Topic Subtopic

History Military

History’s Great Military

Blunders and the Lessons
They Teach
Course Guidebook

Professor Gregory S. Aldrete

University of Wisconsin–Green Bay
 PUBLISHED BY:

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 Gregory S. Aldrete, Ph.D.
Frankenthal Professor of History and
Humanistic Studies
University of Wisconsin–Green Bay

P
rofessor Gregory S. Aldrete is the
Frankenthal Professor of History and
Humanistic Studies at the University of
Wisconsin–Green Bay. He received his B.A.
from Princeton University in 1988 and his Ph.D.
from the University of Michigan in 1995. His
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Among the books Professor Aldrete has written or edited are Gestures
and Acclamations in Ancient Rome; Floods of the Tiber in Ancient Rome;
Daily Life in the Roman City: Rome, Pompeii, and Ostia; The Greenwood
Encyclopedia of Daily Life: A Tour through History from Ancient Times to
the PresentYROXPHThe Ancient World; The Long Shadow of Antiquity:
What Have the Greeks and Romans Done for Us? (with Alicia Aldrete);
and Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor: Unraveling the Linothorax
Mystery (with Scott Bartell and Alicia Aldrete).

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by the Council for Advancement and Support of Education (CASE) and
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he received the American Philological Association Award for Excellence
in Teaching at the College Level (the national teaching award given
annually by the professional association of Classics professors). Professor
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Teaching at Its Best award.

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Professor Aldrete’s research has been equally honored with a number of
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from the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) and the Solmsen
Fellowship at the Institute for Research in the Humanities in Madison.
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American Academy in Rome; was a participant in an NEH institute at the
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American Academy in Rome. His university has given him its highest
awards for both teaching and research: the Faculty Award for Excellence in
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the Founders Association.

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documentaries on the Discovery Channel and the Smithsonian Channel
and on television programs in Canada and across Europe. It also has been
the subject of articles in U.S. News & World ReportThe New YorkerDer
SpiegelDQGMilitary HistoryLQWHUYLHZVRQ1DWLRQDO3XEOLF5DGLRDQGWKH
BBC, and of Internet news stories in more than two dozen countries.

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ships. He also has been named a national lecturer for the Archaeological
,QVWLWXWHRI$PHULFD)RU7KH*UHDW&RXUVHVKHWDXJKWHistory of the Ancient
World: A Global Perspective and The Decisive Battles of World HistoryŶ

ii
 Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

Professor Biography ............................................................................i

Course Scope .....................................................................................1

LECTURE GUIDES

LECTURE 1
Petersburg: Union Digs Its Own Grave—1864 ...................................3
LECTURE 2
Syracuse: Athens’s Second Front—413 B.C. ..................................10
LECTURE 3
Carrhae: The Parthian Shot—53 B.C. .............................................17
LECTURE 4
Red Cliffs: Cao Cao’s Bad Day—208 A.D. ......................................24
LECTURE 5
Barbarian Gate: Adrianople—378, Pliska—811................................31
LECTURE 6
Fourth Crusade: Byzantium Betrayed—1204 ...................................39
LECTURE 7
Kalka River: Genghis Khan’s General—1223 ..................................46
LECTURE 8
Courtrai: Knights versus Shopkeepers—1302 .................................53
LECTURE 9
1DJDVKLQR7DNLQJ6ZRUGVWRD*XQ¿JKW² ..............................60
LECTURE 10
Cartagena: High Walls, Short Ladders—1741 .................................67

iii
 Table of Contents

LECTURE 11
Culloden: The Bonnie Prince Blunders—1746 .................................74
LECTURE 12
Russia: Napoleon Retreats in the Snow—1812 ...............................81
LECTURE 13
Afghanistan: Khyber Pass Death Trap—1842 ..................................88
LECTURE 14
Crimea: Charge of the Light Brigade—1854 ....................................95
LECTURE 15
Greasy Grass: Custer’s Last Stand—1876 ....................................101
LECTURE 16
Isandlwana: 25,000 Zulus Undetected—1879................................108
LECTURE 17
Adwa: Italy’s Fiasco in Ethiopia—1896 .......................................... 115
LECTURE 18
Colenso: The Second Boer War—1899 .........................................121
LECTURE 19
Tannenberg: Ineptitude in the East—1914 .....................................128
LECTURE 20
Gallipoli: Churchill Dooms Allied Assault—1915.............................135
LECTURE 21
World War II: Royal Navy Goes Down—1941–42 .........................142
LECTURE 22
Dieppe Raid: Catastrophe on the Beach—1942 ............................149
LECTURE 23
Operation Market Garden: A Bridge Too Far—1944.......................156

iv
 Table of Contents

LECTURE 24
The Great Blunders: Four Paths to Failure.....................................163

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

Bibliography ....................................................................................170

v
vi
 History’s Great Military Blunders and
the Lessons They Teach

Scope:

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plans or strategies have gone wrong in the past that we can gain knowledge
of how to potentially avoid such mistakes today. This investigation becomes
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commodity of all: human lives. The premise of this course is to examine
some of the most notable military blunders in history to ascertain what we
can learn from these instances of spectacular failure.

The blunders that we will investigate range in time from the golden age
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Roman emperor and his entire army.

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poor leadership has steered innumerable armies to destruction through the

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Custer rashly plunged the 7th Cavalry into the midst of a vast Native American
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because of the inability to recognize when to cut one’s losses and call off an
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tragic but illuminating record of military misfortune. Only by confronting
some of the worst and most costly blunders in human history can we hope
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Scope

2
 Petersburg: Union Digs Its Own Grave—1864
Lecture 1

T
he American Civil War tore the nation apart and resulted in the deaths
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inept in its execution that Ulysses S. Grant was moved to label it “the saddest
affair I have ever witnessed in the war.” What was this catastrophe? It was an
incident that happened during the Union siege of the Confederate stronghold
of Petersburg and is commonly referred to as the Battle of the Crater.

Situation in Petersburg
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of the Confederates take place? And how many more men would
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the approaches to Richmond and thwart the Union advances.

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south of Richmond. Petersburg was a vital transportation node
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Richmond—and overall victory in the war—would be open.

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around the city. After a series of costly attacks foundered against
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nightmarish stalemate.

Henry Pleasants’s Plan

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the solution.
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the Union trenches to a point beneath the Confederate lines.
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Northern troops could pour through the gap made by the
explosion and seize control of Petersburg.

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Lecture 1—Petersburg: Union Digs Its Own Grave—1864

the main defensive line and was only about half a mile from
Petersburg itself.

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Burnside. Although he had some doubts about the practicality of
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the Army of the Potomac. Meade was even more skeptical of the
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to attempt his mine.

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improvising the necessary tools. The proposed tunnel would have to
be more than 500 feet long—longer than any previous military mine.

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into the end galleries. Sandbags were packed around the powder to
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attack that would follow the detonation of the mine. He made an
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known as the Fourth Division.
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enthusiastically threw themselves into a regime of specialized
training in preparation for the attack.

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it would be essential to
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the soldiers practiced a
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immediately wheel to the
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to open up a path for the
subsequent regiments and
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assault from Confederate
counterattacks.
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and everything seemed in place or the desire to avoid being
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could alter the course of the war.
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the last group committed.

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Burnside apparently failed to give clear orders to Ledlie and the
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they were to push as rapidly as possible through the gap created by
the explosion and advance toward Petersburg.

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Lecture 1—Petersburg: Union Digs Its Own Grave—1864

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underground dugout.

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disoriented men began to trickle forward into the crater. But
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but the lackadaisical pace of the Union advance gave them the
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and exposed Union soldiers.

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also bogged down.

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them. Confederate cannons and mortars were brought to bear on
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an open door through the Confederate defensive line was now
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while those caught too deep in Confederate territory had no choice
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troops who thus yielded were then murdered by the Confederates.
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for another eight months.

Analyzing Military Disasters

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and other work environments revolves around the idea of best

7
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identifying actions that produce the most successful results. No
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and scrutinize cases of failure. Only by understanding why plans
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can mean the difference between complete victory and utter defeat.

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Lecture 1—Petersburg: Union Digs Its Own Grave—1864

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will emerge: the need for leaders to give clear orders to their
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and inadequate preparation.

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see if it is possible to identify some fundamental categories of
military failure.

8
 Suggested Reading

+HVVInto the Crater.

6FKPXW]The Battle of the Crater.

Questions to Consider

1. 'RHV0HDGH%XUQVLGHRU/HGOLHGHVHUYHWKHJUHDWHVWVKDUHRIWKHEODPH
IRUWKHIDLOXUHRIWKHDWWDFNDQGZK\"

2. :KHQ WU\LQJ WR DYRLG PDNLQJ PLVWDNHV GR \RX WKLQN LW LV PRUH
XVHIXOWRVWXG\VXFFHVVHVRUIDLOXUHVDQGZKDWDUHWKHDGYDQWDJHVDQG
disadvantages of each approach?

9
 Syracuse: Athens’s Second Front—413 B.C.
Lecture 2

T
he 5th century B.C. was a tumultuous period for the independent
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Athens went into war with Sparta holding most of the advantages: a massive
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Athens would endure a stunning defeat that was both disastrous and
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and ruinous tactics can hasten disaster.

Ancient Greek Politics

Lecture 2—Syracuse: Athens’s Second Front—413 B.C.

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IDFWLRQV 2QH RI WKHVH OHG E\ WKH JORU\VHHNLQJ$OFLELDGHV DUJXHG
for aggressively pursuing war against Sparta. The other faction—
advocating peace—was led by a senior statesman named Nicias.

z 2QO\DIHZ\HDUVHDUOLHUWKHFLW\VWDWHVRI*UHHFHKDGSXWDVLGHWKHLU
usual rivalries to unite against an external threat from the Persian
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ż One reason for the Greeks’ triumph was that they had
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soldiers known as hoplites ZKR ZHUH HTXLSSHG ZLWK ODUJH
round shields and heavy armor.

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10
 z *UHHFH WKZDUWHG D VHFRQG 3HUVLDQ LQYDVLRQ LQ WKH V DIWHU
which Sparta reverted back to its traditional isolationist mode. The
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defense alliance of more than 100 Greek states established to
protect members from further Persian aggression. The allied states
provided a number of warships for the joint cause or contributed
money each year to a common war fund.

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by these actions caused a number of unaligned states to coalesce
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Peloponnesians—led by Sparta—increased. War broke out in 431
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of what became known as the Peloponnesian War.
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the powerful Athenian navy raided the Peloponnesus coastline
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resulted from these raids. The war progressed but without a
single decisive encounter.

ż The Athenian population was growing restless with this

situation when Alcibiades concocted a bold new plan of attack
DJDLQVW6SDUWD,QUHVSRQVHWKHHOGHU1LFLDVSURSRVHGFDXWLRQ

The Sicilian Expedition

z The struggle between rashness and caution came to a head when
a delegation from a small city on the island of Sicily appeared in
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11
 practical result of responding would mean war between Athens
and Syracuse.

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argued that attacking Syracuse would help Athens in its struggle
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be unwise to provoke a second powerful opponent in Syracuse.

z The initial debate seemed to go Alcibiades’s way. The Athenian

people voted to dispatch a modest expedition of 60 warships to
Sicily. Believing that committing a much larger military force
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tack. He suggested that the proposed force be greatly increased. To
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ÀHHW²DQDUPDGDRIVKLSV

z One dictum of military strategy is to avoid engaging a new enemy

Lecture 2—Syracuse: Athens’s Second Front—413 B.C.

on a second front when one’s forces are already occupied by a

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Athens embarked. Another military principle is that dividing
supreme command among multiple generals is a recipe for disaster.
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man—a general named Lamachus—as joint commanders.

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have succeeded under the sole command of a dynamic and
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to the Peloponnese and became a military advisor to Athens’ mortal
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men frittered away the element of surprise by establishing contact
with minor cities that had professed allegiance to Athens. Even
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12
 almost the entire Syracusan army massed near one of these
peripheral cities just as the main Athenian force was gathering
outside Syracuse.

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army returned home. The two sides clashed on the plains outside
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the winter.

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which sits on a peninsula.
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operation began promisingly. Nicias hoped that by seizing
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citizens to surrender.

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idea of holding Syracuse captive at the end of the peninsula.

z The Syracusan response was to build extensions from its own walls
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cautious Nicias was left in sole command.

Involvement of Sparta
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that their own cause could best be served by getting involved in the

13
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the Syracusans were victorious. Not only did they prevail in the
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that the Athenians could not encircle them.

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ZDUVKLSVDQGKRSOLWHV

z Syracuse also had been getting substantial reinforcements from

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Lecture 2—Syracuse: Athens’s Second Front—413 B.C.

Syracusans now launched a sequence of attacks that drove the

Athenians back into their protected encampment.

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initiative. He launched a daring night assault and met with initial
success. But the assault disintegrated amid miscommunication and
confusion. The badly demoralized Athenians now found themselves
besieged in their own camp and their superiority at sea eroding in
the face of new attacks.

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ż Nicias took the eclipse as an omen and announced that he
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one that would take 27 days. He retired to his tent and refused
to consider alternative courses of action.

14
 ż By the time 27 days had
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had been trapped. They
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in a disastrous breakout
attempt. The disheartened
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© ppl58/iStock/Thinkstock.
the triumphant Syracusans
slaughtered them in
droves.

ż Nicias and Demosthenes In the words of the great Greek

were both captured and
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armada that had set out
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ship returned.
historian Thucydides, the
Athenians “were beaten at every
point and altogether …. They were
destroyed … with a complete
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everything was wiped out.”

Aftermath of the Expedition

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Athens was eventually forced into a humiliating unconditional
surrender. The disaster of the Sicilian expedition proved to be the
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the wall builders all conspired to doom mighty Athens. But even
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it is fascinating to see how many opportunities the Athenians
squandered to change the outcome.

z The story of the Sicilian expedition offers up a rich feast of errors

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15
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Suggested Reading

)LHOGVSyracuse, 415–413 BC.

.DJDQThe Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition.
7KXF\GLGHVThe Landmark Thucydides.

Questions to Consider

1. Which of the many errors committed by the Athenians during this

campaign do you think was the most harmful and why?

2. How would you assess the role that Alcibiades played in these events
and to what degree did his personality affect the outcome?
Lecture 2—Syracuse: Athens’s Second Front—413 B.C.

16
 Carrhae: The Parthian Shot—53 B.C.
Lecture 3

D
uring the middle of the 1st FHQWXU\ %& WKH 5RPDQ (PSLUH ZDV
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that would thrust Crassus into the role of military commander against the
Parthian warriors of Syria. Crassus’s opponent was a Parthian nobleman
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&UDVVXVRU6XUHQDV²ZRXOGFRPPLWDJUHDWEOXQGHUSURYLQJRQFHDJDLQWKDW
hubris can become the source of one’s downfall and that military tactics that
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HQHP\VZLIWO\EHFRPHWKHPHDQVWRGLVDVWHU

Background to Carrhae
z The Roman war machine was one of the most successful in
history and has been widely admired for its organization and
discipline. Tough Roman legionaries carved a path from one end
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world’s most enduring empires.

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reputation in Gaul.

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also on the Sullan side but had developed a dislike of Crassus.

17
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they realized that—at least in the short term—there was more to
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to govern the state.
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Syria in the east. Although the members of the triumvirate were
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in which Pompey and Caesar enjoyed a superior reputation was
military conquests.

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which had been conquered by Alexander the Great; Parthia
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Parthian border.
Lecture 3—Carrhae: The Parthian Shot—53 B.C.

The Campaign in Syria

z Crassus commanded a typical
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infantry. These were the famed
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who fought mainly with

the gladius—a deadly short
sword—and who defended
themselves with heavy armor
and large shields. Crassus had
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infantry and a contingent of
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For Crassus, the ultimate
role model was Alexander the
Great, who earned his name by
conquering the Persian Empire;
Crassus’s invasion of Parthia
plainly showed that he harbored
dreams of emulating Alexander.

18
 IRUFHV&UDVVXVZDVFRQ¿GHQWWKDWYLFWRU\RYHU3DUWKLDZDVDOOEXW
assured.

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powerful compound bows. A second type of Parthian warrior at
Carrhae was the cataphract. These were heavily armored noblemen
who carried long lances and rode especially large horses.

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following spring to organize the newly won territory and tally up
the captured loot.

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to prepare his defense against the invasion. He raised two armies
and commanded the main one himself. It was poised along the
likely invasion route—at the border with Armenia—which at the
time was a Roman ally.

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to assemble a second army and position it in Mesopotamia. This
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referred to as Surenas. He was the second most powerful man in
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suspicion as a potential rival.

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state of Armenia. Another option was to continue directly into
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19
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DUPRUERXQGFDWDSKUDFWV

z 2Q-XQH%&DV&UDVVXVSDXVHGEHVLGHDULYHUDJURXSRIKLV
Roman scouts encountered Surenas and was repulsed with heavy
losses. Although Crassus’s men were fatigued from the morning
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the Roman commander cut short the break and ordered his men
forward. Thus began the Battle of Carrhae.

Rout of the Romans

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line of infantry and the cavalry on its wings. This was a standard
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soldiers to rearrange themselves into a colossal hollow square. On
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their numbers.

z Surenas opened the battle by ordering a charge of the cataphracts.

Lecture 3—Carrhae: The Parthian Shot—53 B.C.

Crassus’s men expertly hunkered down behind the wall of their

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after volley of arrows. Whenever the heavily laden Romans tried to
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z To be tormented by a foe that repeatedly pulled back must have been

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not worried yet. The Romans knew that if they could simply endure
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20
 IURPWKHQHDUHVWFDPHODQGWKXVPDLQWDLQDVWHDG\UDLQRIDWWDFNRQ
the beleaguered Romans.

z The situation began to look much grimmer for Crassus. The Parthian
bows demonstrated an unnerving ability to penetrate the Romans’
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were unable to close on their mounted opponents. Crassus decided
his best bet was to break out his own cavalry. It would be supported
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ż 7KHFRUHRIWKHJURXSFRQVLVWHGRI*DOOLFKRUVHPHQOHG
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Romans swarmed forward and at last seemed to be getting the
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ż As soon as Publius had moved beyond the range of the main

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unexpectedly turned and fell on him. Although the Gauls
fought desperately—even diving from their horses to stab
at the unarmored bellies of the rival Parthian mounts—the
Romans were cut down.

ż Publius and other survivors took refuge on high ground. With

KLVULJKWDUPGLVDEOHGDQGWKHHQHP\FORVLQJLQWKHVRQRIWKH
Roman commander ordered an aide to kill him. The victorious
Parthians chopped off Publius’s head and stuck it on the end of
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the morale of the soldiers plummeted. Crassus still had perhaps
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leader decided to sneak away and save what remained of his army.
7KLVPHDQWDEDQGRQLQJWKRXVDQGVRIZRXQGHGRQWKHEDWWOH¿HOG

z 7KHQH[WGD\WKH3DUWKLDQVDGYDQFHGRYHUWKHSUHYLRXVHYHQLQJ¶V
EDWWOH¿HOG DQG VODXJKWHUHG WKH UHPDLQLQJ ZRXQGHG %HKLQG WKH

21
 ZDOOV RI WKH VPDOO 5RPDQ JDUULVRQ DW &DUUKDH &UDVVXV¶V PHQ
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z Surenas offered to parley with the Romans over surrender terms

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survivors trickled back to Syria.

Lessons of Carrhae
z The death of Crassus paved the way for a showdown between the
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overthrow of the Roman Republic. Caesar ultimately won this
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established Parthia as Rome’s main rival and curbed further Roman
expansion to the east.
Lecture 3—Carrhae: The Parthian Shot—53 B.C.

z 7KH%DWWOHRI&DUUKDHLOOXVWUDWHVDQXPEHURIOHVVRQV)LUVWRIDOO
it is a classic example of how a strategy or tool that works well
in one situation can be entirely unsuited to a different context. In
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desert—unable to deal with a swift enemy mounted on horseback.
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the cautionary lesson that one should know one’s limitations.

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neglect to properly scout out the enemy and the terrain. He did not
listen to experienced advisors and repeatedly allowed his eagerness
for battle to lead him into traps. He was a superlative politician and
EXVLQHVVPDQEXWDWEHVWDPHGLRFUHJHQHUDO

22
 Suggested Reading

6DPSVRQThe Defeat of Rome in the East.

6KHOGRQRome’s Wars in Parthia.

