller than
Tristram’s are likely to be difficult to separate. The pale crescent on the upperwing does not reach the forewing
at the carpal on Black but does so on Markham’s. In the absence of any clear information about flight and jizz
the only way of separating Markham’s from a dark, worn Tristram’s would seem to be less obvious pale panel
on the upperwing, slightly larger bill and slightly smaller size. Check also Bulwer’s Petrel.
markham’s storm-petrel
oceanodroma markhami Plate 42
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN A very poorly known, but apparently abundant, storm-petrel of the southeast Pacific, found from
central Chile to Baja California. Recorded between 13° N and 26° S but commonest in cool waters of Humboldt
Current. Only confirmed breeding ground is Paracas peninsula, southern Peru, but given the abundance of the
species many other sites must exist. Except when visiting breeding grounds, entirely pelagic. Breeds southern late
winter and early spring (eggs late June–August) possibly dispersing north after breeding.
beHavIour Highly pelagic but during breeding season can be seen inshore especially in evenings. Generally
solitary but has been seen in mixed species flocks with Wilson’s, Elliot’s and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrels. Not
attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks.
JIZZ A large, slim, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail. Tail generally held closed or partially closed.
Feet do not extend beyond tail in flight. In calm conditions, flight slow, with relatively shallow wingbeats, fre-
232
quently lifting to a metre or more above the ocean
then gliding downwards.
sIZe TL 21–23cm; W 16.3–18.1cm; WS 49–54cm;
WT 53g. Same size as the heavier Black Storm-petrel,
slightly larger than Swinhoe’s. Slightly smaller than
Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s and smaller than Poly-
nesian.
PlumaGe In fresh plumage upperparts and underparts
black with plumbeous gloss on head, neck and mantle
and white tips to scapulars especially in immatures.
As plumage wears all feathers become browner.
Uppertail-coverts grey at bases with white shafts for
basal half of their length. Upperwing dark with paler
greater secondary coverts forming a greyish or whitish
wing-bar extending from the leading edge of the wing at the carpal to the base of the trailing edge. It is not
clear how many birds have white bases to primary shafts on upperwing. All-dark, typically robust Oceanodroma
bill shorter than most species, with an unusually long nasal tube that extends along half length of bill. Nostrils
of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.
moult aND Wear In colonies that have been studied breeds in southern winter months thus moulting birds
are likely to occur in southern spring and early summer whilst immatures are likely to moult several months
earlier.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of large size, dark plumage and forked tail is far from unique and in many cases
poor views will not allow positive identification. Range likely to overlap with very similar Black – see that species
for discussion of differences. Possibly overlaps with Ashy, which is smaller, has pale underwing-coverts and dis-
tinctive flight. Swinhoe’s is slightly smaller, has a less prominent wing-bar and less deeply notched tail. Tristram’s
is larger with a more prominent pale wing-bar and, in fresh plumage, greyer back and rump. Dark-phase Poly-
nesian Storm-petrel is much larger and heavier and feet project beyond tail in flight. Dark-phase Leach’s may
be difficult to separate but smaller size and fast, bounding, erratic flight style may help. Matsudaira’s has white
shafts to the base of the primaries that are often prominent enough to confirm identification. Some Markham’s,
like Swinhoe’s and a few Black’s, may also have this feature but it is unlikely that it would appear as obvious in
the field.
matsudaira’s storm-petrel
oceanodroma matsudairae Plate 43
233
bases to shafts of outer one to seven primaries forming small but diagnostic white patch on leading edge of
wing between carpal and wing-tip; underwing uniformly dark brown. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and
feet black.
moult aND Wear In fresh plumage likely to have pale tips to feathers of upperparts typical of Oceanodroma.
Breeds in northern summer so wing-moult likely to occur after breeding during October–January.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Range overlaps with two other all-dark species, Tristram’s and Swinhoe’s. Distinguished from
Tristram’s by white bases to primary shafts, often visible when flapping wings as well as when banking; less
obvious upperwing bar; and lack of Tristram’s grey wash on upperparts. From Swinhoe’s by larger size and
slower, more deliberate flight. Swinhoe’s usually has pale bases to shafts of primaries, as do a few Tristram’s but
they are rarely as distinct as Matsudaira’s. See also Black Storm-petrel and Bulwer’s Petrel.
black storm-petrel
oceanodroma melania Plate 42
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Nests on
islands of Baja California, including Islas San Benito
(where present in vast numbers), small islands off Islas
Los Coronados; also on islands in Gulf of California,
including San Felipe I,. Cardinosa, I., Cardinosita,
and Islas San Luis, Islas Tres Marias (?), and possibly
others. In southern California, breeds on Santa
Barbara I., Sutil I. and other southern California
Channel Is., including Prince I., Anacapa I., and San
Clemente I. Forages north to 39°N off northern Cali-
fornia (especially May–December), south to 15°S off
southern Peru (especially October–May). Abundant
in Gulf of Panama in November where present until
June. Plentiful off southern Mexico (March–May).
beHavIour Found along the shelf, shelf break, and continental slope. Normal flight slow and deliberate, with
very deep wingbeats interspersed with occasional short glides and shallower wingbeats similar to marsh terns or
bats. Usually in flocks; occasionally follows ships.
