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The International Journal of Learning is a peer-refereed journal which is published annually. Full papers submitted for publication
are refereed by the Associate Editors through an anonymous referee process.
Papers presented at the Tenth International Literacy and Education Research Network Conference on Learning.
Institute of Education, University of London 15-18 July 2003
Editors
Mary Kalantzis, Faculty of Education, Language and Community Services, RMIT
University, Melbourne, Australia.
Bill Cope, Centre for Workplace Communication and Culture, Australia.
Editorial Advisory Board of the International Journal of Learning
Michael Apple, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
David Barton, Director, Literacy Research Centre, Lancaster University, UK.
Ruth Finnegan, Faculty of Social Sciences, Open University, UK.
James Paul Gee, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
Kris Gutierrez, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.
Roz Ivanic, Lancaster University, UK.
Carey Jewitt, Institute of Education, University of London, UK.
Andeas Kazamias, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA.
Gunther Kress, Institute of Education, University of London.
Sarah Michaels, Jacob Hiatt Center for Urban Education, Clark University,
Massachusetts, USA.
Denise Newfield, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa.
Ambigapathy Pandian, School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang,
Malaysia.
Miguel A. Pereyra, University of Granada, Spain.
Scott Poynting, University of Western Sydney, Australia.
Michel Singh, University of Western Sydney, Australia.
Pippa Stein, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa.
Brian Street, King’s College, University of London, UK.
Gella Varnava-Skoura , Department of Early Childhood Education, National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece.
Nicola Yelland, Head, Department of School and Early Childhood Education, RMIT
University, Australia.
Wang Yingjie, School of Education, Beijing Normal University, China.
Zhou Zuoyu, School of Education, Beijing Normal University, China.
Science Education in Primary and Secondary Level
An Analysis of the Discursive Transitions across Different
Modalities of the Pedagogic Discourse
Vasilis Koulaidis and Costas Dimopoulos
Abstract
The aim of this paper is the mapping of the discursive transitions in school science
from the primary to the secondary level as reflected in the corresponding
textbooks. Our basic hypothesis is that the pedagogic discourse is constructed by
the interplay of three basic dimensions, namely classification, formality and
framing which correspond to the content specialization, the codes’ elaboration and
the agency of control of the pedagogical process respectively. According to our
model each dimension can only take two values; either high (strong) or low
(weak). Specifically, strong classification corresponds to subject matter
epistemologically distinct from other than the scientific forms of knowledge, while
weak classification means that the subject-matter is a mixture of elements derived
from various knowledge domains. Furthermore, high formality corresponds to
specialized codes that define reality in terms of abstractions and scientific
conventions while low formality corresponds to codes resembling the vernacular
ways of expression. Finally, strong classification means that the addresser of
scientific knowledge (e.g. science teacher or textbook’s voice) has full control over
the determination of the conditions of the pedagogical process while weak
classification means that at least some important aspects of this process are open
to negotiation between the latter and the students.
The combination of values of classification, formality and framing produces
eight different pedagogic modalities, which are labeled as follows:
International Journal of Learning, Volume 10 • www.LearningConference.Publisher-Site.com
Copyright © Common Ground ISSN 1447-9494 (Print) • ISSN 1447-9540 (Online)
Paper presented at the Tenth International Literacy and Education Research Network Conference on Learning.
Institute of Education, University of London 15-18 July 2003 • www.LearningConference.com
In this paper, the two dimensional mapping of the pedagogic modalities shown
in Figure 2, will be used so as to describe the discursive transition of science
subjects from primary to secondary education in Greece, at least as this transition
is reflected by the use of the linguistic and the visual codes employed in the
corresponding science textbooks of each level. This kind of analysis becomes
possible taking into account that the ways that the linguistic and the visual mode
are employed in the school science textbooks modulate the levels of classification,
framing and formality and, hence, tend to position the students both in relation to
the esoteric domain (specialised content and codes) of the corresponding
specialised knowledge, and also as social subjects that take part in a pedagogicalcommunicative
process. This function of the
two expressive modes
is realised by
specific
expressive conventions that act as
resources for constructing specific
pedagogic
modalities.