Questions to Consider

1. :KLFK GR \RX WKLQN KDG PRUH WR GR ZLWK WKH RXWFRPH RI WKH EDWWOH
Crassus’s mistakes or Surenas’s strategies?

2. This battle illustrates the concept that success in one context does not
always carry over to a different situation. What steps might successful
groups or individuals take to avoid making this common error?

23
 Red Cliffs: Cao Cao’s Bad Day—208 A.D.
Lecture 4

E
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WR KDYH EHHQ WKH FDVH DW RQH RI WKH PRVW FHOHEUDWHG FRQÀLFWV LQ
Chinese history: the Battle of Red Cliffs. The general who made
the uncharacteristically poor showing there was a warlord named Cao Cao.
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2QWKDWGD\KRZHYHUKLVDUP\VXIIHUHGDQHPEDUUDVVLQJGHIHDWWKDWHQGHG
his dreams of consolidating China under his control.

Collapse of the Han Empire

z %\$'WKHRQFHPLJKW\+DQ(PSLUHZKLFKKDGUXOHG&KLQD
IRU QHDUO\ IRXU FHQWXULHV ZDV EHJLQQLQJ WR WRWWHU7KH +DQV ZHUH
IDFHGZLWKG\QDVWLFLQ¿JKWLQJVSDUNHGE\FRXUWHXQXFKVZKRZHUH
Lecture 4—Red Cliffs: Cao Cao’s Bad Day—208 A.D.

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Turban Rebellion.

z The result of these challenges was the collapse of the central

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LQWRDWOHDVWHLJKWVHFWLRQVHDFKFRQWUROOHGE\DZDUORUG0DQ\RI
these regional leaders claimed to be loyal to the imperial family.
$OWKRXJKWKLVPD\KDYHEHHQWUXHIRUVRPHRWKHUVZHUHSODLQO\RXW
to grab as much power and territory as they could.

z One of the most able of the opportunists was Cao Cao. He came
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and was appointed to various civil and military posts that enabled
him to rise rapidly in the ranks of the bureaucracy. He was a
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WKHRU\LQIDFWKHFRPSRVHGVHYHUDORIKLVRZQLQFOXGLQJRQHRI
WKH¿UVWFRPPHQWDULHVRQ6XQ7]X¶VThe Art of War.

24
 z &DR &DR¶V FDUHHU WRRN RII GXULQJ WKH <HOORZ 7XUEDQ 5HEHOOLRQ
+HZDVDSSRLQWHGDVDQRI¿FHULQWKHFDYDOU\DQGGLVSDWFKHGWRD
district to suppress a peasant uprising. He energetically carried out
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and the Han Empire had disintegrated into more than a half dozen
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emerging as one of the warlords.

Competing Warlords
z &DR &DR¶V VWURQJKROG ZDV <LQJFKXDQ LQ QRUWKHUQ &KLQD ZKHUH
he portrayed himself as the rightful protector of the emperor.
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accused him of manipulating the emperor for his own purposes and
asserted that he planned to eventually dispose of the emperor and
seize power for himself.

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campaigns whose aim was to conquer other regions of China and
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his hold over the north. His rival in the area was a general named
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ż The turning point came when Cao Cao sent raiders to destroy
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and burned a convoy of supply wagons. Cao Cao then fell
upon the starving and discouraged army of his enemy and
completely routed it.

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how to use a smaller force to overcome a larger one.

25
 ż Cao Cao spent the next
seven years in further
conquests. The stage was
set for his attempt to add
southern China to his
domain.

z %\ QRZ WKH PDMRU SOD\HUV LQ

China had been reduced to three
warlords and their respective
territories: Cao Cao in the north
WKH :HL NLQJGRP 6XQ 4XDQ
LQWKHVRXWKWKH:XNLQJGRP
and Liu Bei to the southwest
(the Shu kingdom). Liu Bei
was Cao Cao’s most intractable
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hostile to Cao Cao but was an
ambitious general in his own
Lecture 4—Red Cliffs: Cao Cao’s Bad Day—208 A.D.

right whose goal was to found

his own dynasty.

Maneuvering in the South

z 7KH PDLQ FRQÀLFW DPRQJ &DR
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was sparked in 208 when yet
another of the Chinese warlords
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precipitating a power struggle
for his former territory. Liu
Biao had been the ruler of
the important province of
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800,000 warriors, although the
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communication route. of that amount.

26
 z /LX %HL¶V ELG WR FRQWURO WKH <DQJW]H DQG VXUURXQGLQJ WHUULWRU\
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important transportation node for himself if he hoped to take
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WKH DOOHJLDQFH RI WKH IRUPHU UXOHU¶V PLOLWDU\$V EH¿WWHG D UHJLRQ
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Cao was by far the most powerful man in China.

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but he needed allies to do so. The natural person to turn to was the
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a longstanding animosity. Each knew that if he managed to defeat
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attempt to forge an alliance.

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knowing that he would have an easier time conquering the south if
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/LDQJ$GHEDWHWKHQWRRNSODFHLQ6XQ4XDQ¶VFRXUWZLWKYDULRXV
advisors advocating different paths of action.

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by excessively praising Liu Bei. He quickly realized the error and
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swampy territory and would be so exhausted from their long march
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4XDQVHQWRIKLVWURRSVWRVXSSRUW/LX%HL

Clash at the Red Cliffs

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WKHEDQNVRIWKH<DQJW]HQHDU:XOLQ&DR&DRSODQQHGWRDGYDQFH

27
 GRZQ WKH ULYHU ZLWK SDUW RI KLV DUP\ DERDUG KLV ÀHHW DQG WKH UHVW
marching along the northern bank. Although Cao Cao had fought
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WR KLV WURRSV )XUWKHU PDQ\ RI WKH PHQ IRXQG WKH ZHW FRQGLWLRQV
GLVFRQFHUWLQJDQGWKH\ZHUHIDWLJXHGIURPWKHLUORQJPDUFK

z %HFDXVH &DR &DR¶V QRUWKHUQHUV ZHUH VXIIHULQJ IURP VHDVLFNQHVV

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incapable of maneuvering. It was a fatal error and reveals Cao Cao’s
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was anchored beneath some red cliffs. This geographical feature
inspired the name by which the battle has become known.

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&DR &DR¶V QRUWKHUQHUV XVLQJ ¿UH VKLSV 2QH RI WKH DOOLHG QDYDO
commanders sent a message to Cao Cao that he and his squadron
were planning to defect. Cao Cao told the commander to join his
Lecture 4—Red Cliffs: Cao Cao’s Bad Day—208 A.D.

VKLSV WR WKH QRUWKHUQ ÀHHW 7KLV ZDV DQRWKHU PLVVWHS &DR &DR
should have ordered the purported traitor to surrender his vessels at
a neutral location rather than letting them get close to his own ships.

z 7KH VXSSRVHGO\ GHIHFWLQJ ERDWV ZHUH ORDGHG ZLWK ÀDPPDEOH

materials. They set off under full sail for Cao Cao’s tethered ships.
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northern side’s confusion.

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northward. His dismayed army fell apart; many soldiers became

28
 densely packed while trying to escape along the main road. The
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slaughtered.

Errors of Cao Cao

z 5HG&OLIIVZDVDWKRURXJKGHIHDWDQGFOHDUO\DVLJQL¿FDQWVHWEDFNIRU
&DR&DR)URPWKDWWLPHRQKHZDVIRUFHGWRVKLIWKLVDWWHQWLRQWR
consolidating the north and abandoned his ambitions of conquering
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most of the next century would be taken up by violent civil wars.

z +RZVXFKDSUHYLRXVO\FRPSHWHQWHYHQJLIWHGFRPPDQGHUFRXOG
have blundered so badly in this battle is a bit of a puzzle. Cao Cao’s
actions violate a number of the dicta in his own writings and in
those of Sun Tzu. He was uncharacteristically taken in by an
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attack should not have thrown him because Cao Cao himself had
earlier used the same tactics when he burned the supply train of his
enemy in the Guandu campaign.

z 7KHLQH[SHULHQFHRI&DR&DRDQGKLVPHQDWQDYDOZDUIDUHDORQJ
ZLWKWKHPDUVK\WHUUDLQIDWLJXHIURPWKHORQJPDUFKDQGWKHHIIHFWV
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can have dire consequences.

z Cao Cao ruled the north for more than a decade after the Red Cliffs
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of the Wei dynasty. Liu Bei consolidated rule over his southern
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6XQ 4XDQ UHLJQHG IRU DQRWKHU  \HDUV DQG OLNH &DR &DR ZDV
succeeded by his son.

29
 Suggested Reading

'H&UHVSLJQ\Imperial Warlord.
7MRDThe Battle of Chibi (Red Cliffs).

Questions to Consider

1. What do you think accounts for Cao Cao’s uncharacteristically poor

generalship at Red Cliffs?

2. Both Cao Cao and Crassus in the previous lecture suffered from having
their stories told by hostile sources. To what degree does the cliché “the
ZLQQHUV ZULWH KLVWRU\´ DSSO\ WR WKHLU FDVHV DQG GR WKH\ GHVHUYH WKHLU
negative reputations?
Lecture 4—Red Cliffs: Cao Cao’s Bad Day—208 A.D.

30
 Barbarian Gate: Adrianople—378, Pliska—811
Lecture 5

T
he two battles discussed in this lecture took place more than 400 years
DSDUWLQWLPHEXWWKH\VKDUHDQXPEHURIVLPLODULWLHV%RWKSLWWHGDUPLHV
of the eastern Roman Empire—later known as the Byzantine Empire—
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initially sought refuge within the Roman Empire but later turned against the
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attitudes resulted in the two emperors leading their respective armies into
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Background to Adrianople
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Empire had undergone a dramatic series of ups and downs. From the
golden age of the 2ndFHQWXU\$'5RPHGHVFHQGHGLQWRWKHFKDRVRI
WKHHDUO\DQGPLGrdFHQWXU\ZKHQFLYLOZDUVEDUEDULDQLQYDVLRQV
and economic collapse brought the empire to the brink of dissolution.

z During the late 3rd FHQWXU\ KRZHYHU D UHPDUNDEOH VXFFHVVLRQ RI

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the empire. The longstanding tendency of the empire to split into
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had its own emperor and capital city. By the late 4th FHQWXU\ WKH
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z 5RPH¶VJUHDWHVWULYDOZDVDQHDVWHUQVXFFHVVRUVWDWHWRWKH3DUWKLDQV
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31
 Gothic Immigrants
z The people known as the Goths consisted of a number of loosely
related tribes that were said to have originated in Scandinavia.
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eventually occupying a territory that stretched from the Danube to
the Crimea.
ż Historians often label the two main Gothic groups who
SDUWLFLSDWHGLQ$GULDQRSOHDVWKH2VWURJRWKVDQGWKH9LVLJRWKV
Although the Goths at Adrianople were the ancestors of these
ODWHU JURXSV WKH\ ZHUH PRUH SURSHUO\ NQRZQ DV WKH7HUYLQJL
and the Greuthungi at the time of the battle.

ż 7KHPRVWLPSRUWDQW*RWKLFFKLHIWDLQZDV)ULWLJHUQZKRVHHPV
to have been an able general.

z :KDWEURXJKWWKH*RWKVLQWRFRQÀLFWZLWK5RPHZHUHWKHDFWLRQV
RI\HWDQRWKHUEDUEDULDQJURXSWKH+XQV7KHVHZHUHQRPDGVZKR
Lecture 5—Barbarian Gate: Adrianople—378, Pliska—811

roamed the central Asian steppe and were outstanding horsemen

DQG DUFKHUV 7KH\ EHJDQ WR PLJUDWH ZHVWZDUG PRYLQJ LQWR WKH
WHUULWRU\RI\HWDQRWKHUJURXSWKH$ODQV
ż $IWHUGHIHDWLQJWKH$ODQVWKH+XQVPRYHGIXUWKHUZHVWZDUG
encroaching on the lands of the Gothic Greuthungi. The
*UHXWKXQJL ZHUH DOVR GHIHDWHG ZLWK PDQ\ ÀHHLQJ HDVWZDUG
ahead of the Huns.

ż The next Gothic group to be menaced was the Tervingi. When

WKH\ WRR ZHUH XQDEOH WR FRSH ZLWK WKH +XQV WKH\ VHQW D
UHTXHVWWR9DOHQVVHHNLQJSHUPLVVLRQWRFURVVWKH'DQXEHDQG
take refuge in Roman territory.

z 9DOHQV JUDQWHG WKH *RWKV¶ UHTXHVW IRU UHIXJH7KH ORFDO 'DQXELDQ

administrators were instructed to allow the Goths to cross the river
DQGWRSURYLGHWKHUHIXJHHVZLWKVXSSOLHVDQGDVVLVWDQFH+RZHYHU
the administrators used the arrival of the refugees as a chance to
enrich themselves. They appropriated much of the food intended
IRU WKH *RWKV VHOOLQJ LW IRU SUR¿W RU RIIHULQJ LW WR WKH *RWKV DW
exorbitant prices.

32
 z The starving Goths naturally began to resent such treatment; fearing
DQ XSULVLQJ WKH ORFDO DGPLQLVWUDWRUV DSSDUHQWO\ GHFLGHG WR QXOOLI\
this potential threat by inviting the leading Goths to a banquet and
murdering them.
ż Fritigern and the other Gothic chieftains attended but were
WLSSHG RII DERXW WKH 5RPDQ LQWHQWLRQV $ VFXIÀH EURNH RXW
DQGDQXPEHURI5RPDQVDQG*RWKVZHUHNLOOHGEXW)ULWLJHUQ
managed to escape. He then launched an open rebellion.

ż The same administrator who had tried to kill Fritigern now

pursued him with local Roman army detachments. A pitched
battle took place in which the enraged Goths wiped out the
Romans.

ż Some of the Greuthungi then took advantage of the Romans’

weakness to cross the Danube and join the rebels.

The Campaign and Battle of Adrianople

z :LWK WKH *RWKV QRZ HIIHFWLYHO\ FRQWUROOLQJ DOO RI 7KUDFH 9DOHQV
could no longer ignore the situation. He hastily concluded a peace
WUHDW\ZLWKWKH6DVVDQLDQVVHQWDPHVVDJHUHTXHVWLQJPLOLWDU\DLG
WR*UDWLDQDQGEHJDQDVVHPEOLQJDODUJHIRUFHRIIURQWOLQHWURRSV
QHDU&RQVWDQWLQRSOH)LQDOO\LQ9DOHQVZDVUHDG\WRWDNHWKH
¿HOGKLPVHOI

z 2Q -XQH  WKH HPSHURU PDUFKHG WR WKH FLW\ RI$GULDQRSOH 7KH
Goths had remained divided in order to scavenge enough food to
VXUYLYH EXW )ULWLJHUQ QRZ FRQFHQWUDWHG KLV IRUFHV PRYLQJ WKHP
southward toward Adrianople.
ż 7KH5RPDQDUP\SUREDEO\WRWDOHGWRPHQEXW
was outnumbered by the Goths.

ż 9DOHQVSDVVHG$GULDQRSOHDQGFRQWLQXHGZHVWZDUGLQVHDUFKRI
WKH*RWKVSUREDEO\DOVRKRSLQJWRMRLQXSZLWK*UDWLDQDQGKLV
DUP\ZKRZHUHPDUFKLQJLQIURP,WDO\

33
 ‹)LQJDOR:LNLPHGLD&RPPRQV&&%<6$'(
Lecture 5—Barbarian Gate: Adrianople—378, Pliska—811

In choosing to attack the Goths, Valens may have smugly assumed that his
professional soldiers could easily beat a mere rabble of barbarians.

z 6HHLQJDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRFXW9DOHQV¶VVXSSO\OLQHV)ULWLJHUQGDVKHG
VRXWKZDUG LQWHQGLQJ WR VHL]H WKH URDG EHKLQG 9DOHQV¶V DUP\
5RPDQVFRXWVGHWHFWHGWKLVPRYHPHQWDQG9DOHQVQRZKDGWRPDNH
a crucial choice: whether to wait for Gratian to arrive or to attack
LPPHGLDWHO\3HUKDSVIRROLVKO\9DOHQVFKRVHWKHVHFRQGRSWLRQ

z )ULWLJHUQVHQWDSULHVWWR9DOHQVZLWKDQRIIHURISHDFHEXW9DOHQV
LJQRUHG WKH HQWUHDW\ 2Q $XJXVW  9DOHQV OHIW $GULDQRSOH DQG
marched toward the Goths.

z The Goths had drawn up their wagons into a defensive laager on

VRPHKLJKJURXQG7KH5RPDQFDYDOU\VHWXSDVDVFUHHQEHKLQG
ZKLFK WKH VORZHUPRYLQJ LQIDQWU\ GHSOR\HG LQWR EDWWOH IRUPDWLRQ
facing the Goths.
ż Because the large contingent of Greuthungi cavalry had not
\HWUHWXUQHGIURPDIRUDJLQJH[SHGLWLRQ)ULWLJHUQVHQWWKHPD

34
 message urgently ordering them back. He then sought to delay
the Romans by dispatching envoys asking to open negotiations.

ż 9DOHQVKDYLQJGHFLGHGWR¿JKWVKRXOGKDYHFRPPHQFHGFRPEDW
,QVWHDGKHDOORZHGKLPVHOIWREHGUDZQLQWRQHJRWLDWLRQV

z The cavalry unit on the far left of the Roman line now seems to
have disobeyed orders and launched a premature attack on the
Goths opposite them.
ż $IWHULQLWLDOO\GULYLQJEDFNWKH*RWKVWKHFDYDOU\VFRXWVZHUH
URXWHGE\DFRXQWHUDWWDFNDQGIHOOEDFNLQFRQIXVLRQGLVUXSWLQJ
the Roman lines.

ż -XVW DV WKH FDYDOU\ ZLWKGUHZ WKH *UHXWKXQJL PDGH WKHLU

DSSHDUDQFHRQWKHVDPHVLGHRIWKH¿HOGDQGMRLQHGWKHDWWDFN

ż Fritigern committed the rest of his troops to a general assault

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WRKDQGVWUXJJOH

z +DYLQJ GULYHQ RII WKH FDYDOU\ RQ WKH 5RPDQ OHIW WKH *RWKLF
horsemen were now able to strike at this exposed side of the Roman
OLQH8QGHUDVVDXOWIURPWZRGLUHFWLRQVWKH5RPDQOLQHFUXPEOHG
DQGPRVWRIWKH5RPDQXQLWVÀHG6RPHZKHUHLQWKHFKDRV9DOHQV
ZDVNLOOHG7KLUW\¿YHVHQLRURI¿FHUVDQGWZRWKLUGVRIWKH5RPDQ
DUP\ DOVR SHULVKHG RQ WKH EDWWOH¿HOG PDNLQJ LW RQH RI WKH ZRUVW
military disasters in all of Roman history.

The Battle of Pliska

z 7KHZHVWHUQHPSLUHFROODSVHGDERXW\HDUVODWHUEXWWKHHDVWHUQ
HPSLUHÀRXULVKHGIRUFHQWXULHVPRUHHYHQWXDOO\EHFRPLQJNQRZQ
DV WKH %\]DQWLQH (PSLUH 6RPH  \HDUV DIWHU $GULDQRSOH WKLV
empire suffered another devastating defeat.

z 7KHHPSHURUWKLVWLPHZDV1LFHSKRUXV,DQGOLNH9DOHQVKHZDV
having problems with immigrants.

35
 ż In the late 7thFHQWXU\WKH%XOJDUVD7XUNLFWULEHKDGSHWLWLRQHG
to cross the Danube into Byzantine territory. The emperor at
WKHWLPHZDVUHOXFWDQWWRDFFHSWWKHPEXWWKH%XOJDUVHQWHUHG
DQ\ZD\DQGVHL]HGDODUJHFKXQNRIWHUULWRU\QRUWKRI7KUDFH
where they established the Bulgar khanate.