JIZZ Large, long-winged, all-dark, long legged storm-petrel of northeastern Pacific with long, deeply forked tail.
Legs may project beyond tail in flight.
sIZe TL 23cm; W 16.3–18.6cm; WS 43cm; WT 60g. Larger than Ashy and Leach’s, much larger than Least,
similar in size to Markham’s and slightly smaller than Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s.
PlumaGe Head, neck, upperparts from mantle and scapulars to uppertail-coverts blackish-brown Tail blackish;
underparts warm blackish-brown. Primaries, primary coverts and secondaries blackish, darker than mantle. Rest of
upperwings blackish-brown as mantle, but greater coverts whitish, forming pale diagonal bar or crescent. Underwing
blackish-brown with no obvious paler central coverts. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet blackish.
moult aND Wear Unlike other Oceanodroma storm-petrels, reported to change little with wear although may
lose slight sooty gloss on head, neck, and mantle present in fresh-plumaged birds, especially immatures. Adults
moult after breeding. Moult found to be starting in specimens collected June–August. In wing-moult off Cali-
fornia in August–September.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Black’s range overlaps with Ashy, Least, and dark-rumped Leach’s and may overlap with
Markham’s in Central American seas. Distinguished from Ashy by greater size, proportionately longer wings,
browner cast to plumage, dark underwing-coverts, and deeper wingbeats. Distinctly larger than Least with
forked tail. Larger also than Leach’s but flight can be similar, i.e. long glides between several wingbeats. Glides
of Black Storm-petrel, however, are longer.
Markham’s is very similar in size and shape and difficult to distinguish. Most useful character appears to
be pale bar or crescent on upper wing of Markham’s usually extends to leading edge of wing; but on Black
normally stops short of leading edge. Markham’s reported as uniformly browner than Black, especially above.
However the brownness of plumage and paleness and extent of wing-bar vary in both species with plumage
wear, and both characters should be used with caution. In especially good views or photographs it may be
possible to see that Black has all-dark uppertail-coverts whilst Markham’s has uppertail-coverts greyish basally
with white shafts for half their length and that Black has tarsus and foot of similar length whilst Markham’s has
tarsus considerably shorter than foot. In calm conditions Markham’s has shallower, butterfly-like wing strokes;
Black has deeper wingbeats and glides less than Markham’s. In higher winds, flight similar; in both species glides
become longer and wingbeats deeper. Unfortunately both species moult wings at the same time, July–October.
The two similar, large, dark storm petrels outside Black’s usual range are Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s.
234
Matsudaira’s has relatively obvious white shafts at base of outer primaries but this feature is also present, though
usually less conspicuously, in a few Blacks, Markham’s and Tristram’s. Tristram’s has a prominent pale wing-bar
extending to leading edge of wing and often appears paler on the back and sides of the rump.
ashy storm-petrel
oceanodroma homochroa Plate 42
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Cali-
fornia: majority breed on southeast Farallon Is., but
also on San Miguel I., Santa Cruz I., Anacapa I.,
San Celmente I. and Islas Los Coronados (Baja Cali-
fornia). Occurs year-round in waters of the conti-
nental slope near breeding islands but most abundant
during breeding season (April–August). Large
numbers in Monterey Bay in October–November.
Outside breeding season disperses northwards.
beHavIour Uses feet to push off sea surface and
make rapid changes of direction but does not foot-
patter as much as some storm-petrels. Generally
found in small flocks except during moult when forms
very large rafts.
JIZZ Medium-sized, dark, forked-tailed Oceanodroma storm-petrel of the northeast Pacific Ocean with short legs
that do not extend beyond tail in flight. Flight distinctive and butterfly-like with wings barely raised above the
horizontal before each downstroke. Wingbeats become deeper in stronger winds.
sIZe TL 20cm; W 13.3–15.2cm; WS 42cm; WT 36–40g. Smaller than Black, similar size to dark-rumped
Leach’s and larger than Least.