Methodology
The texts analysed are taken from six science textbooks written in Greek and used
in 9.823 Greek primary and secondary schools during 1997-1999 (the secondary
textbooks are still in use). Specifically, these textbooks consist of: a) two general
science textbooks for the two upper grades of primary school (11-12 year olds), b)
two chemistry and c) two physics for the three grades of the lower secondary
school respectively (13-15 year olds).
In order to implement our analytic plan, the textbooks were divided into units of
analysis for both the linguistic and the visual mode. Specifically, in order to
analyse the pedagogic modality projected by the linguistic mode, different genres
within the textbooks were distinguished. These genres constitute the units of
analysis. According to genre analysis (Martin, 1997; Cope and Kalantzis, 1993)
a
text differs in structure according to its purpose. The genres appearing in the Greek
science textbooks are
reports, experimental accounts and historical accounts.
‘Report’ is a type of text that describes how things are, presents information by
building up generalisations, classifies various entities and explains processes in
natural phenomena or explains how a technological artefact works. ‘Experimental
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International Journal of Learning, Volume 10, 2003
account’ is a type of text that usually contains a series of sequenced steps, which
show how a specific experimental task should be carried out, and/or presents the
results of this task. Finally, ‘historical account’ is a type of text that presents either
episodes from the history of science and technology or biographical information
about famous scientists and engineers. In this way a total of 1153 units of analysis
of the textbooks’ linguistic mode were identified. Of these units 876 (76%) are
reports, 205 (17.8%) are experiments and 72 (6.2%) are historical accounts.
On the other hand all the visual images contained in the six science textbooks
were analysed. Any visual image in a distinct frame within the textbooks was
considered as a single unit of analysis. Following this procedure, a sample of 2819
visual images was collected.
All the units of analysis for both the linguistic and the visual mode were
analysed along the three theoretical dimensions of classification, formality and
framing. The analysis was based on the use of two distinct grids of analysis, one
for the linguistic and one for the visual mode, that consist of variables that become
operational applying specific socio-linguistic and socio-semiotic approaches.
Specifically, the basic underlying idea of the two grids is that certain lexicogrammatical
and semiotic
elements
of the linguistic and visual mode
respectively,
modulate
accordingly the levels of classification,
formality
and framing.
For
example
while formality
in the case of the linguistic mode
was evaluated in terms
of
the density of:
a) scientific
notation (terms,
symbols
and equations), b) nominal
groups,
c) verbs in passive voice and d) sentences
in hypotactic syntax, the same
notion
in the case of the visual mode
is
evaluated on the basis of the degree an
image
is characterized by: a) elements
like
geometrical
shapes and alphanumeric
strings,
b) color differentiation, c)
color modulation
and d) background
differentiation.
The two grids of analysis have been extensively presented, together
with
informations
about their limitations
and
reliability, in other publications of the
authors
(Koulaidis, Dimopoulos
and Sklaveniti,
2002; Dimopoulos,
Koulaidis and
Sklaveniti,
2003).
Results
Below, the results of the textbooks analysis in terms of the pedagogic modalities
promoted by their linguistic and visual expressive modes respectively of the
textbooks analyzed, are presented.
The Linguistic Mode
The analysis of the school science textbooks of both primary and secondary level
showed that the vast majority of their linguistic units belong to the metaphoric
modality (strong classification and low formality). Specifically, as shown in Table
1, the discursive transition that seems to occur through the linguistic mode of the
school science textbooks is that of a very gradual introduction of students to the
specialized content and codes of scientific knowledge as they proceed from
primary to lower secondary school. This transition, however, does not seem to be
completed at the lower secondary level as the textbooks still employ a linguistic
mode that mainly projects a metaphoric modality.