ż ,Q  WKH QHZO\ HQWKURQHG 1LFHSKRUXV , DVVHPEOHG D ODUJH

army to expel the Bulgars.

z The leader of the Bulgars was an experienced warrior named

.UXP %HOLHYLQJ WKDW KH GLG QRW KDYH VXI¿FLHQW WURRSV WR RSSRVH
1LFHSKRUXV.UXPGHFLGHGWRDEDQGRQKLVFDSLWDO3OLVNDDQGWDNH
to the nearby mountains.
ż Nicephorus advanced triumphantly into Pliska and massacred
the small garrison left behind there. The Byzantines then
burned down the city and ravaged the countryside.
Lecture 5—Barbarian Gate: Adrianople—378, Pliska—811

ż ,QUHVSRQVH.UXPPDGHSHDFHRYHUWXUHVEXW1LFHSKRUXVZDV
intent on destroying the Bulgars and refused to even open talks.

z 1LFHSKRUXV WKHQ VHW RII LQ SXUVXLW RI .UXP ZKR KDG UHWUHDWHG
LQWRWKH9DUELFD3DVVLQWKHPRXQWDLQVZKHUHKHHUHFWHGGHIHQVHV
$UURJDQWO\EHOLHYLQJWKDWKLVIRHZDVEHDWHQ1LFHSKRUXVQHJOHFWHG
WRSURSHUO\VFRXWWKHSDVVDQGFRQ¿GHQWO\PDUFKHGKLVDUP\LQWRLWV
QDUURZFRQ¿QHV'HHSLQWRWKHSDVVKHIRXQGWKHZD\EORFNHGE\
ZRRGHQSDOLVDGHVDQG.UXP¶VPHQOXUNLQJDORQJWKHKLOOWRSV

z 5DWKHUWKDQDWWHPSWLQJWRHVFDSHWKHZD\KHKDGFRPH1LFHSKRUXV
ordered the army to halt for the night. And instead of consolidating
KLVIRUFHVKHDOORZHGKLVPHQWRFDPSZKHUHWKH\ZHUHLQVHSDUDWH
VWUXQJRXWJURXSV

z -XVW EHIRUH GDZQ RQ 6HSWHPEHU  .UXP DWWDFNHG IRFXVLQJ KLV
efforts on the imperial encampment. The assault seems to have
caught the sleeping camp by surprise. Rampaging Bulgars broke in
among the tents and slaughtered their inhabitants.

36
 ż $V WKH WHUUL¿HG VXUYLYRUV ÀHG WKH\ VSUHDG SDQLF WR RWKHU
contingents of the Byzantine army. With rumors spreading that
WKHHPSHURUZDVGHDGWKHVHXQLWVWRREURNHDQGUDQ

ż Desperate Byzantine soldiers tried to climb the wooden

EDUULHUVWKDWKHPPHGWKHPLQEXWWKH%XOJDUVVHWWKHVHDOLJKW
and many Byzantines were burned alive. Others were hunted
down in the woods and killed.

z $OWKRXJKWKH¿JKWWRRNSODFHLQWKHPRXQWDLQSDVVLWKDVEHFRPH
known as the Battle of Pliska and was the worst disaster for
%\]DQWLXPVLQFH$GULDQRSOH7HQVRIWKRXVDQGVRIPHQDORQJZLWK
WKHHPSHURUDQGPXFKRIKLVFRXUWGLHG

Lessons from Two Battles

z The two battles of Adrianople and Pliska mark distinct stages in
the slow decline of the Byzantine Empire and share a number of
curious similarities.

z Both were defeats triggered by the Romans’ failure to deal with

immigrant barbarian groups who might otherwise have been
FRQYHUWHG LQWR DOOLHV (VSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH FDVH RI WKH *RWKV WKH
arrogant and demeaning treatment the Romans dealt the immigrants
sparked their rebellion.

z $OVRLQHDFKLQVWDQFHD5RPDQHPSHURU¶VRYHUFRQ¿GHQFHUHVXOWHG
in multiple poor tactical decisions. Both emperors led their armies
LQWRH[SRVHGDQGGDQJHURXVSRVLWLRQV2QFHWKHDWWDFNVEHJDQWKH\
failed to provide the leadership that might have saved the situation.

z The consequences for both men were defeat and ignominious death.
$VIRU)ULWLJHUQDQG.UXPERWKGLHGDSSDUHQWO\RIQDWXUDOFDXVHV
within three years of their victories.

37
 Suggested Reading

%DUEHURThe Day of the Barbarians.

)LQHThe Early Medieval Balkans.
+DOGRQThe Byzantine Wars.
.XOLNRZVNLRome’s Gothic Wars.
0DF'RZDOOAdrianople, AD 378.

Questions to Consider

1. 'R\RXWKLQNDFFRPPRGDWLRQZLWKWKH*RWKVDQG%XOJDUVZDVSRVVLEOH
RUZDVFRQÀLFWZLWK5RPHLQHYLWDEOHIRUHDFKRIWKHP":KDWLVVXHVZLWK
migration and immigration are revealed by these events?
Lecture 5—Barbarian Gate: Adrianople—378, Pliska—811

2. :KLFKHPSHURU9DOHQVRU1LFHSKRUXVPDGHWKHJUHDWHUHUURUVOHDGLQJ
to his respective defeat?

38
 Fourth Crusade: Byzantium Betrayed—1204
Lecture 6

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event that had occurred 800 years earlier. What prompted this belated
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astray from its professed mission of wresting control of the Holy Lands
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RI &RQVWDQWLQRSOH WKH VHDW RI *UHHN 2UWKRGR[ &KULVWLDQLW\ DQG D VXSSRVHG
ally of the Crusaders. The diversion of the Fourth Crusade and the sack of
Constantinople constituted one of the more shameful episodes of the Crusades
DQGZRXOGKDYHIDUUHDFKLQJFRQVHTXHQFHVLQWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH0HGLWHUUDQHDQ

Lead-Up to the Fourth Crusade

z 7KH&UXVDGHVEHJDQLQDWWKH&RXQFLORI&OHUPRQWZKHQ3RSH
Urban II issued a call for volunteers to embark on an expedition to
seize the Holy Lands and “liberate” them from pagan occupation by
0XVOLPV /XUHG E\ YDULRXV PRWLYHV UDQJLQJ IURP SLHW\ WR JUHHG
thousands of knights across Europe volunteered to take up the cross.
ż :KHQWKLVIRUPLGDEOHDUP\UHDFKHGLWVWDUJHWWKHORFDO,VODPLF
UXOHUVZHUHWDNHQE\VXUSULVHDQGWKH)LUVW&UXVDGHDFKLHYHG
LWVJRDOVLQVSHFWDFXODUIDVKLRQ$QXPEHURIFLWLHVLQFOXGLQJ
-HUXVDOHP ZHUH EHVLHJHG DQG FDSWXUHG DQG VHYHUDO &UXVDGHU
kingdoms were carved out in the Holy Lands.

ż 7KH0LGGOH(DVWHUQFDOLSKDWHVVRRQFRXQWHUDWWDFNHGDQGWKXV
began a military struggle that would last for several centuries.
'XULQJWKLVSHULRGYDULRXV&KULVWLDQSRSHVSHULRGLFDOO\FDOOHG
IRUIXUWKHU&UXVDGHVEXWQRQHZDVDVVXFFHVVIXODVWKH)LUVW

z ,Q $XJXVW  D QHZ SRSH ,QQRFHQW ,,, LVVXHG DQ RI¿FLDO
proclamation summoning volunteers for a Fourth Crusade. The
leaders of this Crusade decided to transport their forces by sea.
7RDFFRPSOLVKWKLVWKH\UHTXLUHGDYDVWÀHHWRIVKLSVWKXVWKH\

39
 WXUQHGWRWKHSUHHPLQHQW&KULVWLDQVHDSRZHURIWKHGD\WKHFLW\
VWDWHRI9HQLFH
ż 7KHOHDGHURIWKH9HQHWLDQVWDWHZDVWKHHOGHUO\'RJH(QULFR
Dandolo. He negotiated a contract with the Crusaders under
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WKDQ  PHQ DQG  KRUVHV ,Q UHWXUQ WKH &UXVDGHUV
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whatever plunder they acquired.

ż 7KH 9HQHWLDQV WKUHZ WKHPVHOYHV LQWR IXO¿OOLQJ WKHLU VLGH RI

WKH FRQWUDFW GHYRWLQJ DOO QHFHVVDU\ PDQSRZHU WR D IUHQ]\ RI
construction to prepare the necessary ships.

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DQG E\ WKHQ WKH9HQHWLDQV KDG WKH ÀHHW UHDG\ 6R IDU HYHU\WKLQJ
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underway that would conspire to derail the expedition. The most
important of these was a squabble over succession taking place at
Lecture 6—Fourth Crusade: Byzantium Betrayed—1204

the court of the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople.

ż &KULVWLDQLW\KDGVSOLWLQWRWZREUDQFKHVZLWKWKHSRSHLQ5RPH
WKH KHDG RI ZKDW ZRXOG EHFRPH WKH &DWKROLF &KXUFK ZKLOH
Constantinople was the seat of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

ż 2Q WKH VXUIDFH WKH %\]DQWLQH (PSLUH VWLOO DSSHDUHG WR EH D
SRWHQWPLOLWDU\DQGSROLWLFDOIRUFHEXWWKHUHZDVDURWWHQQHVVDW
LWVFRUH7KH%\]DQWLQHÀHHWKDGEHHQQHJOHFWHGDQGWKHDUP\
was in decline.

ż 6LQFHWKH%\]DQWLQHHPSHURUKDGEHHQ,VDDF,,DZHDN
UXOHU ,Q  ,VDDF ZDV GHSRVHG E\ D FRXS LQ IDYRU RI KLV
EURWKHU $OH[LXV ,,, 8SRQ VHL]LQJ WKH WKURQH $OH[LXV ,,,
ordered Isaac to be blinded; he then threw Isaac and his son
(Prince Alexius) into prison.

ż Prince Alexius was determined to overthrow his uncle. After

HVFDSLQJIURPSULVRQWR(XURSHKHEHJDQWUDYHOLQJIURPFRXUW
WRFRXUWVHHNLQJDVVLVWDQFHLQKLVTXHVW

40
 z 0HDQZKLOH DV WKH GDWH IRU ODXQFKLQJ WKH &UXVDGH DSSURDFKHG
the leaders found themselves unable to pay the full sum they had
SURPLVHGWRWKH9HQHWLDQVEHIRUHVHWWLQJVDLO
ż Doge Dandolo came up with a proposal to resolve this problem.
9HQLFH ZDV FXUUHQWO\ HQJDJHG LQ D GLVSXWH ZLWK WKH FLW\ RI
=DGDUORFDWHGRQWKH'DOPDWLDQFRDVWLQPRGHUQGD\&URDWLD
9HQLFHFRYHWHG=DGDUEHFDXVHRILWVVWUDWHJLFORFDWLRQEXWWKH
city had given its allegiance to the king of Hungary.

ż 'DQGRORWROGWKH&UXVDGHUVWKDWLIWKH\KHOSHGFRQTXHU=DGDU
they could postpone payment of the rest of the fee until after
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EH ULFK ZLWK SOXQGHU ,Q DGGLWLRQ WKH EOLQG HOGHUO\ 'DQGROR
VDLG WKDW KH KLPVHOI ZRXOG MRLQ WKH H[SHGLWLRQ DORQJ ZLWK D
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ż 7KH &UXVDGHUV KDG VZRUQ WR ¿JKW 0XVOLPV LQ WKH HDVW EXW
were now contemplating the attack of a Christian city and
fellow Crusader.

ż 'HVSHUDWH WR SD\ RII WKHLU GHEW WKH )RXUWK &UXVDGH¶V OHDGHUV
DJUHHGWR'DQGROR¶VSURSRVDO,Q2FWREHURIWKHÀHHWVHW
VDLOFURVVLQJWKH$GULDWLFWR=DGDU

Campaigns in Zadar and Constantinople

z 7KH ÀHHW DUULYHG DW =DGDU DQG WKH XQIRUWXQDWH FLW\ ZDV DWWDFNHG
FDSWXUHG DQG ORRWHG 3RSH ,QQRFHQW ,,, ZDV VR HQUDJHG DW WKLV
DFW WKDW KH IRUPDOO\ H[FRPPXQLFDWHG WKH &UXVDGHUV (YHQWXDOO\
Innocent relented on the conditions that restitution be made to the
king of Hungary and that the Crusaders promise not to attack any
more Christians.

z The Crusaders settled down to wait out the stormy winter sailing
VHDVRQ7KHQDPHVVDJHIURP3ULQFH$OH[LXVDUULYHG+HVDLGWKDWLI
the Crusaders would help restore him to the throne of the Byzantine
(PSLUH KH ZRXOG SD\ WKHP  PDUNV DQG PDNH WKH *UHHN

41
 Orthodox Church subservient to the pope. Prince Alexius also
SOHGJHGWKDWKHZRXOGMRLQWKH&UXVDGHDORQJZLWKWURRSV

z 2QFH DJDLQ WKH &UXVDGH OHDGHUV DOORZHG WKHLU GHVSHUDWLRQ WR

pay off their debt to overcome their ethics and agreed to Prince
$OH[LXV¶V SURSRVDO 7KH\ VHW VDLO DUULYLQJ QHDU &RQVWDQWLQRSOH LQ
June of 1203. Constantinople was bordered on three sides by water
and protected by 3.5 miles of walls. Blocking the narrow water
HQWU\ZD\ NQRZQ DV WKH *ROGHQ +RUQ ZDV D PDVVLYH LURQ FKDLQ
attached to a strongpoint on the opposite shore called the Galata
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breach them over the previous 900 years.

z $IWHUHVWDEOLVKLQJDEDVHWKH&UXVDGHUVODXQFKHGWKHLU¿UVWDVVDXOW
on July 5. They realized that if they could break through the chain
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the city walls. The Crusaders made their landing on a beach near
WKH*DODWD7RZHUDQGDIWHUDVKRUWLQWHQVH¿JKWVWRUPHGLW7KLV
Lecture 6—Fourth Crusade: Byzantium Betrayed—1204

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to their ships.

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Constantinople’s fabled walls. The main Crusader force encamped
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&UXVDGHUV WR DWWDFN WKHUH ZKLOH WKH 9HQHWLDQV PDGH DQ DVVDXOW RQ
the walls around the Golden Horn from their ships. After a week of
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ż 7KH 9HQHWLDQV VWUXJJOHG WR PDNH D ODQGLQJ 7R LQVSLUH WKHP
Doge Dandolo ordered his ship to deposit him on the beach.
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TXLFNO\VSUHDGHYHQWXDOO\GHVWUR\LQJDFUHVRIWKHFLW\

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IURP &RQVWDQWLQRSOH 7KLV FDXJKW WKH &UXVDGHUV E\ VXUSULVH
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42
 LQFUHGLEO\ KH IDLOHG WR SUHVV WKH DWWDFN DQG PHHNO\ UHWXUQHG
to the city. This demoralized his men and made the Byzantine
nobility lose faith in his leadership.

ż 6HQVLQJ KLV SHRSOH WXUQLQJ DJDLQVW KLP $OH[LXV ,,, JUDEEHG

 SRXQGV RI JROG DQG ÀHG WKH FLW\ LQ WKH PLGGOH RI WKH
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z ,Q WKH &UXVDGHU FDPS 3ULQFH$OH[LXV LQVLVWHG WKDW WKH &UXVDGHUV

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arranged at which the Crusaders demanded that Isaac honor the
contract they had made with his son by appointing Prince Alexius
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z Hostility began to grow when Isaac and Prince Alexius came up

short in their payments to the Crusaders. In a desperate attempt
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from the city’s churches and had them melted down. This sacrilege
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by a nobleman named Alexius.

z $V WHQVLRQ LQFUHDVHG YDULRXV IDFWLRQV ULRWHG DQG DQRWKHU ¿UH

destroyed a huge swath of the city. The elderly Isaac died in January
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an uprising against Prince Alexius. The young man was thrown in
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declared himself emperor.

z 7KLVDFWSUHFLSLWDWHGRSHQFRQÀLFWZLWKWKH&UXVDGHUVZKREHVLHJHG
the city for a second time. The breakthrough into the city came when
a valiant pair of brothers crawled through a narrow hole in a gateway.
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43
 Aftermath of the Fourth Crusade

© World Imaging /Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain.

z The victorious Crusaders
savagely ransacked the
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the Crusaders then simply
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few continued on to the
Holy Lands. Pope Innocent
was appalled by these
further shameful deeds of In the vicious sack of Constantinople,
&UXVDGHUVEXWZKHQRIIHUHG many of the city’s fabulous treasures
a share of the relics stolen and artworks were either stolen or
destroyed.
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accepted it.

z Although the Byzantine Empire continued for several centuries

PRUH LW ZDV OHIW LQ D ZHDNHQHG DQG GLVRUJDQL]HG FRQGLWLRQ 7KLV
Lecture 6—Fourth Crusade: Byzantium Betrayed—1204

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z The story of the Fourth Crusade provides a cautionary example

of unintended consequences and the ease with which temptations
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go astray.
ż Pope Innocent III initiated the Crusade with the goals of
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his followers ended up rampaging through Christendom and
leaving behind one of the blackest legacies of any military
expedition.

ż 3HUKDSVHYHQZRUVHE\VDFNLQJ&RQVWDQWLQRSOHWKH&UXVDGHUV
effectively betrayed the fortress that had protected the borders
of Europe for centuries.

44
 Suggested Reading

$QGUHDContemporary Sources for the Fourth Crusade.

3KLOLSVThe Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople.

Questions to Consider

1. The Fourth Crusade offers an example of unintended consequences—

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very different. Could this have been avoided and how?

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EDG EXW WU\ WR FRQVLGHU WKH FDPSDLJQ IURP WKHLU SHUVSHFWLYHV &RXOG
they have been good men who made bad decisions?

45
 Kalka River: Genghis Khan’s General—1223
Lecture 7

I
n the early 13thFHQWXU\DQHZJURXSPDGHDGUDPDWLFDSSHDUDQFHRQWKH
VWDJHRIZRUOGKLVWRU\7KHVHZHUHWKH0RQJROVZKRZRXOGEXUVWIRUWK
from central Asia and carve out the largest land empire the world has
ever seen. One of the most impressive Mongol victories came in 1223 at the
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one’s opponent and the ability of a clever and observant general to
manipulate his enemies to his advantage.

Subotai and Genghis Khan

z The man who welded together the previously separate Mongol tribes
DQG VHW WKHP RQ WKHLU SDWK RI FRQTXHVW ZDV 7HPXMLQ ODWHU NQRZQ
Lecture 7—Kalka River: Genghis Khan’s General—1223

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from this system was the general who would lead the Mongols to
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z Subotai was not a Mongol but came from a tribe that lived in the
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home and became one of Temujin’s followers. He later became one
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z 7KH HYHQWV WKDW OHG WR WKH %DWWOH RI .DOND 5LYHU EHJDQ ZLWK
*HQJKLV.KDQ¶VFDPSDLJQDJDLQVWWKH.KZDUD]PLDQ(PSLUHZKLFK
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mighty empire had been destroyed by the great khan. Incorporating
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Empire to the fringes of the Mediterranean and European worlds.

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the peoples that the Mongols might encounter as they moved into

46
 QHZ DUHDV $FFRUGLQJO\ KH
SURSRVHG WR *HQJKLV .KDQ WKDW
he would lead a reconnaissance
raid of gigantic scale: circling
the entire Caspian Sea. In the fall
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© heckepics/iStock/Thinkstock.
Subotai set off on his mission.

z Thus began what has been

labeled the greatest cavalry
raid in history. By the time
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The Mongols who fought under
Genghis Khan were known as
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horsemen of the age, rapidly
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small, tough steppe ponies.

Early Campaign in the Caucasus

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ventured into the west. As the men moved up the western shore of
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way through the Caucasus Mountains. This region was the territory
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equipped army.

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ż :KHQ WKH KHDYLO\ DUPHG *HRUJLDQV FKDUJHG IRUZDUG WKH
Mongols practiced their standard tactic of feigning retreat
while showering their pursuers with arrows. The usual effect
of this was that the attacking troops became strung out and
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Mongols would swing around and counterattack.

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*HRUJLDQV ZKR WKRXJKW WKH\ ZHUH FKDVLQJ D GHIHDWHG IRH

47
 suddenly found themselves assaulted from all sides. They were
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z 7KHQDVZLQWHUDSSURDFKHG6XERWDLOHGKLVPHQIRUZDUGSURELQJ
toward the passes through the Caucasus. The king of Georgia again
summoned his army and intercepted the Mongols in the foothills.
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position where they could be pinned against the hills.
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regiment that he had been holding in reserve now smashed into
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of the Georgian formation.