PlumaGe Head and neck sooty-brown. Mantle, back, scapulars and rump, especially sides, slightly lighter and
greyer. Tail blackish. Upperwing blackish-brown; greater coverts whitish, forming a pale diagonal bar from carpal
to trailing edge of wing; primary coverts, primaries and secondaries blackish, darker than mantle. Underwing
blackish-brown with indistinct paler central coverts. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet blackish.
moult In fresh plumage, especially in newly fledged juveniles, scapulars and wing-coverts are edged with light,
pearly-grey, but this quickly darkens with wear. Adults begin moult of flight feathers in late July and some may
continue until early April. Immatures moult earlier, starting body moult in April.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Other dark storm-petrels in range are Black, Least and dark-rumped Leach’s. At sea, size dif-
ferences and tail shapes are difficult to distinguish, and colour varies with light conditions, so that all of these
storm-petrels may just appear dark. In these conditions Ashy can be recognised by distinctive butterfly-like
flight, shallow wingbeats with wings barely rising above the horizontal. Other storm-petrels in range raise their
wings much higher. With better views distinguished from Black by smaller size; from Black, Leach’s and Least
by greyer, ashy cast to back and paler panel on central underwing; and from Least by larger size and forked tail.
See also Fork-tailed Storm-petrel.
Hornby’s storm-petrel
oceanodroma hornbyi Plate 44
235
sIZe TL 24cm; W 15.7–16.9cm; WS ?; WT ?. Considerably larger than all other black-and-white storm-
petrels.
PlumaGe Crown and nape blackish, extending to just below eye and across ear-coverts. Throat, chin and
forehead white and thin white collar across upper hindneck. Mantle, back, scapulars, rump and uppertail-coverts
grey, rump and uppertail-coverts can have paler tips to feathers. Uppertail blackish. Underparts white from dark
greyish-black breast-band to undertail. Upper inner wing-coverts dark greyish-brown; greater coverts whitish,
forming a conspicuous diagonal bar on upperwing from carpal to inner trailing edge; primary coverts, primaries
and secondaries blackish, enhancing diagonal bar. Underwing dark greyish-brown with no obvious paler central
coverts. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet blackish.
moult aND Wear Adults likely to moult rectrices in Ecuadorian waters during August–December.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Unmistakable, and in good light the white collar is visible at great distance. Only likely to be
confused with similarly patterned Polynesian, which has yet to be recorded in the same range.
Fork-tailed storm-petrel
oceanodroma furcata Plate 42
236
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Warham, J. 1996. The Behaviour, Population Biology and Physiology of the Petrels. Academic Press, San Diego.
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INDex
References to main text entries are in roman script, while plate pages are given in bold.
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Petrel, Antarctic 56, 147 Stejneger’s 74, 169
Atlantic 68, 187 Tahiti 64, 160
Banks’ Dove 154 Trindade 70, 80, 172
Barau’s 70, 178 Vanuatu 66, 177
Beck’s 64, 159 Westland 88, 190
Bermuda 180 White-chinned 86, 188
Black 189 White-headed 68, 183
Black-capped 72, 181 White-naped 176
Black-winged 76, 163 White-necked 66, 176
Blue 84, 150 Zino’s 72, 186
Bonin 76, 165 Phoebastria albatrus 38, 130
Bulwer’s 60, 157 immutabilis 40, 44, 131
Cape 56, 148 irrorata 40, 129
Cape Verde 186 nigripes 38, 131
Chatham Islands 76, 162 fusca 50, 141
Collared 78, 168 palpebrata 50, 142
Cook’s 74, 76, 166 Pigeon, Cape 148
De Filippi’s 74, 169 Prion, Antarctic 82, 154