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Science Education in Primary and Secondary Level
Vasilis Koulaidis and Costas Dimopoulos
Table 1
The pedagogic modality (in terms of classification and formality) promoted by
the linguistic mode of the school science textbooks of primary and lower
secondary level
Pedagogic modality
N%N%
Primary textbooks Lower secondary level
Esoteric
14 7.7 173 17.8
Metaphoric
141 77.9 699 71.9
Public
26 14.4 100 10.3
Total
181 100 972 100
As far now as the level of framing projected by the linguistic mode of the
school science textbooks is concerned, it was found that the primary textbooks are
characterized by much stronger framing than the textbooks of the lower secondary
level (see Table 2). In other words, the science textbooks used in the primary
school allow a much narrower range of available options for students, so as to exert
some control over the pedagogic process enacted by them, in comparison to the
corresponding available range provided by the lower secondary level science
textbooks. Thus, the science textbooks of primary level construct a social identity
of students according to which, the latter are put in a subordinate social position
and are highly directed towards the acquisition of the relevant subject-matter. On
the contrary, the science textbooks of lower secondary level construct a social
identity of students according to which these are highly autonomous learners who
can access the relevant subject matter in their own ways.
Table 2
The level of framing promoted by the linguistic mode of the school science
textbooks of primary and lower secondary level
Primary textbooks Lower secondary level
Level of framing
N%N%
Strong
87 48.1 26 2.7
Weak
94 51.9 946 97.3
Total
181 100 972 100
Combining further the results shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively, and using
the two dimensional representation of the pedagogic modalities introduced in
Figure 2, the promoted by the linguistic mode of the school science textbooks
discursive transition which it also corresponds to pedagogic transition from
primary to lower school, can be maped as shown in Figure 3.
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International Journal of Learning, Volume 10, 2003
Figure 3
The transition across pedagogic modalities projected by the linguistic mode of the
science textbooks of primary and lower secondary level respectively
The results imply that the visual mode tend to play a similar role with the
linguistic mode of the school science textbooks since both seem to function so as
to gradually introduce students, as these move from primary to secondary school,
into the more specialized discourses of scientific knowledge. This, in the case of
the visual mode as shown in another study of (Dimopoulos, Koulaidis and
Sklaveniti, 2003), is accomplished by the use of more images incorporating the
conventions of the techno-scientific graphical mode (conventional images and
hybrids) and more images that seem to promote the conceptual re-organisation of
the world like the analytical and the classificational ones, as the educational level
rises.
It is also characteristic that especially in the primary school the visual mode is
not so much employed so as to promote the conceptual understanding of the
scientific content as to attribute a pre-eminent value to real world elements, the
salience of which seems to be exploited as an (experiential) anchor to the
introduction of students to the reified and highly abstract world of science
(Dimopoulos, Koulaidis and Sklaveniti, 2003).
With regards now to the level of framing promoted by the visual mode, it was
found that the school science textbooks of both primary and lower secondary level
promote a kind of social-pedagogic relationship characterized by weak framing
(Table 4). In other words, the visual images of these texts create a sense of
empowerment to their readers so as to maintain their own control in the
communication-pedagogic process.
Table 4
The level of framing promoted by the visual mode of the school science
textbooks of primary and lower secondary level
Primary textbooks Lower secondary level
Level of framing
N%N%
Strong
303 21.8 174 15.6
Weak
1085 78.2 943 84.4
Total
*
1388 100 1117 100
* These totals correspond to realistic representations only
Combining further, the results shown in Tables 3 and 4 and using the two-
dimensional mapping of the pedagogic modalities used in this paper (Figure 4), it
can be concluded that as the educational level rises, the use of the visual mode is
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International Journal of Learning, Volume 10, 2003
transformed from a means to ground scientific knowledge to the every-day
experiences of students (public modality) to a means of introducing the latter
towards the specialized content of science (metaphorical modality). It is
characteristic though that the visual mode during both phases of this transition
contributes to the maintenance of the students’ control over the pedagogic process.