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Lecture 7—Kalka River: Genghis Khan’s General—1223

KLPVHOIZDVVODXJKWHUHG

z These early victories would have important consequences for the

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the Georgian army.

z Subotai next effected an unprecedented winter crossing of the icy

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and reached the other side. As the Mongols struggled down through
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YHQJHIXO.LSFKDNV

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ZKHUHWKH\FRXOGXVHWKHLUDGYDQWDJHVLQVSHHGDQGPRELOLW\1RZ

48
 KRZHYHUWKH\ZHUHWUDSSHGLQDQDUURZSDVVIDFLQJDVXSHULRUIRH
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solid mass of men blocking the entrance to the pass. The allies then
settled down to wait.

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5DWKHU WKDQ VDFUL¿FLQJ KLV PHQ LQ DGGLWLRQDO IURQWDO DWWDFNV KH
used cunning to weaken his enemies. He secretly sent bribes to
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abandoned their allies and retreated. Subotai immediately pounced
RQ WKH UHPDLQLQJ IRUFHV DQG GHVWUR\HG WKHP 7KHQ WKH 0RQJROV
VSHGDIWHUWKH.LSFKDNVDQGPDVVDFUHGPRVWRIWKHPDVZHOO

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.LHY&KHUQLJRYDQGHOVHZKHUH

Attack at Kalka River

z The Mongols advanced westward past the Crimea toward the
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ambassadors to the Russians stating that the Mongols had no
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OR\DOWRWKH.LSFKDNVDQGH[HFXWHGWKH0RQJRODPEDVVDGRUV7KH
Mongols then sent a formal declaration of war to the Russians.

z %\ QRZ DQ DUP\ RI SHUKDSV  5XVVLDQV DQG .LSFKDNV KDG
assembled on the western bank of the Dnieper. Subotai’s plan was
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and separating the contingents so that they could be dealt with
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Mongol rearguard left behind by Subotai.

49
 z +RZHYHUZKHQWKH*DOLFLDQVDGYDQFHGWKH0RQJROVRQWKHRWKHU
side of the river simply disappeared into the steppe. For nine
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launching arrow attacks but running away when the less mobile
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WKH\ZHUHZLQQLQJWKHVHHQFRXQWHUVPDUFKHGRQFRQ¿GHQWO\

z $IWHUIDOOLQJEDFNPRUHWKDQPLOHV6XERWDL¿QDOO\EURXJKWKLV
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group of light cavalry skirmishers on the western side of this stream
and drew up the majority of his forces on the eastern side. On
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the western bank.

z Subotai now sent in his heavy cavalry for the main attack. These
Lecture 7—Kalka River: Genghis Khan’s General—1223

men stormed forward and cut through the unprepared ranks of the
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around the leading Russian elements. Fresh from routing the
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z $V WKH\ ÀHG WKH\ UDQ LQWR WKH *DOLFLDQ IRUFHV 7KH OHDGHU RI WKH
Galicians tried to array his men for battle but was hindered by
the stream of refugees. The Galicians fought against the Mongols
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themselves beset on three sides and were forced back.

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Chernigovians were routed in turn. The entire disorganized mass
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WKHLUÀLJKWZHVWZDUG

50
 z 7KHRQO\UHPDLQLQJLQWDFWGLYLVLRQZDVWKHVORZPRYLQJ.LHYDQV
who had drawn their baggage carts in a defensive circle to form a
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some of the Russian refugees and noblemen sheltered. The rest of
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VSOLWXSVHQGLQJJURXSVWRWU\WRZLSHRXWWKH5XVVLDQV

z 7KH UHPQDQWV RI WKH *DOLFLDQV HYHQWXDOO\ UHDFKHG WKH 'QLHSHU

where they jumped into boats and escaped downriver. The
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creeping backward across the steppe behind its fortress of baggage
carts. They managed to hold out for three days of constant attacks
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and 70 noblemen.

Legacy of Subotai
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¿JKWLQJVHYHUDOPRUHPDMRUEDWWOHVDORQJWKHZD\

z 6XERWDLIDLWKIXOO\VHUYHG*HQJKLV.KDQDQGKLVVRQ2JHGDL.KDQ
LQ PRUH FDPSDLJQV )LQDOO\ DW WKH DJH RI  WKH HOGHUO\ ZDUULRU
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have conquered 32 nations and won 65 major battles.

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WKH DELOLWLHV RI WKH 0RQJROV (YHQ ZRUVH WKH\ KDG UHSHDWHGO\
permitted Subotai to maneuver them onto ground of his own
choosing and allowed themselves to be separated. Had they kept
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DEOHWRRYHUZKHOPWKH0RQJROV,QVWHDGWKH\ZHUHGHIHDWHGRQH
by one.

51
 Suggested Reading

*DEULHOGenghis Khan’s Greatest General.

0D\The Mongol Art of War.
1LFROOHDQG6KSDNRYVN\Kalka River, 1223.

Questions to Consider

1. What are some advantages and disadvantages to the Mongol style of

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2. :DVWKH0RQJROV¶XQXVXDOH[HFXWLRQRIWKH5XVVLDQSULVRQHUVMXVWL¿HG
by the murder of their ambassadors? Are there rules in war?
Lecture 7—Kalka River: Genghis Khan’s General—1223

52
 Courtrai: Knights versus Shopkeepers—1302
Lecture 8

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equipped with the best available arms and armor—was soundly beaten
by what many viewed as an undisciplined rabble of shopkeepers bearing
improvised weapons. How did such an unlikely event come to happen? The
answer has to do with broader social and economic changes underway in the
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NQLJKWVZHUHDNH\SDUWREVROHWH

Social Hierarchy in the Middle Ages

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horsemen increasingly came
to be regarded as the decisive
factor in warfare. By the
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the knight—a highly trained
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as the ultimate force on the
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the Middle Ages dictated
that the army with the most
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It has been estimated that
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knight amounted to several
During the Middle Ages, a
formation of knights thundering
toward an enemy with lowered
spears—literally shaking the
ground—was a terrifying sight,
and many who witnessed it simply
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53
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would be a substantial additional expense.

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and knighthood itself soon became associated with the uppermost
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the land.

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helped reinforce this social and economic system.
Lecture 8—Courtrai: Knights versus Shopkeepers—1302

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which was based on land ownership. The new class of craftsmen
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economic clout to wrest away a degree of independence from
the aristocracy.

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resented the traditional dominance of the landed nobility.

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and Belgium.

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of his domain.

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striving to carve out autonomy from both count and king.

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jockeyed for power.
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handed tactics of the French governor of Flanders united most
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was an uprising.

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several hundred and several thousand people were killed.

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response would be a swift and violent one.
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JUDQGVRQ RI WKH H[LOHG FRXQW DQG KH QRZ DUULYHG LQ %UXJHV
accompanied by a contingent of mercenaries.

z $OWKRXJK WKH\ ZHUH QRW SURIHVVLRQDO VROGLHUV PDQ\ RI WKH

townspeople had some military experience in city militias. The
most common weapon wielded by these militiamen was the pike.

55
 Another weapon that was unique to Flanders was a device called a
goedendag. This crude but effective weapon could be used as both
a club and a spear.

Opponents at Courtrai
z The man selected by the king of France to lead the punitive
expedition to Flanders was Robert II of Artois. Less than two
PRQWKV DIWHU WKH PDVVDFUH DW %UXJHV 5REHUW VHW RXW WR VXEGXH
Flanders at the head of an army probably made up of more than
PRXQWHGNQLJKWVDQGWRRWKHUZDUULRUV

z Opposing them was a motley collection of groups who had banded

WRJHWKHU WR GHIHQG DJDLQVW WKH )UHQFK LQFOXGLQJ JXLOGVPHQ WKH
PLOLWLD RI %UXJHV PHQ IURP VXUURXQGLQJ WHUULWRULHV DQG HDVWHUQ
)ODQGHUV DQG VRPH )OHPLVK QREOHV ZKR VXSSRUWHG WKH UHEHOOLRQ
$PRQJWKHQREOHVZHUHRUZKRPLJKWEHFODVVL¿HGDVNQLJKWV
Lecture 8—Courtrai: Knights versus Shopkeepers—1302

z 7KHWZRDUPLHVZHUHURXJKO\HTXDOLQWRWDOQXPEHUVEXWWKH)UHQFK
forces were all professional soldiers and included thousands of
PRXQWHG PHQ YHUVXV WKH )OHPLVK ZKR ZHUH RYHUZKHOPLQJO\
amateurs and were all on foot.

z 7KH WRZQ RI &RXUWUDL ORFDWHG DERXW  PLOHV VRXWK RI %UXJHV
was a strategic point controlling access from France to Flanders.
5HFRJQL]LQJLWVLPSRUWDQFHWKHFRPELQHG)OHPLVKDUP\PDUFKHG
WKHUH &RXUWUDL KRZHYHU ZDV KHOG E\ D VPDOO )UHQFK JDUULVRQ
ZKLFK ZDV EHVLHJHG E\ WKH )OHPLVK DUP\ 6RRQ WKH DUP\ OHG E\
5REHUWRI$UWRLVDOVRDUULYHGDW&RXUWUDLDQGDIWHUIDFLQJRIIIRUD
IHZGD\VWKHWZRVLGHVSUHSDUHGIRUFRPEDW7KHGD\RIWKHEDWWOH
ZRXOGEH-XO\

Battle of the Golden Spurs

z The Flemish forces were drawn up with their backs to the walls
RI&RXUWUDLDQGDQHDUE\ULYHUDQGZLWKDODUJH¿HOGEHWZHHQWKHP
DQGWKH)UHQFKDUP\7KHWHUUDLQZRXOGEHLOOVXLWHGWRWKHFKDUJLQJ
KRUVHPHQ RI WKH )UHQFK EXW WKH )OHPLVK KDG EDFNHG WKHPVHOYHV

56
 into a position from which there could be no retreat. They had to
ZLQRUWKH\ZRXOGDOOEHNLOOHG
ż 7KH%UXJHVFRQWLQJHQWKHOGWKHULJKWVLGHRIWKHLUOLQHZLWKWKH
men from the surrounding regions in the center and the group
from eastern Flanders on the left.

ż :LOOLDP RI *XOLN DORQJ ZLWK RQH RI WKH VRQV RI WKH FRXQW
VHQWWKHLUKRUVHVDZD\DQGWRRNXSSRVLWLRQVLQWKHIURQWUDQN
KROGLQJSLNHV$OWKRXJKQREOHPHQLQWKHFRPLQJEDWWOHWKH\
ZRXOG¿JKWVLGHE\VLGHZLWKWKHWRZQVSHRSOHDQGFRPPRQHUV

z $FURVVWKH¿HOGWKH)UHQFKKDGKHOGDFRXQFLORIZDUGXULQJZKLFK
the commander of the crossbowmen advised pelting the Flemish
DUP\ZLWKFURVVERZEROWVWKHQVHQGLQJLQWKHIRRWVROGLHUVWR¿QLVK
them off. The knights bristled at this suggestion because it would
deprive them of the honor of being the ones to defeat the enemy.
7KXVLWZDVGHFLGHGWKDWWKHFURVVERZPHQZRXOGVKRRWWRVRIWHQ
XSWKHHQHP\DQGWKHNQLJKWVZRXOGWKHQFKDUJHIRUZDUGWRFUXVK
them and win the battle.

z The French knights were assembled into three large groups

PDWFKLQJ WKH RQHV LQ WKH )OHPLVK DUP\7KH ¿JKW EHJDQ ZLWK WKH
French crossbowmen unleashing a rain of bolts. The Flemish
FURVVERZPHQZKRZHUHVWDWLRQHGLQIURQWRIWKHPDLQOLQHUHSOLHG
with shots of their own.
ż 7KH )UHQFK ZKR ZHUH PRUH QXPHURXV DQG ZHUH VXSSRUWHG
E\ LQIDQWU\ GURYH EDFN WKH )OHPLVK FURVVERZPHQ ZKR WRRN
shelter behind the main line.

ż The French crossbowmen and foot soldiers were eager to

SUHVVWKHLUDGYDQWDJHDQGPLJKWKDYHGRQHVRWRJRRGHIIHFW
EXW5REHUWIHDULQJWKDWWKH\PLJKWGHIHDWWKH)OHPLVKRQWKHLU
RZQRUGHUHGWKHPEDFNWRPDNHZD\IRUKLVNQLJKWV

z The battalions of knights ponderously began to move forward

but could not build momentum on the swampy ground. After
DZNZDUGO\ SLFNLQJ WKHLU ZD\ DFURVV WKH VWUHDPV WKH\ FRQWLQXHG

57
 RQWRZDUGWKH)OHPLVKOLQHZKLFKEULVWOHGZLWKORZHUHGSLNHV7KH
PLOLWLDPHQ ZDWFKHG DV WKH GHDGO\ NQLJKWV WKXQGHUHG FRQ¿GHQWO\
toward them.

z $ORQJ PRVW RI WKH OLQH WKH WRZQVSHRSOH KHOG ¿UP MDEELQJ ZLWK
WKHLU SLNHV DQG ZKHQ WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ SUHVHQWHG LWVHOI EULQJLQJ
WKHLULURQULPPHGgoedendags crashing down on the exposed heads
of unhorsed knights.

z 2QWKHWZRVLGHVWKH)OHPLVKOLQHPDQDJHGWREOXQWWKHRQVODXJKW
EXW LQ WKH FHQWHU )UHQFK NQLJKWV FXW WKHLU ZD\ LQWR WKH )OHPLVK
IRUPDWLRQ DQG WKUHDWHQHG WR EUHDN WKURXJK 6HHLQJ WKLV WKH
commander of the Flemish reserves brought up his troops to bolster
WKH OLQH .QRWV RI PLOLWLD FOXVWHUHG DURXQG HDFK NQLJKW KDFNLQJ
DQG SRNLQJ ZLWK WKHLU ZHDSRQV XQWLO KH IHOO IURP WKH VDGGOH WKHQ
pounding on the fallen man until someone managed to insert a
blade or point into a weak spot in the armor.
Lecture 8—Courtrai: Knights versus Shopkeepers—1302

z 7KH)UHQFKFKDUJHIDOWHUHGWKHQEHJDQWRUHWUHDW3UHIHUULQJGHDWK
RQ WKH EDWWOH¿HOG WR WKH GLVJUDFH RI ORVLQJ 5REHUW RUGHUHG WKH
trumpets to sound the charge and led his personal contingent of
NQLJKWV LQWR WKH WKLFNHVW SDUW RI WKH EDWWOH 6XFFHVVIXO DW ¿UVW KH
was ultimately surrounded and mobbed. With the Flemish soldiers
FORVLQJLQRQKLPKHEHJJHGWKDWKLVEHORYHGZDUKRUVHEHVSDUHG
EXW¿OOHGZLWKUDJHWKH)OHPLVKWURRSVNLOOHGERWKRIWKHP

z $IWHUWKUHHKRXUVRILQWHQVHFRPEDWWKHEDWWOH¿QDOO\ZRXQGGRZQ
an utter disaster for the French. Thousands of France’s best warriors
OD\ GHDG RQ WKH EORRG\ ¿HOG ,Q WKH DIWHUPDWK RI WKH EDWWOH WKH
golden spurs worn by 500 of the fallen knights were collected and
PRXQWHGRQWKHZDOOVRIDQHDUE\FKXUFK%HFDXVHRIWKLVWKHEDWWOH
has become popularly known as the Battle of the Golden Spurs.

The End of Knightly Dominance

z The Battle of Courtrai halted French attempts to seize the region
and made possible the eventual creation of the Netherlands and
Belgium as independent states. The French failed to learn the

58
 military lesson of Courtrai—that the era of knightly dominance was
coming to an end—and French knights suffered further humiliating
defeats by foot soldiers at such battles as Agincourt during the
VRRQWREHJLQ+XQGUHG<HDUV¶:DUZLWK(QJODQG

z &RXUWUDL LOOXVWUDWHV WKH QRZIDPLOLDU HUURUV RI RYHUFRQ¿GHQFH DQG

IDLOXUHWRWDNHWKHWHUUDLQLQWRDFFRXQWEXWLWDOVRGHPRQVWUDWHVWKH
GDQJHUVRIIDLOLQJWRDGDSWWRFKDQJH7KH)UHQFKKHOG¿[HGO\WRD
concept of warfare that had become outdated and paid the ultimate
price for their rigid thinking.

Suggested Reading

)HJOH\The Golden Spurs of Kortrijk.

9HUEUXJJHQThe Battle of the Golden Spurs.

Questions to Consider

1. 7KH%DWWOHRI&RXUWUDLKDVDVWURQJHOHPHQWRIFODVVZDUIDUHZLWKWKH
commoner militiamen pitted against the knight noblemen. How much
did this element contribute to the actions and decisions of each side?

2. $OWKRXJKWKHIURQWDOFKDUJHRINQLJKWVRYHUDVZDPS\¿HOGPLJKWVHHP
IRROLVK FRXOG 5REHUW RI $UWRLV KDYH DFWHG GLIIHUHQWO\ DQG VWLOO KDYH
retained his status and position?

59
 1DJDVKLQR7DNLQJ6ZRUGVWRD*XQ¿JKW²
Lecture 9

I
Q WKH ODVW OHFWXUH ZH VDZ KRZ IDLOXUH WR DGDSW WR FKDQJH FDQ EH D IDWDO
PLVWDNH7KLVWKHPHIHDWXUHVLQWKH%DWWOHRI1DJDVKLQRDVZHOOEXWZLWK
D WZLVW 7KURXJKRXW KLVWRU\ D SRZHUIXO DJHQW RI FKDQJH KDV EHHQ WKH
GHYHORSPHQWRIQHZWHFKQRORJLHVHVSHFLDOO\RQHVZLWKPLOLWDU\DSSOLFDWLRQV
8S WR QRZ LQ WKLV FRXUVH JXQSRZGHU KDV QRW SOD\HG D VLJQL¿FDQW UROH EXW
DWWKH%DWWOHRI1DJDVKLQRLQFUXGHJXQVZHUHDNH\IDFWRULQRQHVLGH
DFKLHYLQJDFUXVKLQJYLFWRU\,WLVQRWKRZHYHUDFDVHRIRQHJURXSJDLQLQJD
new technology that the other lacked: Both of the opposing armies at Nagashino
SRVVHVVHGJXQVEXWRQO\RQHFRPPDQGHUXVHGWKHPWRPD[LPXPHIIHFW

Oda Nobunaga and the Takeda Clan

z During the 16thFHQWXU\-DSDQZDVGLYLGHGLQWRQXPHURXV¿HIGRPV
/HFWXUH²1DJDVKLQR7DNLQJ6ZRUGVWRD*XQ¿JKW²

controlled by warlords who fought one another constantly. A

VKRJXQ VXSSRVHGO\ UXOHG RYHU DOO RI -DSDQ EXW KH KDG EHFRPH D
¿JXUHKHDGZLWKOLWWOHDFWXDOSRZHU

z ,QWKHODWWHUKDOIRIWKHFHQWXU\DPDQQDPHG2GD1REXQDJDKDG
risen from his original status as a fairly minor lord to control both
WKHVKRJXQDQGWKHFDSLWDOFLW\RI.\RWR+LVJRDOZDVWRXQLI\DOO
of Japan.

z 2QH RI 2GD¶V JUHDWHVW ULYDOV ZDV DQRWKHU VNLOOHG JHQHUDO 7DNHGD
6KLQJHQ ZKR ZDV WKH KHDG RI WKH SRZHUIXO 7DNHGD FODQ 7KH
Takeda army was renowned for its unusually large and formidable
FRQWLQJHQWRIPRXQWHGVDPXUDLZKRZRQHQJDJHPHQWVE\¿HUFHO\
charging the enemy.

z 6KLQJHQ ZDV YLHZHG DV WKH RQH PDQ ZKR FRXOG VWDQG XS WR 2GD
and he began a series of campaigns against Oda’s allies. The most
LPSRUWDQW RI WKHVH ZDV WKH 7RNXJDZD FODQ DFFRUGLQJO\ 6KLQJHQ
EHJDQ DWWDFNLQJ 7RNXJDZD FDVWOHV :KLOH WKLV FRQÀLFW ZDV VWLOO
LQ LWV RSHQLQJ VWDJHV KRZHYHU 6KLQJHQ GLHG SUHPDWXUHO\ :LWK

60
 6KLQJHQ¶V GHDWK FRQWURO RI WKH 7DNHGD FODQ SDVVHG WR KLV VRQ
7DNHGD .DWVX\RUL ZKR VRRQ GHFLGHG WR UHVXPH WKH RIIHQVLYH
against Oda and the Tokugawa clan.