Dove 154 Broad-billed 82, 152
Fea’s 54, 72, 186 Fairy 84, 155
Fiji 64, 161 Fulmar 84, 156
Galápagos 66, 179 Lesser broad-billed 153
Gould’s 78, 165 MacGillivray’s 82, 154
Great-winged 58, 182 Medium-billed 153
Greater Snow 56, 149 Salvin’s 82, 84, 153
Grey 88, 94, 191 Slender-billed 82, 155
Grey-faced 58, 183 St Paul 154
Hawaiian 66, 178 Thin-billed 155
Henderson 62, 173 Procellaria aequinoctialis 86, 188
Herald 62, 64, 70, 80, 171 cinerea 88, 94, 191
Jamaican 72, 181 conspicillata 86, 188
Jouanin’s 60, 158 parkinsoni 88, 90, 189
Juan Fernandez 66, 177 westlandica 88, 190
Kerguelen 58, 150 Pseudobulweria aterrima 60, 159
Kermadec 62, 70, 80, 173 becki 64, 159
Lesser Snow 56, 148 macgillivrayi 64, 161
MacGillivray’s 161 rostrata 64, 160
Madeira 186 Pterodroma alba 64, 170
Magenta 68, 184 arminjoniana 70, 80, 172
Mas a Tierra 169 atrata 62, 173
Mascarene 60, 159 axillaris 76, 162
Mottled 76, 164 baraui 70, 178
Murphy’s 62, 174 brevipes 78, 168
Northern Giant 52, 144 cahow 72, 180
Parkinson’s 88, 90, 189 caribbaea 72, 181
Phoenix 64, 170 cervicalis 66, 176
Pintado 148 cookii 74, 76, 166
Providence 58, 62, 175 defilippiana 74, 169
Pycroft’s 74, 167 externa 66, 177
Réunion Black 159 feae 54, 72, 186
Schlegel’s 187 gouldi 58, 183
Soft-plumaged 58, 68, 72, 185 hasitata 72, 181
Soft-plumed 185 heraldica 62, 64, 70, 80, 171
Solander’s 175 hypoleuca 76, 165
Southern Giant 52, 143 incerta 68, 187
Spectacled 86, 188 inexpectata 76, 164
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lessonii 68, 183 Little 102, 104, 209
leucoptera 78, 165 Macaronesian 100, 104, 210
longirostris 74, 169 Manx 100, 202
macroptera 58, 182 Newell’s 98, 214
madeira 72, 186 Pink-footed 94, 197
magentae 68, 184 Short-tailed 92, 200
mollis 58, 68, 72, 185 Sooty 58, 92, 199
neglecta 62, 70, 80, 173 Streaked 96, 193
nigripennis 76, 163 Subantarctic Little 102, 104, 208
occulta 66, 177 Townsend’s 98, 214
phaeopygia 66, 179 Tropical 104, 212
pycrofti 74, 167 Wedge-tailed 60, 90, 94, 194
sandwichensis 66, 178 Yelkouan 100, 203
solandri 58, 62, 175 Storm-petrel, Ashy 114, 235
ultima 62, 174 Band-rumped 228
Puffinus assimilis 102, 104, 209 Black 114, 234
auricularis 98, 214 Black-bellied 112, 120, 223
bailloni 104, 212 Elliot’s 110, 120, 220
bannermani 104, 211 European 108, 226
baroli 100, 104, 210 Fork-tailed 114, 236
bulleri 94, 195 Galápagos 227
carneipes 88, 90, 196 Grey-backed 110, 222
creatopus 94, 197 Guadalupe 110, 231
elegans 102, 104, 208 Hornby’s 118, 235
gavia 102, 205 Leach’s 108, 110, 114, 116, 229
gravis 94, 198 Least 114, 226
griseus 58, 92, 199 Lowe’s 220
heinrothi 90, 215 Madeiran 108, 228
huttoni 102, 206 Markham’s 114, 232
lherminieri 98, 100, 104, 210 Matsudaira’s 116, 233
mauretanicus 100, 204 New Zealand 120, 221
nativitatis 90, 201 Peruvian 227
newelli 98, 214 Polynesian 118, 225
opisthomelas 98, 204 Ringed 235
pacificus 60, 90, 94, 194 Sooty 231
persicus 104, 212 Swinhoe’s 116, 230
puffinus 100, 202 Tristram’s 116, 231
subalaris 98, 104, 213 Wedge-rumped 110, 227
tenuirostris 92, 200 White-bellied 112, 120, 224
yelkouan 100, 203 White-faced 118, 223
Shearwater, Arabian 104, 212 White-throated 225
Audubon’s 98, 100, 104, 210 White-vented 220
Balearic 100, 204 Wilson’s 108, 219
Bannerman’s 104, 211 Taiko, Chatham Island 184
Black-vented 98, 204 Thalassarche bulleri 46, 48, 140
Buller’s 94, 195 carteri 46, 48, 139
Cape Verde 96, 193 cauta 42, 134
Christmas Island 90, 201 chlororhynchos 46, 48, 138
Cory’s 96, 192 chrysostoma 46, 48, 137
Flesh-footed 88, 90, 196 eremita 42, 135
Fluttering 102, 205 impavida 44, 48, 133
Galápagos 98, 104, 213 melanophrys 44, 46, 48, 132
Great 94, 198 salvini 42, 136
Heinroth’s 90, 215 Thalassoica antarctica 56, 147
Hutton’s 102, 206 Whalebird 154
Kiritimati 201
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