Therefore, the visual mode is an element of the school science textbooks that
constantly enables students to access the relevant subject matter in their own
independent ways.
Figure 4
The transition across pedagogic modalities projected by the visual mode of the
science textbooks of primary and lower secondary level respectively
Pedagogic Implications
As already mentioned in the introduction section, in this study school science
textbooks are considered as means of regulating the pedagogic discourse of each of
the educational levels they are used to and as a consequence as a mirror of the
pedagogic transitions in science education that occur when moving form the
primary to the lower secondary level.
Combining the results from the analysis of both the linguistic and the visual
modes employed in the science textbooks of both levels, the discursive transition
that emerges is from the metaphoric-authoritarian towards the metaphoric-esoteric
or metaphoric-liberal modality.
In other words the main pedagogic transitions that occur as the educational level
rises are primarily the weakening of the pedagogic control and, secondarily an
increase in the formality of the linguistic code employed (gradual move towards
the esoteric modality). The latter transition is still moderate and remains
uncompleted even in the textbooks of the last class of the lower secondary school
(age level 15-16 years old).
The pedagogic position projected by this picture is, then, that as science
students progress through the specialised knowledge domain, they become more
capable of processing the textbooks’ message in more individualistic and
3272
Science Education in Primary and Secondary Level
Vasilis Koulaidis and Costas Dimopoulos
autonomous ways. In other words, the lower secondary textbooks treat students as
independent learners that have control over how they learn and so they do not feel
intimidated by the pace and the ways the textbooks deliver the relevant subject
matter. A similar to above differentiation between the educational levels, as far as
the projected independent mode of learning, was also found in an extensive study
of 187 school physics textbooks in the US, which followed a different perspective
from ours (Mulkey, 1987).
The trend imposed by the science textbooks of a gradual move towards more
specialised forms of scientific knowledge (both content and codes specialised) with
a parallel increase in the students’ autonomy in determining how to access the
relevant text material is in distinct opposition to the widely held pedagogic
position, very often translated into teaching practice, which favours more guidance
and fewer opportunities for initiative on the part of the learner as the school
subjects become more academic and content-specialised (Cazden, 1988; Edwards
and Westgate, 1987; Rodrigues and Bell, 1995).
Additionally, the trend of reduced ‘guidance’ of students through the lower
secondary level textbooks and the parallel increase in the relevant subjects’
specialisation, are in conflict from a pedagogic point of view. This conflict is based
on the assumption that it is exactly when the specialisation of a school subject
increases that students need more guidance and support for its acquisition. This
discursive conflict could potentially explain the effects of disorientation and lack
of ability to focus on the important pieces of information experienced by many
students at this level (and especially the less competent) while trying to make
meaning out of the relevant textbooks (Yore, Craig and Maguire, 1998; Alexander
and Kulikowich, 1994; Patterson, 2001; Keys, 1999).
Furthermore, the comparison between the pedagogic modalities emerged by the
linguistic and the visual mode of the science textbooks respectively, reveals that
the visual mode tends to lower both the classification and the formality of the
relevant texts. In this way though, by not being exposed to the conventions of the
techno-scientific images students may be excluded from ‘seeing’ and ‘processing’
reality in a similar way with the experts (Lynch, 1985; Trumbo, 1999). On the
other hand the visual mode tends to relate more to the public modality and hence it
becomes much more in comparison to the linguistic mode the vehicle for relating
the every-day experiences of students with the scientific knowledge.
Closing this paper, it should be pointed out that the framework presented here
allows the development of a common theoretical language so as to describe the
pedagogic modalities projected by school science textbooks as well as by many
other educational materials employed in science education. The functional
knowledge of this theoretical language would enable both the authors of science
textbooks and the teachers that use them to become much more reflexive about
their pedagogic implications.
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