Forces at Nagashino
z 2Q 0D\   7DNHGD .DWVX\RUL OHG KLV DUP\ RXW WR LQYDGH
Tokugawa territory. He had a secret plan to capture the main city
RI WKH 7RNXJDZD .DWVX\RUL KDG PDGH FRQWDFW ZLWK D GLVDIIHFWHG
KLJKUDQNLQJRI¿FLDOZLWKLQWKH7RNXJDZDDGPLQLVWUDWLRQZKRKDG
promised to open the gates of the city to admit the Takeda samurai.
$V.DWVX\RULZDVPDUFKLQJWRZDUGWKHFLW\KRZHYHUWKHSORWZDV
XQFRYHUHGE\WKH7RNXJDZDDQGWKHWUDLWRURXVRI¿FLDOZDVH[HFXWHG

z .DWVX\RULKDGQRKRSHRIFDSWXULQJWKHZHOOGHIHQGHGFLW\ZLWKRXW
LQVLGH KHOS ,QWHQW RQ ZLQQLQJ JORU\ KRZHYHU KH ZDV UHOXFWDQW WR
simply withdraw back to his
own territory. He marched to
WKH FRDVW EXUQHG VRPH VPDOO
IRUWL¿HG RXWSRVWV DQG DWWDFNHG
one of the Tokugawa castles.
$W ODVW .DWVX\RUL FDPH WR WKH
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small fortress situated in a
strong defensive location.
© Alexey Baskakov/Hemera/Thinkstock.
z .DWVXU\RUL¶V DUP\ QXPEHUHG
DERXW  PHQ 7KLV ZDV
almost half the total strength
of the Takeda clan. Of the
 PRUH WKDQ  ZHUH
samurai mounted on horses.
Samurai were highly trained The more elaborate suits of armor
DQG ZHOODUPRUHG ZDUULRUV worn by wealthy or aristocratic
SUR¿FLHQW ZLWK PDQ\ ZHDSRQV samurai were stunning works
of art, with hundreds or even
including the sword and bow.
thousands of carefully constructed
Supplementing the samurai parts and, often, fanciful
ZHUH ORZHUUDQNLQJ VROGLHUV decorations.

61
 known as ashigaru. Their most common weapon was a long
VWDEELQJ VSHDU DQG WKH\ WHQGHG WR KDYH VLPSOHU DUPRU 5HFHQWO\
some of the ashigaru had begun to be equipped with primitive
matchlock guns.
ż 6XFK JXQV ZHUH D UHODWLYHO\ QHZ LQQRYDWLRQ KDYLQJ EHHQ
LQWURGXFHGSUREDEO\E\3RUWXJXHVHWUDGHUVLQWKHPLGV

ż These weapons consisted of a metal barrel mounted on a wooden

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ZKHQ WKH JXQQHU ZLVKHG WR ¿UH LW KH SUHVVHG D WULJJHU GHYLFH
WKDW WKUXVW D EXUQLQJ IXVH LQWR WKH ¿ULQJ SDQ LJQLWLQJ VRPH
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inaccurate weapons and were simply pointed in the direction of
WKHHQHP\UDWKHUWKDQDLPHGDWVSHFL¿FWDUJHWV

ż $W 1DJDVKLQR WKH7DNHGD DUP\ LQFOXGHG DERXW  ashigaru

with matchlocks.
/HFWXUH²1DJDVKLQR7DNLQJ6ZRUGVWRD*XQ¿JKW²

z %\PLG-XQH.DWVX\RULKDGGHSOR\HGKLVPHQLQFRQWLQJHQWV
HQFLUFOLQJWKHFDVWOHRI1DJDVKLQRDQGWKHVLHJHEHJDQ7KHKHDGRI
WKH7RNXJDZDFODQ7RNXJDZD,H\DVXZDVGHWHUPLQHGWRFRPHWR
the aid of his beleaguered castle and gathered together a relief force
RIPHQ²WKUHHTXDUWHUVRIKLVWRWDODUP\2GD1REXQDJDDOVR
PXVWHUHGDUHOLHIFROXPQRIDERXWPHQ
ż Both Tokugawa and Oda’s columns were composed of the
usual mix of samurai and ashigaru EXW 2GD¶V DUP\ LQFOXGHG
ashigaru bearing matchlocks.

ż $OWRJHWKHU WKH FRPELQHG UHOLHI IRUFH QXPEHUHG  WR

.DWVX\RUL¶V7KHZLVHPRYHZRXOGSUREDEO\KDYHEHHQ
IRU.DWVX\RULWRDEDQGRQWKHVLHJHDQGZLWKGUDZEXWKHZDV
FRQ¿GHQWWKDWKLVPRXQWHGVDPXUDLZRXOGSURYLGHDQHGJHLQ
battle.

z 0HDQZKLOHLQWKHFDVWOHWKHGHIHQGHUVZHUHGRZQWRRQO\DFRXSOH
GD\V¶ ZRUWK RI VXSSOLHV DQG WKH FRQVWDQW 7DNHGD DWWDFNV ZHUH
WKUHDWHQLQJWRRYHUUXQWKHP2QHEUDYHVDPXUDL7RULL6XQH¶HPRQ

62
 VQXFN RXW RI WKH FDVWOH UHDFKHG WKH DOOLHG FRPPDQGHUV DQG
informed them of the situation. The commanders promised to hurry
WKHUHOLHIHIIRUWDQG7RULLPDQDJHGWRGHOLYHUWKHKRSHIXOQHZVWR
WKHFDVWOHGHIHQGHUVEHIRUHEHLQJFUXFL¿HGE\WKH7DNHGD

z .DWVX\RUL QRZ NQHZ WKDW D ODUJH HQHP\ DUP\ ZRXOG VRRQ DUULYH
and he held a council of war to decide on a plan of action. His
father’s veteran advisors wisely urged withdrawing back to their
RZQ WHUULWRU\ EXW PDQ\ RI WKH \RXQJHU ORUGV ZDQWHG WR VWD\ DQG
¿JKW.DWVX\RULVLGHGZLWKWKHP
ż 7KHROGHUPHQWKHQVDLGWKDW.DWVX\RULVKRXOGTXLFNO\VWRUP
WKH FDVWOH ZLWK DQ DOORXW DVVDXOW VR WKDW WKH\ FRXOG WKHQ
contend with the larger relief force from behind the barrier of
the castle walls.

ż $JDLQ.DWVX\RULUHMHFWHGWKHUHFRPPHQGDWLRQDQGDQQRXQFHG
that they would attack in the morning.

Samurai versus Ashigaru

z 0HDQZKLOHWKHFRPELQHGDUPLHVRI2GDDQG7RNXJDZDKDGDUULYHG
and encamped for the night at a position about two miles from
WKH FDVWOH %HFDXVH ERWK FRPPDQGHUV ZHUH ZDU\ RI .DWVXU\RUL¶V
H[FHOOHQW FDYDOU\ WKH\ VHOHFWHG D VLWH WKDW ZRXOG QRW DOORZ WKH
Takeda horsemen to build up the full momentum of a cavalry
charge. They deployed their soldiers in an undulating line on one
VLGHRID¿HOGWKDWZDVFURVVHGE\VHYHUDOVKDOORZVWUHDPVDOWKRXJK
VPDOO WKHVH VWUHDPV ZRXOG EH HQRXJK WR EUHDN XS D IRUPDWLRQ RI
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up blocks of ashigaru armed with matchlocks.

z Oda had recently been on the receiving end of massed matchlock

¿UHZKHQ¿JKWLQJDJURXSRIUHEHOVDQGWKLVH[SHULHQFHKDGWDXJKW
him that the optimal way to use these new weapons was to group
WKHPWRJHWKHUWKHQ¿UHWKHPDOODWRQFHLQFRRUGLQDWHGYROOH\V
ż The problem with such a strategy was that the gunners were
extremely vulnerable during the lengthy reloading period. Oda’s
clever solution was to erect a series of open wooden fences or

63
 palisades in front of the formations of matchlock men. This
would prevent them from being run down by cavalry and allow
other ashigaruZLHOGLQJWKHLUWUDGLWLRQDOVSHDUVWRSRNHWKURXJK
the large holes in the palisades to keep attackers at a distance.

ż Acknowledging the importance he attached to the matchlock

ashigaru2GDDVVLJQHGKLVEHVWDQGPRVWH[SHULHQFHGRI¿FHUV
to oversee them. This was an interesting decision because the
ashigaru were regarded as being of much lower status than
WKH HOLWH VDPXUDL EXW LW UHÀHFWV 2GD¶V LQQRYDWLYH SHUVRQDOLW\
and ability to think pragmatically rather than being blinded by
social conventions.

z .DWVX\RUL¶VDUP\ZDVDUUD\HGLQIRXUGLYLVLRQVDOHIWULJKWFHQWHU
DQGUHVHUYHHDFKZLWKDPL[WXUHRIWURRSW\SHV-XVWDIWHURQ
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DGYDQFHDQGKLVIDPHGFDYDOU\VZHSWIRUZDUG
/HFWXUH²1DJDVKLQR7DNLQJ6ZRUGVWRD*XQ¿JKW²

z +HOG XQGHU VWULFW GLVFLSOLQH E\ WKHLU RI¿FHUV WKH DOOLHG PDWFKORFN
PHQ KHOG WKHLU ¿UH XQWLO WKH KRUVHPHQ KDG FORVHG WR ZLWKLQ 
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gunners rotating to maximize the volume of shots.

z Combat spread all along the line of the palisades as Takeda

horsemen searched for a weak point and hacked at the defenders.
0HDQZKLOHWKHDOOLHGashigaruORDGHGDQG¿UHGWKHLUJXQVDVIDVWDV
SRVVLEOHZKLOHRWKHUashigaru poked through the fences with their
pikes at the menacing horsemen.

z $OWKRXJKWKHLQLWLDOPDWFKORFNYROOH\VWRRNDKHDY\WROORQFHWKH
7DNHGDPHQFORVHGZLWKWKHLUHQHPLHVWKHEDWWOHVHWWOHGGRZQWRD
ORQJJUXHOLQJHQFRXQWHUZLWKPHQKDFNLQJVWDEELQJVODVKLQJDQG
shooting at close range. There may have been several successive
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personal bodyguard to advance all along the line and join in the
IUD\,QWKHHQGWKHEDWWOHODVWHGIRUHLJKWKRXUV

64
 z %\HDUO\DIWHUQRRQDVWKH7DNHGDFDVXDOWLHVPRXQWHGLWZDVFOHDUWKDW
WKH\KDGORVWWKHEDWWOHDQGWKH\EHJDQWRIDOOEDFN2GDRUGHUHGKLV
PHQWRSXUVXHDQGWKH7DNHGDFRQWLQJHQWVORVWFRKHVLRQDVLQGLYLGXDO
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IDFWLRQ2XWRIPHQKDGEHHQNLOOHG2QWKHRWKHUVLGH
WKHDOOLHVVXIIHUHGFDVXDOWLHVRXWRIWKHLUIRUFHRI

The Fate of Katsuyori and Oda

z $IWHUWKHFUXVKLQJGHIHDWDW1DJDVKLQR.DWVX\RULUHWUHDWHGEDFNWR
KLVRZQSURYLQFHVDQGZHQWLQWRDWXUWOHOLNHGHIHQVLYHPRGH+H
ZDVDEOHWRKDQJRQLQWKLVZD\IRUDQRWKHUVHYHQ\HDUVEXWZLWK
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UHGXFHG WR MXVW  PHQ DQG KLV HQHPLHV FORVLQJ LQ .DWVX\RUL
committed suicide.

z 2QO\DIHZPRQWKVDIWHU¿QDOO\GHIHDWLQJ.DWVX\RUL2GDKLPVHOIZDV
assassinated by one of his own generals. The real winner of the entire
FRQÀLFW ZDV 7RNXJDZD ,H\DVX ZKR DGHSWO\ PRYHG LQWR WKH SRZHU
vacuum and hugely expanded his territory. Having become one of
WKH PRVW SRZHUIXO PHQ LQ -DSDQ KH HYHQWXDOO\ XQLWHG WKH FRXQWU\
XQGHUKLVVROHGRPLQDWLRQGHFODULQJKLPVHOIVKRJXQLQ

z The Battle of Nagashino had a profound effect on future Japanese

ZDUIDUH )URP WKDW SRLQW RQ LW EHFDPH VWDQGDUG IRU DUPLHV WR
LQFOXGH ODUJH FRQWLQJHQWV RI PDWFKORFNEHDULQJ ashigaru. As at
1DJDVKLQR WKH\ ZHUH HPSOR\HG LQ PDVVHG EORFNV ¿ULQJ YROOH\V
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of Oda’s palisades had been proven.

z Oda’s overwhelming victory at Nagashino can be attributed to his

DELOLW\ WR HPEUDFH D QHZ WHFKQRORJ\ DV ZHOO DV WKH ÀH[LELOLW\ RI
mind that allowed him to adapt his strategy to take account of that
technology’s strengths and weaknesses.

65
 Suggested Reading

7XUQEXOOBattles of the Samurai.

²²²Nagashino, 1575.

Questions to Consider

1. :KDWFRXOG.DWVX\RULKDYHGRQHGLIIHUHQWO\WRKDYHDEHWWHUFKDQFHRI
winning the Battle of Nagashino?

2. ,W RIWHQ KDSSHQV WKDW WKH SHUVRQ RU JURXS ZKR EHQH¿WV IURP D QHZ
WHFKQRORJ\LVQRWWKHRQHZKRLQYHQWVLWRUXVHVLW¿UVWEXWWKHRQHZKR
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of this from history?
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66
 Cartagena: High Walls, Short Ladders—1741
Lecture 10

T
he most spectacular battle in the unusually named War of Jenkins’
Ear was a massive amphibious assault that England launched
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of Cartagena. Although this expedition began in an atmosphere of great
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recriminations. Chief among the reasons for its failure is the enmity that
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rivalry ultimately doomed the enterprise.

Vernon, Wentworth, and de Lezo

z The admiral who commanded the British naval units during the
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charge of the army regiments was Thomas Wentworth.
ż The men who had originally been chosen for these top positions
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was never clear which of the substitutes was intended to be in
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ZHUHPDGHE\DFRPPLWWHHRIRI¿FHUV

ż 7RPDNHPDWWHUVZRUVH9HUQRQ¶VDQG:HQWZRUWK¶VSHUVRQDOLWLHV
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for each other.

z 9HUQRQZDVDIDLUO\FRPSHWHQWDGPLUDO(DUOLHULQKLVFDUHHUKHKDG
attacked and captured the Spanish harbor of Porto Bello in Panama.
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military capabilities and convinced him that a crude frontal assault
was all that was needed to defeat the Spanish.

67
 z $W &DUWDJHQD KRZHYHU 9HUQRQ DQG :HQWZRUWK ZRXOG IDFH
opposition considerably more determined than the defenders of
Porto Bello had been. The Spanish admiral in charge of Cartagena’s
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LQ YDULRXV FRPEDWV EXW QRQH RI WKHVH GLVDELOLWLHV LPSDLUHG KLV
continued naval career.

Forces at Cartagena
z :LWKSXEOLFHQWKXVLDVPIRUWKHH[SHGLWLRQUXQQLQJKLJKWKH%ULWLVK
JRYHUQPHQW ZHQW DOORXW LQ LWV HIIRUW WR FRQTXHU &DUWDJHQD 7KH
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amphibious expeditions before the 20th century.
Lecture 10—Cartagena: High Walls, Short Ladders—1741

z $JDLQVW WKLV YDVW IRUFH WKH GHIHQGHUV RI &DUWDJHQD VHHPHG EDGO\
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was he for men that a group of 600 local Indians wielding their

© Photos.com/Thinkstock.

About one-quarter of the total number of British ships of the line was sent to
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68
 traditional bows and arrows were pressed into service. One thing
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ż Cartagena is located alongside a large lagoon that has a
narrow opening to the ocean. The lagoon provides an excellent
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forts and gun batteries. The city itself was protected by
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beach impractical. On the high ground around Cartagena were
several more fortresses and castles.

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ships of the line and a handful of subsidiary vessels.

Siege of Cartagena
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dead or debilitated.

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:LWKGLVHDVHUXQQLQJUDPSDQWWKURXJKWKHFUHZV9HUQRQEHOLHYHG
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he coopted a large number of the soldiers. This left Wentworth
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small numbers.

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forts guarding the entrance to the lagoon. The largest of these was
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drawn up his line of battle ships across the mouth of the channel.
Several British warships moved in and began bombarding the forts.

69
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and setting up a camp.

z 7KURXJKRXW WKH VLHJH WHQVLRQV PRXQWHG EHWZHHQ WKH WZR

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Wentworth failed to properly assert his authority to get the aid he
needed from the navy.

z 7KH VWDQGDUG PHWKRG RI FDSWXULQJ PDMRU IRUWL¿FDWLRQV DW WKH WLPH
was to set up a battery of cannons that would pound the walls until
Lecture 10—Cartagena: High Walls, Short Ladders—1741

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ż 9HUQRQ ZKR ZDV LPSDWLHQW ZLWK WKLV UDWH RI SURJUHVV RUGHUHG
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ż 'H /H]R EXUQHG VHYHUDO RI KLV VKLSV VLQNLQJ WKHP LQ WKH
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next challenge was the string of forts surrounding Cartagena.

z :KHQDQHDUO\DWWDFNVXFFHHGHGLQVHL]LQJDPLQRUIRUW9HUQRQVHQW
an exuberant dispatch back to England in which he implied that
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were premature. De Lezo was husbanding his resources for a
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DQG%ULWLVKHIIRUWVQRZIRFXVHGRQWKLVODVWYLWDOGHIHQVH

70
 z With supplies running out and the number of healthy soldiers
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on San Lazaro.

Attack on San Lazaro

z The plan was to launch a surprise attack by night. More than
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the walls of the fortress using ladders. Some Spanish deserters
promised to use their knowledge of the terrain to guide the
columns up a gradually sloping section of the approaches to the
fort to enable the assault force to reach the walls easily. A variety
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clear the defenders.

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everything went wrong.
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them to retreat.

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walls of the fort. The leading soldiers called for the ladders to
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tried to work their way to the front.

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WKH QRZ IXOO\ DOHUW PDLQ IRUWUHVV ZKLFK VXEMHFWHG WKH %ULWLVK
WRZLWKHULQJ¿UH

71
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staggered on and reached the main walls.
ż Because most of the wool bundles and grenades had gone
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were 10 feet too short.

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WKHLUZD\EDFNWRVDIHW\2IWKHPHQZKRKDGPDGHWKH
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Fate of the Commanders and Lessons Learned

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Lecture 10—Cartagena: High Walls, Short Ladders—1741

no choice but to call off the campaign and depart. In the words of one
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each write accounts of the disaster that attempted to place the blame
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an infection he caught during the siege.

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Cartagena stands out as an astonishing sequence of errors and
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demonstrates the dangers of placing one’s personal feelings above
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and mutual support when different branches of an armed service are
called on to work together.

72
 Suggested Reading

+DUGLQJAmphibious Warfare in the Eighteenth Century.

5LFKPRQGThe Navy in the War of 1739–48.

Questions to Consider

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blame for the failure of the expedition to Cartagena and why?

2. +RZGLG9HUQRQ¶VH[SHULHQFHVLQDWWDFNLQJ3RUWR%HOORDIIHFWKLVODWHU
VWUDWHJ\ DW &DUWDJHQD DQG ZHUH WKH FRQFOXVLRQV KH GUHZ IURP 3RUWR
Bello reasonable ones?

73
 Culloden: The Bonnie Prince Blunders—1746
Lecture 11

O
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French warship on the western shore of Scotland. His intent was
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restore the rule of the house of Stuart over England and Scotland. His arrival
initiated a tumultuous period that would include multiple battles and a
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WKH FDPSDLJQ ZRXOG FXOPLQDWH ZLWK WKH %DWWOH RI &XOORGHQ 7KHUH RQ D
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(QJODQGDQG6FRWODQGZRXOGEHGHWHUPLQHG

Prince Charles and William Augustus

Lecture 11—Culloden: The Bonnie Prince Blunders—1746

z The seeds of Culloden had been sown some 58 years earlier when the
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NLQJEHORQJLQJWRWKHKRXVHRI+DQRYHUIURP*HUPDQ\*HRUJH,

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recapture the throne that would end at the Battle of Culloden.

z Prince Charles had grown to adulthood pursuing the lifestyle of the

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an excessive fondness for alcohol. His one driving passion was
a feeling of deep resentment that his family had been denied its
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ż *RRGORRNLQJDQGFKDULVPDWLF&KDUOHVUDGLDWHGFRQ¿GHQFHLQ
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to have had little or no sense of strategic or tactical vision.

74
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VXERUGLQDWHVUDWKHUWKDQH[HUFLVLQJGHFLVLYHFRPPDQG

ż 7KHSULQFH¶VPRVWLPSRUWDQWVXERUGLQDWHRI¿FHUZDVD6FRWWLVK
lord named George Murray. He was a decent general but had a
prickly personality that created considerable friction with other
Jacobite commanders and with the prince.

z 7KH %ULWLVK FRPPDQGHU DW &XOORGHQ ZDV :LOOLDP $XJXVWXV WKH

duke of Cumberland and the second son of the current English
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the rank of general in the British army. Although there is no doubt
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Lead-Up to Culloden
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invasion of England.

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British army being gathered by Cumberland caused them to retreat
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z This came when Cumberland marched his army from Aberdeen

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The Jacobites would march in the middle of the night to where the
British were encamped and launch a surprise assault.

75
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Jacobite camp.
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were alone in facing the entire British army. After a bit of further
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ż The net result of the operation was that the Jacobite army spent
a long night plodding back and forth across the landscape for
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WKH UHJLPHQWV LQ FRPSOHWH GLVRUGHU PDQ\ PHQ VLPSO\ WKUHZ
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Lecture 11—Culloden: The Bonnie Prince Blunders—1746

bearing down on the Jacobites; battle was imminent. But many of

the Jacobites troops who were still awake had scattered throughout
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hold its original battle position. The troops had no choice but to fall
back to a secondary position on Culloden Moor.

Battle on the Moor

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line roughly in the middle. Fearing that the walls of the stone
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prince refused—a decision that would prove detrimental.

76
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although there were hopes that perhaps up to an additional
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arrive and join in.

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these forming a shorter third line. A unit of cavalry was stationed
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of Highlanders loyal to the royalist cause. Recognizing that they
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to allow the British cavalry to pass through them. This maneuver
would eventually bring them to a position in the rear of the
Jacobite line.

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WKH EDWWOH EHJDQ ZLWK WKH -DFRELWH DUWLOOHU\PHQ RSHQLQJ ¿UH
The British cannons soon replied. According to some newer
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heavier casualties.

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rather than group coordination and suited the temperament of the
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heaviest weight of the Jacobite charge was focused on the right
side of their line. This made them better targets for British
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RIWKH¿HOGJUHDWHUPRPHQWXPDQGVWUHQJWK

77
 ż $WWKH-DFRELWHOHIWDQGFHQWHUWKH%ULWLVKYROOH\VEDFNHGXS
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VRPH SODFHV WKH -DFRELWHV EURNH WKURXJK DQG HQJDJHG WKH
second line of British troops.

z This was the crisis point of the battle—if the Jacobites could shatter
WKHUHGFRDWVKHUHWKH\PLJKWWKHQWXUQDQGUROOXSWKHHQWLUH%ULWLVK
line. The British brought up more troops to contain and surround
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cauldron of death. Lord Murray attempted to push forward some
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WKH%ULWLVKDQGWKHFKDUJHIDOWHUHG5HEHOVEHJDQWREUHDNDZD\DQG
Lecture 11—Culloden: The Bonnie Prince Blunders—1746

UXQEDFNWRZDUGWKHLUVLGHRIWKH¿HOGSXUVXHGE\WKHWULXPSKDQW
British.

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DQG EHJDQ WR FXW GRZQ WKH ÀHHLQJ UHEHOV $W WKH VDPH WLPH WKH
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way through the enclosures and engaged units of clansmen. From
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DEOHWR¿UHLQWRWKHÀDQNRIWKHFKDUJLQJFODQVPHQDQGWKH\WRR
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and individuals sought to save themselves.

z The British claimed to have found a note during the battle

instructing the Jacobite soldiers to give no quarter to any captured
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RIWKHZRXQGHG-DFRELWHVWKH\HQFRXQWHUHGED\RQHWLQJWKHPDVWKH
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FDVXDOWLHVYHUVXVDURXQGIRUWKH%ULWLVK

78
The Clearances
z ,Q WKH DIWHUPDWK RI &XOORGHQ
the British were determined
to stamp out any trace of
rebellion in the highlands of
Scotland and embarked on a
notorious punitive campaign
RI RSSUHVVLRQ NQRZQ DV
the Clearances. Thousands
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or deported; farms were

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GHPROLVKHG DQG WKHLU WHQDQWV
were evicted. Garrisons were
HVWDEOLVKHGDQGURDGVDQGIRUWV
were constructed to facilitate
control over the region. The
memory of this era and the
harshness with which these In the aftermath of the Battle
of Culloden, the old way of life
measures were imposed is still a centered on the clans in Scotland
source of anger and resentment. was destroyed.

z It is interesting to speculate how subsequent history might have

been different if the Jacobites had won Culloden and the Stuarts had
EHHQUHVWRUHGSXWWLQJDSUR)UHQFKPRQDUFK\LQFKDUJHRI(QJODQG
$W&XOORGHQKRZHYHUWKH-DFRELWHVZHUHRXWQXPEHUHGH[KDXVWHG
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DQG ZDIÀLQJ ZHUH QR PDWFK IRU WKH GLVFLSOLQH ¿UHSRZHU DQG
professionalism of the British redcoats.

79
 Suggested Reading

%ODFNCulloden and the ’45.

5HLGCulloden Moor, 1746.
6DGOHUCulloden.

Questions to Consider

1. Prince Charles had the outward appearance of a leader but not the
QHFHVVDU\LQWHOOHFWXDOVNLOOV+RZVLJQL¿FDQWLVHDFKDVSHFWWRVXFFHVV"

2. What do you think the Jacobites might have done differently to perhaps
change the outcome of Culloden?
Lecture 11—Culloden: The Bonnie Prince Blunders—1746

80
 Russia: Napoleon Retreats in the Snow—1812
Lecture 12

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and invaded Russia at the head of a vast force numbering nearly
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and it seemed inevitable that Napoleon would add Russia to his long list
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PDUFKHGLQWR5XVVLDRQWKDWVXQQ\-XQHGD\PRUHWKDQSHUFHQWZRXOGEH
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initiated Napoleon’s decline—a process that would culminate a few years
ODWHURQWKHEDWWOH¿HOGVRI/HLS]LJDQG:DWHUORR

Napoleon’s Designs on Russia

z 6WDUWLQJ IURP UHODWLYHO\ KXPEOH RULJLQV RQ WKH LVODQG RI &RUVLFD
Napoleon Bonaparte had gained a reputation for daring as a young
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effectively became ruler of France under the title First Consul; in
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been coerced into signing treaties that made them reluctant allies
of France. The only nation that had constantly remained an enemy
was England.

z Napoleon’s attempt to break England economically through the

embargo known as the Continental System was not working and
provoked resentment from Russia. He seems to have believed
that it was necessary to permanently remove Russia as a potential
WKUHDWWRSURYLGHODVWLQJVHFXULW\IRUKLVHPSLUH7KXV1DSROHRQ

81
 selected Russia as his next
target and began to plan an
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well aware of the obstacles
presented in conquering
Russia: the sheer size of the
country and the legendarily

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harsh Russian winter.

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IDLWK LQ KLV RZQ DELOLWLHV
as well as in the huge army
of seasoned men that he
commanded. He intended to From early in his career, Napoleon
believed that he was a specially
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His plan was to march rapidly inevitability of his own glory.
Lecture 12—Russia: Napoleon Retreats in the Snow—1812

WRZDUG 0RVFRZ IRUFLQJ WKH

main Russian army to confront him. A victory in Moscow would
then compel the Russians to surrender. Napoleon believed that if
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crumble away.

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fundamental nature of the Russians. As they had repeatedly
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capable of a stubborn and prolonged defense against any foe who
invaded the motherland.

Advance into Russia

z Including the armies stationed in Germany and Poland who were
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men to the Russian invasion. A key component of the main army
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82
 grouping so many horses together created a logistical nightmare
for feeding the animals; many of the creatures were left severely
debilitated after just a few weeks of campaigning.

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7KHUHZDVOLWWOHZDWHUDQGWKHKHDWRIODWHVXPPHUZDVHQHUYDWLQJ
The soldiers suffered from dehydration; some were felled by
dysentery or simply dropped dead of heatstroke. Before even
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ż 2QHRIWKHVHDUPLHVODJJHGDELWKRZHYHUDQG1DSROHRQVDZ
a chance to encircle and destroy it. Napoleon gave orders that
the southern prong of his army should move quickly to cut off
the Russians’ retreat.

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the Russians to escape the trap and losing a vital opportunity
for the French.

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WHUULWRU\ZLQQLQJVRPHVNLUPLVKHVDQGWDNLQJSRVVHVVLRQRIODUJH
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but the decisive battle he sought still eluded him. Some of his
senior advisors began to suggest that he cut his losses and return to
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he threatened Moscow—still some 250 miles away—the Russians
would have to face him.

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DOORZ WKH )UHQFK WR FRQWLQXH XQRSSRVHG 6WLOO WKH\ ZDQWHG WR
compel the French to march as far as possible before engaging
them. The Russians selected a strong defensible position near the

83
 YLOODJH RI %RURGLQR MXVW  PLOHV ZHVW RI 0RVFRZ 7KHUH WKH\
FRQFHQWUDWHGWKHLUDUPLHVDQGEHJDQWREXLOGIRUWL¿FDWLRQV

Battle at Borodino
z The numbers of troops committed to battle by the French and
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on each side. Napoleon atypically chose a clumsy frontal assault on
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Russians and attack them from behind.

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UHSHDWHGO\FUXGHO\DVVDXOWLQJWKH5XVVLDQIRUWL¿FDWLRQV$IWHUDORQJ
GD\RIEUXWDO¿JKWLQJE\ERWKVLGHVWKH5XVVLDQVZLWKGUHZIURPWKH
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z The losses on both sides at the Battle of Borodino were staggering.

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Lecture 12—Russia: Napoleon Retreats in the Snow—1812

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Retreat from Russia

z $OWKRXJK WKH 5XVVLDQ DUP\ PD\ KDYH \LHOGHG WKH ¿HOG RI
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had the Russians’ will to resist been broken. The Russians now
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city to the French.

z ,QPLG6HSWHPEHU1DSROHRQ¶VDUP\HQWHUHG0RVFRZ<HWIRUDOO
of Napoleon’s supposed successes—beating the Russian army
in a major battle and capturing the main Russian city—the war
dragged on.
ż Confronted with this paradox and perhaps also suffering from
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occupation of the city would force the Russians to negotiate
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84
 ż ,QPLG2FWREHU1DSROHRQ¿QDOO\UHDOL]HGWKDWWKHLQYDVLRQKDG
failed to achieve its strategic objective and that the priority now
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the retreating columns.

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steps across Russia. One major barrier remained in their path—the
river Berezina. The Russians wanted to wipe out the French and
now focused on this river as the place to do so.
ż A Russian army was ordered to dash to the western bank of the
Berezina and block the French from crossing. But Napoleon’s
scouts located a spot where it might be possible to erect
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the Russians detecting them.

ż ,Q D VWXQQLQJ IHDW RI FRXUDJH DQG GHWHUPLQDWLRQ WKH )UHQFK

engineers labored in the freezing water to quickly build the
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VRRQDUULYHGEXWDUHDUJXDUGDFWLRQKHOGWKHPRIIORQJHQRXJK
for most of the French to scramble over the bridges before they
were destroyed.

z 7KH 5XVVLDQV WKHQ VODFNHG RII LQ WKHLU SXUVXLW EXW WKH )UHQFK
staggered on for another two weeks before they reached their
starting point at the Niemen River. Napoleon broke away from
his dying army on December 5 to return to Paris. The last weeks
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±ƒWKHIRRGFRPSOHWHO\JRQHDQGWKHPHQUHGXFHGWRVKDPEOLQJ
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VXUYLYRUVUHDFKHGWKHFLW\RI9LOQDMXVWDFURVVWKH1LHPHQ

85
 z 7KHUROORIFRPEDWUHDG\WURRSVZDVGRZQWRDURXQGDPHUH
Because many wounded had previously been evacuated and others
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WKH H[SHGLWLRQ ZDV OLNHO\ DURXQG  ZLWK SHUKDSV DQRWKHU
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army who had been alive six months earlier were now dead. The
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than 1 million human lives.

Napoleon’s Mistakes
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never replace the experienced men lost in the Russian snows. He
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LUUHSDUDEO\WXUQHGDQGKHZDVQRZDOPRVWDOZD\VRQWKHGHIHQVLYH
Lecture 12—Russia: Napoleon Retreats in the Snow—1812

z (PEROGHQHGE\WKHGLVDVWHULQ5XVVLDPDQ\RI1DSROHRQ¶VIRUPHU
DOOLHVEURNHDZD\DQGMRLQHGDSDQ(XURSHDQFRDOLWLRQDJDLQVWKLP
It was only a matter of time before he was brought down.

z The mistakes that Napoleon made during this campaign were many.
ż 7KH HQWLUH H[SHGLWLRQ ZDV LOOFRQFHLYHG IURP WKH VWDUW DQG
his expectations for how the Russians would behave were
completely erroneous.

ż He foolishly appointed his inept brother to an important

role—a decision that cost him the chance to wipe out a Russian
army early on.

ż $W%RURGLQRKLVIURQWDODVVDXOWWDFWLFVZHUHXQLPDJLQDWLYHDQG
resulted in an indecisive bloodbath.

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0RVFRZ DQG RQFH WKHUH OLQJHUHG IDU WRR ORQJ KRSLQJ IRU D

86
 diplomatic victory that it was obvious the Russians would not
grant him.

z The invasion of Russia proved to be a fatal miscalculation that not

only led to Napoleon’s downfall but also blemished his legacy as a
brilliant general.

Suggested Reading

/LHYHQRussia against Napoleon.

=DPR\VNL1812: Napoleon’s Fatal March on Moscow.

Questions to Consider

1. To what degree did symbolic or personal reasons and motivations

determine Napoleon’s actions during this campaign?

2. Sweden in the 18thFHQWXU\)UDQFHLQWKHthDQG*HUPDQ\LQWKHth—

each of these countries invaded Russia with disastrous results. Look
up summaries of the Swedish and German invasions and consider the
similarities and differences with Napoleon’s attempt.

87
 Afghanistan: Khyber Pass Death Trap—1842
Lecture 13

O
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D ORQH ULGHU JDOORSLQJ WRZDUG KLP 7KH PDQ ZKR KDG VXIIHUHG
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followers—had been wiped out by Afghan tribesmen. While attempting to
UHWUHDW WKURXJK WKH PRXQWDLQ SDVVHV IURP .DEXO WR ,QGLD WKH ZKROH IRUFH
KDGEHHQHLWKHUVODXJKWHUHGRUFDSWXUHGDQGRQO\'U%U\GRQKDGPDQDJHG
to evade the Afghan warriors to deliver notice of one of the worst disasters in
British military history.

Situation in Afghanistan
Lecture 13—Afghanistan: Khyber Pass Death Trap—1842

z By the early 19thFHQWXU\WKH%ULWLVK(DVW,QGLD&RPSDQ\FRQWUROOHG

much of the lucrative Indian subcontinent and maintained order
with what amounted to private armies composed mainly of
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perennial worries of the British was that the Russians would either
attempt to invade India through Afghanistan or foment rebellion
against the English.

z ,Q2FWREHURIDFKDQFHHQFRXQWHURQDPRXQWDLQURDGQHDUWKH
ERUGHURI,UDQDQG$IJKDQLVWDQVHHPHGWRFRQ¿UPWKHZRUVWIHDUV
of the British. A lieutenant named Rawlinson happened to pass by
a small band of horsemen heading toward Afghanistan. Rawlinson
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not to understand Rawlinson very well but admitted that he was an
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z Rawlinson immediately went to the camp of the shah and learned

WKDW WKH 5XVVLDQ ZKRVH QDPH ZDV 9LWNHYLWFK KDG EHHQ VHQW WR

88
 open negotiations with the ruler of Afghanistan. Realizing that
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to Tehran and announced to his superiors that the Russians were
dispatching agents into Afghanistan to suborn local leaders.

z 7KH FXUUHQW NLQJ RI$IJKDQLVWDQ ZDV 'RVW 0RKDPPDG .KDQ +H

KDG GHSRVHG WKH SUHYLRXV UXOHU 6KDK 6KRMD LQ  7KH %ULWLVK
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z Dost Mohammad seems to have been a British sympathizer. He

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the enthusiastic recommendation of Burnes. It should have been
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WKHUHE\HDVLO\VHFXUHWKHIURQWLHUDJDLQVW5XVVLD

z %XWLQ&DOFXWWD%XUQHV¶VVXSHULRUWKHJRYHUQRUJHQHUDORI,QGLD/RUG
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urged him to give British support to the former shah. Auckland
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depose Dost Mohammad and replace him with Shah Shoja.

z 7KHSODQZDVSXUHIROO\EXWWR%XUQHV¶VKRUURU'RVW0RKDPPDG
ZDV GHQRXQFHG E\ WKH %ULWLVK DQG D %ULWLVK DUP\ RI  PHQ
was organized and dispatched to remove him and put Shah Shoja
on the throne. Macnaghten accompanied the force as political
DGYLVRU %\ WKH HQG RI $XJXVW  WKLV DUP\ KDG PDUFKHG WR
.DEXO'RVW0RKDPPDGKDGÀHGDQG6KDK6KRMDZDVSURFODLPHG
king of Afghanistan.

z The Afghans were not pleased with their new monarch or with the
foreign force that had installed him. Most of the British troops went
EDFNWR,QGLDOHDYLQJDJDUULVRQRIDERXWLQ.DEXO
ż Rather than establishing themselves in one of the available
IRUWUHVVHVORFDWHGDURXQG.DEXOWKHFRPPDQGHUVRIWKH%ULWLVK

89
 garrison set up a sprawling camp on the outskirts of the city in
the middle of an open plain.

ż :LWKDSHULPHWHUDOPRVWWZRPLOHVORQJRYHUORRNHGE\KLJKHU
JURXQGDQGKDYLQJRQO\ORZZDOOVIRUGHIHQVHLWZDVDSRVLWLRQ
that was almost impossible to defend. The food stores for the
men were then placed in buildings outside the main camp.

z )RU D ZKLOH WKLQJV VHHPHG FDOP EXW WKHQ RQH RI 'RVW
0RKDPPDG¶V VRQV$NEDU .KDQ EHJDQ WR DJLWDWH IRU DQ XSULVLQJ
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.KDQ UDSLGO\ JDLQHG VXSSRUWHUV SDUWLFXODUO\ DPRQJ WKH ZDUOLNH
tribesmen of the hills.

z $URXQGWKLVWLPHDQHZRI¿FHU/RUG:LOOLDP(OSKLQVWRQHZDVSXW
LQ FKDUJH RI WKH .DEXO JDUULVRQ (OSKLQVWRQH ZDV DOPRVW HQWLUHO\
crippled by gout and would prove to be completely indecisive and
Lecture 13—Afghanistan: Khyber Pass Death Trap—1842

ineffectual as a commander.

z Lieutenant Rawlinson and other experienced men repeatedly

VXEPLWWHGUHSRUWVWKDWDUHEHOOLRQZDVLPPLQHQWEXW0DFQDJKWHQ
VWHDGIDVWO\UHIXVHGWREHOLHYHWKHP,QODWH$XFNODQGRUGHUHG
that the relatively modest subsidies—basically bribes—that were
being paid to the local chieftains should be slashed; this misguided
economizing measure removed the last incentive restraining the
tribesmen.

Confrontation in Kabul
z 2Q1RYHPEHUSURPSWHGE\DQLQFLGHQWLQYROYLQJDORFDOJLUOD
small mob gathered outside Burnes’s house and attacked it. Word of
WKLVUHDFKHGWKHPDLQ%ULWLVKFDPSDQGDQXPEHURIRI¿FHUVDUJXHG
that troops should be sent immediately to rescue Burnes and quell
the riot. Elphinstone dithered for a while and ultimately did nothing.

z %XUQHVKDGDERXWDGR]HQVROGLHUVLQKLVKRXVHDQGDVWKHFURZG
JUHZ ODUJHU DQG PRUH YLROHQW WKH\ UHVLVWHG$ ¿UH¿JKW EURNH RXW

90
 DQG WKH DWWDFNHUV JUHZ EROGHU HYHQWXDOO\ VWRUPLQJ WKH KRXVH DQG
VODXJKWHULQJWKHLQKDELWDQWVLQFOXGLQJ%XUQHV

z 7KH VKRRWLQJ ZDV FOHDUO\ DXGLEOH IURP WKH FDPS EXW WKH 
troops there sat idle while Burnes and his party were killed. Now
WKHUH ZDV D IXOOÀHGJHG XSULVLQJ ZLWK WKRXVDQGV MRLQLQJ LQ
Elphinstone decided to wait until the next morning before taking
DQ\DFWLRQ%\WKHQDQHVWLPDWHGKDGMRLQHGWKHUHEHOOLRQ

z 2YHU WKH QH[W VHYHUDO GD\V WKH UHEHOV FDSWXUHG RWKHU %ULWLVK
RXWSRVWV LQFOXGLQJ WKRVH FRQWDLQLQJ WKH IRRG DQG ZDWHU VWRUHV²D
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VXUURXQGHG WKH FDPS DQG IURP WKH KLJK JURXQG RYHUORRNLQJ LW
EHJDQVQLSLQJDWWKHQRZVWDUYLQJ%ULWLVKVROGLHUV

z )LQDOO\ WKH %ULWLVK DWWHPSWHG D IRUD\ RXW RI FDPS WR GULYH WKH
$IJKDQV IURP WKH KLJK JURXQG EXW LW HQGHG ZLWK PRUH WKDQ 
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arrived to take command of the rebels; he tightened the siege on
the camp.
ż The British now decided that their only hope was to arrange
ZLWK$NEDU.KDQWROHWWKHPZLWKGUDZIURP.DEXODQGJREDFN
to India. A meeting was set up between Akbar and Macnaghten
at which Akbar promised to allow the British to retreat
XQKDUPHG WKURXJK WKH .K\EHU SDVVHV DQG WR SURYLGH WKHP
ZLWKIRRGDQGDQHVFRUW,QUHWXUQ'RVW0RKDPPDGZRXOGEH
released to reclaim the throne.

ż Macnaghten tried to cut a secret deal with Akbar to betray

VRPHRIWKHRWKHUZDUORUGVEXW$NEDUUHYHDOHGWKLVGXSOLFLW\
to his fellow chiefs. At another meeting to supposedly work out
WKH GHWDLOV$NEDU¶V PHQ VHL]HG 0DFQDJKWHQ D VFXIÀH EURNH
RXWDQGKHDQGWKHRWKHU(QJOLVKPHQZHUHNLOOHG2QFHDJDLQ
WKH%ULWLVKPDGHQRDWWHPSWWRDYHQJHWKHLUVODLQRI¿FHUV

91
 Retreat from Afghanistan
z 2Q -DQXDU\   ZLWK VQRZ D IRRW GHHS RQ WKH JURXQG WKH
%ULWLVK GHSDUWHG 7KHUH ZHUH DERXW  ,QGLDQ WURRSV 
(XURSHDQ VROGLHUV DQG  WR  FDPS IROORZHUV 7KH
HVFRUWWKDW$NEDU.KDQKDGSURPLVHGWRHQVXUHWKHLUVDIHSDVVDJH
was nowhere to be found. They had about 90 miles to travel to
reach the British fort at Jalalabad.

z 6KRUWO\ DIWHU OHDYLQJ (OSKLQVWRQH RUGHUHG D KDOW WKHQ FRXOGQ¶W

decide whether or not to continue. Tribesmen began to snipe at the
FROXPQDQGPRVWRIWKHFDQQRQVDVZHOODVWKHPHDJHUVXSSOLHV
ZHUH DEDQGRQHG LQ WKH UHVXOWLQJ SDQLF 1LJKW IHOO EULQJLQJ ZLWK
it freezing temperatures. The column had covered just 5 of the 90
miles.

z 7KH QH[W PRUQLQJ WKH FROXPQ FUDZOHG IRUZDUG DJDLQ XQGHU D

FRQVWDQWKDLORI¿UH(OSKLQVWRQHFDOOHGDQRWKHUKDOWDWWKHHQWUDQFH
Lecture 13—Afghanistan: Khyber Pass Death Trap—1842

WR.KRUG3DVV$NEDU.KDQVHQWDPHVVDJHVD\LQJWKDWLIWKH%ULWLVK
ZRXOGSURYLGHKLPZLWKKRVWDJHVKHZRXOGDUUDQJHIRUWKHPWRJHW
WKURXJK WKH SDVV VDIHO\ $VWRQLVKLQJO\ (OSKLQVWRQH DFFHSWHG WKH
offer at face value.

z 3XVKLQJRQWKHVXUYLYRUV¿QDOO\UHDFKHGWKHSDVVRQO\WR¿QGWKDW
$NEDU .KDQ KDG GHOD\HG WKHP VR WKDW KRUGHV RI WULEHVPHQ FRXOG
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ZHUHPRZQGRZQZHUHNLOOHG

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SUREDEO\IHZHUWKDQE\WKLVSRLQWDQGVDIHW\ZDVVWLOO
miles distant.

z %\-DQXDU\RQO\DERXWUHPDLQHGRIWKHZKRKDG
RULJLQDOO\VHWRXW$NEDU.KDQVHQWDQRWKHUPHVVDJHFODLPLQJWKDW

92
 KH ZLVKHG WR PHHW ZLWK (OSKLQVWRQH DQG WKH RWKHU VHQLRU RI¿FHUV
7KH %ULWLVK DJUHHG EXW RQFH WKH\ DUULYHG LQ$NEDU¶V FDPS WKH\
were taken hostage.

z Those left behind attempted a night march to escape but ran into a
WKRUQ\EDUULHUHUHFWHGDFURVVWKHLUSDWK,QWKHGDUNRQO\DIHZPDGH
LWRYHUWKHWKRUQZDOOZKLOHWKHUHVWZHUHPDVVDFUHG$FRQWLQJHQW
of about 65 men tried to make a last stand on a hilltop near
Gandamak; all but a few were killed. A small party of horsemen
DOVREURNHIUHHLQFOXGLQJ'U%U\GRQ,QDVHULHVRIVNLUPLVKHVDOO
KLVFRPSDQLRQVZHUHVODLQRUFDSWXUHGXQWLOKHDORQHPDGHLWWRWKH
fort at Jalalabad.

British Bungling
z )URP VWDUW WR ¿QLVK ZKDW LV QRZ WHUPHG E\ WKH %ULWLVK WKH )LUVW
Afghan War had been an unmitigated disaster: The paranoia about
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was horribly mismanaged.

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RI¿FHUV¶ ZLYHV ZHUH WUHDWHG FRXUWHRXVO\ E\ $NEDU DQG ZHUH
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continued to rule in Afghanistan until the 1970s.

93
 Suggested Reading

'DOU\PSOHReturn of a King.
+RSNLUNThe Great Game.

Questions to Consider

1. :KR GHVHUYHV PRUH RI WKH EODPH IRU WKH GLVDVWHU LQ .DEXO DQG ZK\
$XFNODQG0DFQDJKWHQ(OSKLQVWRQH%XUQHVRUVRPHRQHHOVH"

2. $OH[DQGHU WKH *UHDW LQ DQWLTXLW\ WKH %ULWLVK LQ WKH th FHQWXU\ WKH
5XVVLDQV LQ WKH V DQG WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV PRUH UHFHQWO\ KDYH DOO
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tribal clans and maintaining order. What makes this country so hard to
RFFXS\DQGLVWKLVDFDVHRIKLVWRU\UHSHDWLQJLWVHOIPXOWLSOHWLPHV"
Lecture 13—Afghanistan: Khyber Pass Death Trap—1842

94
 Crimea: Charge of the Light Brigade—1854
Lecture 14

T
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FRDOLWLRQ FRQVLVWLQJ RI (QJODQG )UDQFH DQG 7XUNH\ KDV ODSVHG LQWR
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single most famous aspect of the war is a minor incident that has gained a
reputation as simultaneously one of the most glorious moments in the history
of warfare and one of the greatest military blunders of all time. This was
WKHFKDUJHRIWKH/LJKW%ULJDGHWKHFRQFOXGLQJHSLVRGHLQDGD\¶VZRUWKRI
encounters collectively known as the Battle of Balaclava.

Background to the Crimean War

z The immediate cause of the Crimean War was a bizarre international
squabble over who controlled the keys to the main door in the Church
RIWKH1DWLYLW\LQ-HUXVDOHP*UHHN2UWKRGR[RU&DWKROLFPRQNV
ż The emperor of France insisted that the Catholic monks be
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the Orthodox monks should hold them. The Ottoman sultan
HYHQWXDOO\ \LHOGHG WR WKH )UHQFK GHPDQGV WKHUHE\ HQUDJLQJ
the Russians.

ż 7HQVLRQV HVFDODWHG OHDGLQJ WR D PLOLWDU\ FODVK EHWZHHQ 5XVVLD

DQGWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHDQGZDUZDVGHFODUHG)UDQFHMRLQHG
LQ RQ WKH VLGH RI WKH7XUNV DQG ERXQG E\ D WUHDW\ WKH %ULWLVK
ZHUHFRPSHOOHGWRFRPHWRWKHGHIHQVHRIWKH2WWRPDQVDVZHOO

ż The underlying roots of this war were the declining power of

the Ottoman Empire and the chief European nations’ desire to
SUHYHQW WKHLU ULYDOV IURP EHQH¿WWLQJ RU JDLQLQJ NH\ WHUULWRU\
from the anticipated breakup of the ailing empire.

95
 z It had been a longstanding ambition of the Russians to extend
their naval power into the Mediterranean from their bases in the
Crimean Peninsula—a development feared by the French and
%ULWLVK$FFRUGLQJO\WKHDOOLHVGHFLGHGWRGLUHFWWKHLUHIIRUWVWRZDUG
neutralizing the main Crimean Russian naval base at Sevastopol.
A large expeditionary force of French and British soldiers was
ODQGHGLQWKH&ULPHDVHYHUDOEDWWOHVZHUHIRXJKWDQG6HYDVWRSRO
was besieged. But the whole endeavor was poorly planned and
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through the ranks.

z $V SDUW RI WKLV FDPSDLJQ RQ 2FWREHU   WKH %DWWOH RI
%DODFODYD ZDV IRXJKW ,W XQIROGHG LQ VHYHUDO VWDJHV WKH ODVW RI
which would be the charge of the Light Brigade.
ż ,WEHJDQZLWKDQDWWDFNE\WKH5XVVLDQVDJDLQVWVRPHIRUWL¿HG
redoubts containing Turkish troops and a few cannons. The
URZRIUHGRXEWVJXDUGHGWKH%ULWLVKVXSSO\OLQHVDQGWKHJRDO
of the Russian attack was to cut the British off from their
Lecture 14—Crimea: Charge of the Light Brigade—1854

supply depot.

ż 7KHDVVDXOWEHJDQZHOOIRUWKH5XVVLDQVZKRRYHUUDQDQXPEHU
RIWKHUHGRXEWV7KHRYHUDOODWWDFNKRZHYHUZDVVXEVHTXHQWO\
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+LJKODQGHUVIHQGHGRIID5XVVLDQFKDUJH7KHQDEROGXSKLOO
counterattack by the British brigade of heavy cavalry halted
another major Russian advance.

z Many of the subsequent events hinged on the personalities of

WKH NH\ %ULWLVK FRPPDQGHUV 7KHVH LQFOXGHG /RUG 5DJODQ WKH
FRPPDQGHULQFKLHIZKRREVHUYHGWKHEDWWOHIURPDURFN\RXWFURS
that rose nearly 700 feet above the level of the surrounding valleys.
7KH&ULPHDQ:DUZRXOGEHWKH¿UVWWLPHWKDW5DJODQZRXOGGLUHFWO\
oversee actual combat operations.
ż 7KHPDQLQRYHUDOOFKDUJHRIWKH%ULWLVKFDYDOU\IRUFHVZKLFK
FRQVLVWHG RI D +HDY\ %ULJDGH DQG D /LJKW %ULJDGH ZDV WKH
earl of Lucan.

96
 ż Lucan’s subordinate and the commander of the Light Brigade
ZDV WKH HDUO RI &DUGLJDQ DQ DUURJDQW DULVWRFUDW /XFDQ DQG
Cardigan thoroughly despised each other.

The Battle of Balaclava

z The captured redoubts were located on a ridge known as the
&DXVHZD\ +HLJKWV ZKLFK VHSDUDWHG WZR YDOOH\V RQH WR WKH QRUWK
DQG RQH WR WKH VRXWK 7KH 5XVVLDQV KDG IRUWL¿HG WKH VLGHV RI WKH
north valley with batteries of cannon; another line of cannons was
positioned across the far end of this valley.

z 2Q KLV KLOOWRS 5DJODQ ZDV DQQR\HG E\ WKH 5XVVLDQ VXFFHVVHV LQ
RYHUUXQQLQJWKHUHGRXEWVDQGZDQWHGWRFRXQWHUDWWDFNEXWWKHRQO\
available troops were the Light and Heavy Brigades. There was
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ordered the cavalry to attempt to drive the Russians from the
Causeway Heights and the captured redoubts. This was not an
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WDUJHWVWKHFDYDOU\FRXOGH[SHFWVXFFHVV

z Raglan sent an order to Lucan that read: “Cavalry to advance and

take advantage of any opportunity to recover the Heights. They will
be supported by the infantry which have been ordered to advance
RQ WZR IURQWV´ 2Q UHFHLYLQJ WKH RUGHU /XFDQ PRYHG WKH /LJKW
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to mean that he should not attack until the infantry came up in
VXSSRUWWKXVKHDQGWKHPHQVHWWOHGGRZQWRZDLW

z 8S RQ WKH ULGJH 5DJODQ JUHZ DQJU\ ZLWK ZKDW KH SHUFHLYHG DV
the willful inaction of Lucan’s cavalry. His frustration reached
a boiling point when one of his aides claimed to have spotted
Russian horse teams preparing to haul away the cannons the
Russians had captured in the redoubts. The report may not have
EHHQDFFXUDWHEXW5DJODQWRRNLWDWIDFHYDOXHDQGGHFLGHGWKDW
he must act.

97
 z He drafted another message to Lucan that read: “Lord Raglan
wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front—follow the
enemy and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns.”
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which target he was supposed to attack.

z )URPKLVSRVLWLRQRQWKHSODLQ/XFDQFRXOGQRWVHHWKHJXQVLQWKH
redoubts but only the Russian batteries at the far end of the north
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down the north valley and assault the Russian cannons at the far end.
ż This was clearly a suicidal proposition: The vulnerable
KRUVHPHQZRXOGEHH[SRVHGWR¿UHQRWRQO\IURPWKHFDQQRQV
at the far end but from batteries and troops on the right and left
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replied only that the attack was the order of Lord Raglan.
Lecture 14—Crimea: Charge of the Light Brigade—1854

ż The stage was now irrevocably set for the Light Brigade to
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defenses and to advance for more than a mile across the valley
ÀRRUZKLOHH[SRVHGWRHQHP\FDQQRQ¿UHIURPWKUHHVLGHV

z Debate has raged ever since regarding who was to blame for the
Light Brigade charging the wrong target. Raglan is criticized for
drafting an unclear order and for sending it via an improperly
briefed messenger. Lucan is censured for failing to put the messages
WRJHWKHU)LQDOO\&DUGLJDQLVIDXOWHGIRUEOLQGO\REH\LQJDQLOORJLFDO
order and for allowing his personal animosity for Lucan to prevent
the two commanders from properly analyzing it.

z :KRHYHU ZDV DW IDXOW WKH URXJKO\  PHQ RI WKH /LJKW %ULJDGH
now set off at a trot into the north valley with Cardigan at their
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98
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HQGWKH\EURNHLQWRDWUXHFKDUJH

z The surviving troopers were able to slash at the Russian gunners

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WKH PDVVHV RI QHDUE\ 5XVVLDQ FDYDOU\ DGYDQFHG DQG WKH VFDWWHUHG
British survivors were forced to attempt to escape back the way
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MXQLRURI¿FHUVWRUDOO\WKHUHPQDQWVDQGOHDGWKHPEDFN7KLVJDYHWKH
Russians yet another chance to blast away at them with their cannons.

Aftermath of the Charge

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© Anthony Baggett/iStock/Thinkstock.

The charge of the Light Brigade immediately became a legend and is remembered
as a glorious moment for British arms.

99
 HYHQWLQFOXGLQJ5DJODQFRXOGQRWEHOLHYHZKDWWKH\KDGZLWQHVVHG
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nothing of strategic importance at great cost to themselves.

z 5DJODQ /XFDQ DQG &DUGLJDQ ZRXOG VSHQG WKH UHVW RI WKHLU OLYHV
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tried to place most of the blame on the one man who could not defend
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GHJUHHVEXWDOOHYHQWXDOO\FDPHDZD\WDUQLVKHGIURPWKHGHEDFOH

z The siege of Sevastopol would drag on for almost a year until the
FLW\ DW ODVW IHOO %\ WKDW SRLQW KRZHYHU SXEOLF RSLQLRQ LQ %ULWDLQ
DQG)UDQFHKDGWXUQHGDJDLQVWWKHZDUDQGDKXUULHGSHDFHWUHDW\
was signed; Russia lost a tiny bit of territory and promised not to
expand its naval presence in the Black Sea. To achieve this rather
LQFRQFOXVLYHUHVXOWDWRWDORIKDOIDPLOOLRQPHQKDGORVWWKHLUOLYHV
Lecture 14—Crimea: Charge of the Light Brigade—1854

Suggested Reading

$GNLQThe Charge.
%ULJKWRQHell Riders.

Questions to Consider

1. Who deserves most of the blame for the Light Brigade attacking the
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2. The charge of the Light Brigade resulted from a failure of

communication. What are the various ways that relevant information
ZDV RPLWWHG GLVWRUWHG PLVUHSUHVHQWHG DQG PLVXQGHUVWRRG LQ WKLV
incident?

100
 Greasy Grass: Custer’s Last Stand—1876
Lecture 15

I
Q HDUO\ -XQH RI  LQ ZKDW ZDV WKHQ WHUPHG WKH 0RQWDQD 7HUULWRU\
Chief Sitting Bull of the Hunkpapa Lakota prepared himself to undergo a
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he saw a large number of white soldiers and horses falling upside down into
DQ,QGLDQYLOODJHGURSSLQJDVKHSXWLW³OLNHJUDVVKRSSHUV´%\WKHHQGRIWKH
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2Q -XQH  WKH /DNRWD DQG WKHLU DOOLHV ZRXOG ZLSH RXW *HRUJH$UPVWURQJ
&XVWHUDORQJZLWKPRUHWKDQPHQRIWKH86th Cavalry.

Backdrop to Little Big Horn

z *HRUJH$UPVWURQJ&XVWHUZDVDSRODUL]LQJ¿JXUHZKRSURYRNHG
strong responses from those around him. He had graduated last in
KLVFODVVIURP:HVW3RLQWEXWZLWKWKHRXWEUHDNRIWKH&LYLO:DU
HYHQLQH[SHULHQFHGRI¿FHUVZHUH

‹/LEUDU\RI&RQJUHVV3ULQWVDQG3KRWRJUDSKV'LYLVLRQ/&',*SSPVFD
in great demand in the northern
DUP\%\KLVPLGV&XVWHUKDG
become the youngest general in
the army.

z $IWHU WKH ZDU ZKHQ WKH DUP\

ZDV FXW EDFN &XVWHU ZDV OXFN\
to obtain a position in the West.
7KHUH KH JDLQHG D UHSXWDWLRQ DV
DQ ³,QGLDQ ¿JKWHU´ +H ZDV QH[W
assigned to the northern plains
VHFWRU ZKHUH WKH LQGLJHQRXV
peoples vigorously resisted
encroachment on their lands.
As a tactician, Custer favored
bold charges; although usually
z :LWKRXW GRXEW WKH WUHDWPHQW effective, his methods could
of the Native Americans by the sometimes verge on rash.

101
 U.S. government and its agents during the 19th century was one
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SDLQIXO SURFHVV RI ¿UVW SXVKLQJ 1DWLYH$PHULFDQ JURXSV IXUWKHU
ZHVWZDUG WKHQ GULYLQJ WKHP LQWR HYHUVKULQNLQJ WHUULWRULHV DQG
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lifestyle on reservations. The process was given a thin legal veneer
through a succession of treaties that were often intentionally
GHFHSWLYHRUÀDZHG

z The lifestyle of the Plains Indians had been transformed only a few
generations earlier by the introduction of the horse and the gun.
This enabled a nomadic existence in which tribes followed the
migrations of the herds of buffalo that roamed the plains.
ż 0DQ\ RI WKHVH WULEHV ZHUH ZDUULRU VRFLHWLHV DQG WKHUH ZDV
QHDUFRQVWDQW ZDUIDUH DQG VKLIWLQJ DOOLDQFHV DPRQJ WKHP
:KHQZKLWHVHWWOHUVEHJDQWRFURVVWKHSODLQVLQODUJHQXPEHUV
FRQÀLFWVLQHYLWDEO\GHYHORSHG
Lecture 15—Greasy Grass: Custer’s Last Stand—1876

ż Exacerbating these problems were the different attitudes the

two groups had toward property rights. For many of the Native
$PHULFDQVQRRQHFRXOGRZQWKHODQGZKLOHWKHVHWWOHUVZHUH
obsessed with legal partition and ownership of land.

ż %\WKHVDQXPEHURIUHVHUYDWLRQVKDGEHHQHVWDEOLVKHG
but many Native Americans preferred to continue their
traditional ways of life freely roaming the plains. The main
OHDGHU RI WKLV FRQWLQJHQW ZDV 6LWWLQJ %XOO ZKR UHIXVHG WR EH
FRQ¿QHGWRDUHVHUYDWLRQ

z The Battle of Little Bighorn was precipitated when gold was

VXSSRVHGO\GLVFRYHUHGLQWKH%ODFN+LOOVORFDWHGZLWKLQWKH*UHDW
6LRX[ 5HVHUYDWLRQ DQG UHJDUGHG E\ WKHP DV VDFUHG 1HYHUWKHOHVV
the U.S government began a campaign to buy or seize the lands
DQG LQ 'HFHPEHU RI  LVVXHG DQ XOWLPDWXP VWDWLQJ WKDW DQ\
Indians who did not present themselves at a reservation by the end
of January would be considered “hostiles.”

102
 z ,QWKHVSULQJRI6LWWLQJ%XOOVXPPRQHGWKRVHZKRRSSRVHG
JRLQJWRWKHUHVHUYDWLRQVXQLWLQJDKXJHJURXSRI/DNRWD&KH\HQQH
DQG$UDSDKR0HDQZKLOHWKH86DUP\KDGPRELOL]HGWRHQIRUFH
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GLIIHUHQWSRLQWVZLWKWKHJRDORIFRQYHUJLQJRQ6LWWLQJ%XOODQGKLV
followers in the Montana Territory.
ż Custer and the 7th Cavalry were part the column that departed
from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory. On June
&XVWHUDQGDERXWPHQZHUHVSOLWRIIDQGWROGWRVFRXWXS
WKH5RVHEXG5LYHUWRZDUGWKH/LWWOH%LJKRUQ5LYHUVHDUFKLQJ
IRUWKHVRFDOOHGKRVWLOHV

ż 7KHLQWHQWZDVWRFDWFKWKHPLQDSLQFHUPDQHXYHUZLWK&XVWHU
coming from the south and the rest of the column from the north.

The Fateful Battle

z &XVWHUSLFNHGXSWKHWUDLOOHIWE\6LWWLQJ%XOODQGKLVIROORZHUVDQG
WUXH WR KLV DJJUHVVLYH QDWXUH VHW RII LQ SXUVXLW 7KH QXPEHUV DW
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WKHPRVWUHQRZQHGZDUOHDGHURIWKHWLPH&UD]\+RUVH

z Custer’s scouts brought word that there was a large encampment of

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RI -XQH  &XVWHU PDGH SODQV WR DVVDXOW LW %HFDXVH KH SODQQHG WR
DWWDFNIURPVHYHUDOGLUHFWLRQVKHVSOLWKLVIRUFHLQWRIRXUJURXSV

z %\PLGDIWHUQRRQWKHFROXPQVKDGEHFRPHVHSDUDWHG2QHOHDGHU
&DSWDLQ%HQWHHQIRXQGQRWKLQJRQKLVVZHHSWRWKHOHIWKHVZXQJ
EDFN DQG IROORZHG &XVWHU¶V URXWH DOWKRXJK VHYHUDO PLOHV EHKLQG
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path on the right bank had led him to the top of the surrounding
escarpment.
ż $URXQGSP5HQRVSRWWHGDYLOODJHXSDKHDG$EHQGLQ
WKH ULYHU SUHYHQWHG KLP IURP VHHLQJ WKDW LQ IDFW WKLV ZDV DQ
enormous gathering of tribes.

103
 ż 5HQRDW¿UVWSODQQHGWRFKDUJHWKHFDPSZLWKKLVPHQEXW
DVKHGUHZFORVHUKHKDGVHFRQGWKRXJKWVKHRUGHUHGKLVPHQ
WRGLVPRXQWDQGIRUPDOLQH7KH\RSHQHG¿UHIURPDGLVWDQFH
of about 400 yards.

z The southern section of the camp that Reno had blundered up

against consisted of a circle of 260 lodges belonging to Sitting
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WKHFDPSPRYHGVRXWKZDUGWRZDUGWKHVRXQGRIWKHVKRRWLQJXQWLO
a mass of 400 or 500 had collected. They began shooting back at
Reno’s thin line and moving to threaten them from the sides.

z 5HQRKDGDQDQWDJRQLVWLFUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK&XVWHUDQGKHZDVD
KHDY\GULQNHU$QXPEHURIWLPHVGXULQJWKHGD\¶VPDUFKKHKDG
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woods.
Lecture 15—Greasy Grass: Custer’s Last Stand—1876

ż The men fell back in a disorganized fashion and hid among the
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help matters.

ż )LQDOO\5HQRKLPVHOIVHHPVWRKDYHSDQLFNHGKHOHDSWRQKLV
horse and bolted uphill. His confused and demoralized men
followed in his wake.

ż By the time they had scrambled up a ravine to the top of the

ULGJH RYHUORRNLQJ WKH ULYHU RQHTXDUWHU RI 5HQR¶V PHQ ZHUH
GHDG RQHTXDUWHU ZHUH PLVVLQJ DQG RQHTXDUWHU ZHUH HLWKHU
wounded or separated.

z $OWKRXJK KH NQHZ WKDW 5HQR KDG HQJDJHG WKH HQHP\ &XVWHU
was oblivious to this disaster and assumed that his encirclement
strategy was working. He believed that he needed to push forward
along the ridge to come at the enemy from the opposite side and
WUDSWKHP(YHQZKLOHSURFHHGLQJIRUZDUGKHVHHPVWRKDYHKDG

104
 some doubts as the size of the encampment became evident. He
dispatched a hastily scribbled message to Benteen to come quickly
and to “bring packs.”

z $V %HQWHHQ DGYDQFHG KH FDPH XSRQ WKH VXUYLYRUV RI 5HQR¶V
FRQWLQJHQW$OWKRXJKLUDVFLEOH%HQWHHQZDVEUDYHDQGUHDVRQDEO\
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order and calm on Reno’s shattered division. Reno and Benteen
WKHQGHFLGHGWRZDLWIRUWKHSDFNWUDLQZKLFKDUULYHGVKRUWO\DIWHU
5:00 p.m.

z 2QH GHWDFKPHQW PRYHG IRUZDUG DIWHU WKH PLVVLQJ &XVWHU ZLWK

%HQWHHQIROORZLQJVORZO\EHKLQGLWWUDLOHGE\5HQRDQGWKHPXOHV
This leading group ultimately got as far as a piece of high ground
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URDPLQJDURXQG%HQWHHQGUHZEDFNDQGFRQVROLGDWHGKLVIRUFHVDW
Reno’s hill.

z $OO WKH ZKLOH &XVWHU KDG FRQWLQXHG DORQJ WKH KLJK JURXQG
SDUDOOHOLQJ WKH ULYHU HQFRXQWHULQJ RQO\ OLJKW UHVLVWDQFH DQG VWLOO
intent on his encirclement plan.
ż +HVSOLWKLVPHQLQWRWZRGHWDFKPHQWVZLWKRQHJRLQJIRUZDUG
far enough to sight the noncombatant refugees from the
encampment gathering near a ford across the river. Cutting off
WKLVEDQGZDV&XVWHU¶VLQLWLDOJRDOEXWZLWKVRPDQ\ZDUULRUV
JDWKHULQJWKHVWUDWHJ\EHFDPHXQWHQDEOH1RZLWZRXOGEHD
¿JKWIRUPHUHVXUYLYDO

ż &UD]\ +RUVH KDG EHHQ VORZ WR JHW LQYROYHG LQ WKH EDWWOH
EXW RQFH KH URGH RXW ZDUULRUV UDOOLHG DURXQG KLP LQ ODUJH
numbers. He displayed his military acumen by embarking on
an encirclement of his own that trapped Custer’s men.

z One wing of Custer’s forces drew themselves up on Calhoun Hill.

7KH\ ZHUH VXUURXQGHG DQG FDPH XQGHU KHDY\ ¿UH 5DYDJHG E\ D
VWRUPRIEXOOHWVDQGDUURZVWKLVJURXSZDVRYHUUXQDQGVODLQ

105
 z 7KHIDWHRIWKHGHWDFKPHQWDFFRPSDQ\LQJ&XVWHULVGLVSXWHGEXW
WKH\VHHPWRKDYHEHHQSXVKHGEDFNLQDUXQQLQJ¿JKW7KHODVW
VXUYLYRUV LQFOXGLQJ &XVWHU PDGH D VWDQG RQ ZKDW LV NQRZQ DV
&XVWHU +LOO +HUH WKH ODVW NQRW RI GHIHQGHUV ZDV RYHUZKHOPHG
The corpses of 42 cavalrymen and 39 horses were found around
this spot.

z ([DFWO\ KRZ &XVWHU GLHG LV DQRWKHU P\VWHU\ EXW KLV ERG\ ZDV
discovered with a gunshot wound to the chest and another to his left
WHPSOH7KHFRUSVHVRIWZRRIKLVEURWKHUVKLVEURWKHULQODZDQG
his nephew also lay nearby.

Outcomes of Little Big Horn

z %DFNRQ5HQR¶VKLOOWKHRWKHUFRQWLQJHQWVRIWKHth Cavalry now
FDPHXQGHUVLHJH)RUWKHQH[WGD\DQGDKDOIWKHVROGLHUVKHOGRII
WKH DWWDFNLQJ ZDUULRUV DOWKRXJK WKH\ VXIIHUHG  PRUH FDVXDOWLHV
6DWLV¿HG ZLWK WKHLU YLFWRU\ WKH WULXPSKDQW ,QGLDQV ZLWKGUHZ DQG
the remnants of the 7th were rescued by the arrival of the main
Lecture 15—Greasy Grass: Custer’s Last Stand—1876

DUP\'XULQJWKHEDWWOHRI&XVWHU¶VPHQKDGEHHQNLOOHGDQG
wounded. Losses on the Native American side are estimated to have
numbered several hundred.

z News of the shocking defeat prompted calls for revenge across the
8QLWHG 6WDWHV ,Q D VHULHV RI FDPSDLJQV WKH 3ODLQV ,QGLDQV ZHUH
defeated and the remnants forced onto reservations. Sitting Bull
and Crazy Horse were both eventually compelled to surrender.
&UD]\+RUVHZDVPXUGHUHGVRRQDIWHUZKLOH6LWWLQJ%XOOOLYHGIRU
about a decade but was also killed under somewhat mysterious
circumstances.

z 7KH %DWWOH RI /LWWOH %LJ +RUQ VRRQ EHFDPH OHJHQGDU\ LQGHHG
military historians still argue over exactly what happened and who
was at fault. It remains one of the most famous—or infamous—
battles in American history. Although it was a rare victory for the
LQGLJHQRXV WULEHV RI WKH *UHDW 3ODLQV LW DOVR XOWLPDWHO\ KDVWHQHG
their defeat and the loss of their traditional way of life.

106
 Suggested Reading

'RQRYDQA Terrible Glory.

3KLOEULFNThe Last Stand.

Questions to Consider

1. 2QFH &XVWHU UHDOL]HG WKH VL]H RI WKH YLOODJH VKRXOG KH KDYH FDQFHOHG
KLVDWWDFNDQGZDLWHGIRUWKHUHVWRIWKHDUP\",IKHKDGGRQHVRGR\RX
think he would have been heavily criticized?

2. :DVWKHUHDQ\ZD\IRU&XVWHUWRKDYHZRQWKHEDWWOHRUZDVKHGRRPHG
from the start?

107
 Isandlwana: 25,000 Zulus Undetected—1879
Lecture 16

B
y the late 19th FHQWXU\ WKH %ULWLVK FRORQLDO HPSLUH LQFOXGHG QHDUO\
D ¿IWK RI WKH ZRUOG ,Q WKH FRXUVH RI DPDVVLQJ WKLV QHWZRUN RI
WHUULWRULHVWKH%ULWLVKDUP\KDGIUHTXHQWO\EHHQFDOOHGRQWRVXSSUHVV
or conquer indigenous groups—cultures that were technologically inferior to
9LFWRULDQ%ULWDLQ6XFKHYHQWVWHQGHGWRUHLQIRUFHWKH9LFWRULDQV¶LQFOLQDWLRQ
to view their own civilization as superior and indigenous peoples as barbaric
savages. These attitudes made the outcome of the Battle of Isandlwana all
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RXWE\DKRUGHRI=XOXZDUULRUV7KHEDWWOHUDQNVDPRQJWKHJUHDWHVWVLQJOH
day losses of British troops from the Napoleonic Wars to World War I.

The Zulus and the British

Lecture 16—Isandlwana: 25,000 Zulus Undetected—1879

z $WWKHWLPHRIWKH%DWWOHRI,VDQGOZDQD=XOXVZDUULRUVIRXJKWQHDUO\
QDNHGH[FHSWIRUODUJHRYDOFRZKLGHVKLHOGV7KH\ZLHOGHGVKRUW
EURDGEODGHGVWDEELQJVSHDUVFDOOHGassegaiDVZHOODVRFFDVLRQDO

© Photos.com/Thinkstock.

In defending its empire in the late 19th century, it was not uncommon for Britain
to engage in clashes pitting local warriors armed with spears or muskets against
%ULWLVKWURRSVZLWKFDQQRQVDQGPRGHUQULÀHV

108
 light throwing spears and clubs. By the middle of the 19thFHQWXU\
VRPH JXQV KDG EHHQ REWDLQHG IURP (XURSHDQ VHWWOHUV DOWKRXJK
WKHVHZHUHW\SLFDOO\RIDQWLTXDWHGGHVLJQDQGWKHJXQSRZGHUXVHG
by the Zulus was of dubious quality.

z The standard battle tactic used by the legendary founder of the Zulu
NLQJGRP6KDNDZDVNQRZQDVWKHhorns of the bull,QWKLVWDFWLF
RQHVHFWLRQRIWKHDUP\WHUPHGWKH chestDWWDFNHGVWUDLJKWRQDQG
KHOGWKHHQHP\LQSODFHZKLOHWZRRWKHUGLYLVLRQVWKHleft and right
hornsVZHSWDURXQGWRDVVDXOWWKHIRHIURPWKHVLGHVDQGEHKLQG,W
was a classic tactic of encirclement and annihilation.

z Shaka had also established the amabuthoV\VWHPLQZKLFK\RXQJ

unmarried men were divided into military regiments by age. It
ZDVQRWDWUXHVWDQGLQJDUP\EXWWKHPHQZHUHDYDLODEOHIRUFDOO
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administrator and desired good relations with the British.

z The commander in chief of the British forces in the war against

WKH=XOXVZRXOGEHDPDQQDPHG&KHOPVIRUGD%ULWLVKDULVWRFUDW
who had served in various colonial posts. His greatest weakness in
the coming war may have been his condescending attitude toward
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mentality would lead him to underestimate the potential threat
posed by the Zulu army.

z $QRWKHU NH\ ¿JXUH LQ WKH EDWWOH ZRXOG EH &RORQHO 'XUQIRUG ,Q
FRQWUDVWWR&KHOPVIRUG'XUQIRUGZDVV\PSDWKHWLFWRWKHLQGLJHQRXV
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placed in charge of a contingent of mounted native troops within the
British army. Durnford had a reputation of being impulsive and too
LQGHSHQGHQWPLQGHGDQG&KHOPVIRUGVHHPVWRKDYHGLVWUXVWHGKLP

Pretense for War

z Coastal regions of South Africa had been settled by mainly Dutch
LPPLJUDQWV GXULQJ WKH HUD RI H[SORUDWLRQ DQG WKHLU GHVFHQGDQWV

109
 were known as the Boers. In the early 19th FHQWXU\ WKH QHHG IRU
bases during the Napoleonic Wars had motivated the British to
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FRH[LVWHGDORQJZLWKLQGLJHQRXVQDWLRQVVXFKDVWKH=XOXNLQJGRP

z 7KHGLVFRYHU\RIGLDPRQGVKRZHYHUSURPSWHGWKH%ULWLVKWRDQQH[
PXFKPRUHODQGDQGWKHVHQLRU%ULWLVKDGPLQLVWUDWRUVFRQFRFWHGD
SODQWRFUHDWHDQHZ%ULWLVKFRQWUROOHGFRQIHGHUDWLRQLQFRUSRUDWLQJ
the previously independent groups.

z 6HHLQJ WKH =XOX QDWLRQ DV DQ LPSHGLPHQW WR WKLV VFKHPH WKH
DGPLQLVWUDWRUV ZKR KDG SUHYLRXVO\ KDG DPLFDEOH UHODWLRQV ZLWK
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them. They found it in a minor border dispute between the Zulus
and some Boers.

z Chelmsford was put in charge of an offensive against the Zulus and

Lecture 16—Isandlwana: 25,000 Zulus Undetected—1879

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DUP\ LQWR D WKUHHSURQJHG DVVDXOW ZLWK KLPVHOI OHDGLQJ WKH PDLQ
central column.

The Horns of the Bull

z .LQJ &HWVKZD\R FDOOHG XS WKH YDULRXV amabutho UHJLPHQWV
DQGDQDUP\RIDQHVWLPDWHGPHQJDWKHUHGDWKLVFDSLWDO
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thrust and recognized that their best chance was to concentrate
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Cetshwayo designated small detachments to harry and delay
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against the center one.

z When word came that the British center column had crossed into
=XOXWHUULWRU\WKH=XOXDUP\VHWRIIWRLQWHUFHSWLW%\-DQXDU\
WKH\KDGPRYHGWRZLWKLQ¿YHPLOHVRIWKH%ULWLVK$IWHUFURVVLQJ
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RXWFURS FDOOHG ,VDQGOZDQD +LOO HUHFWLQJWKHLU WHQWV LQ D ORQJ OLQH

110
 Chelmsford considered the Isandlwana camp a temporary stop and
did not think it worth the effort to fortify.

z 7KHQH[WGD\&KHOPVIRUGVHQWRXWVFRXWLQJSDUWLHVLQDQXPEHURI
GLUHFWLRQV6HYHUDORIWKHVHUHSRUWHGHQFRXQWHULQJJURXSVRI=XOXV
but it was not until after nightfall that word came of at least several
hundred Zulus in some nearby hills. This was not the main Zulu
DUP\ZKLFKUHPDLQHGXQGLVFRYHUHG
ż &KHOPVIRUG GHFLGHG WR WDNH DERXW KDOI KLV WURRSV DQG WZR
thirds of his cannons and try to catch the group his scouts had
sighted—a move that would divide his force yet again. He
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UHDULQVWUXFWLQJKLPWRSURFHHGWRWKHPDLQFDPSZLWKKLVRZQ
column of mounted native troops.

ż &KHOPVIRUGURGHRXWEHIRUHGDZQEXWZKHQKHDQGKLVIRUFH
DUULYHGLQWKHKLOOVWKH\HQFRXQWHUHGRQO\VPDOOLVRODWHGEDQGV
of Zulus.

z 0HDQZKLOH UHSRUWV KDG EHJXQ WR DUULYH RI D ODUJH FRQWLQJHQW RI
=XOXVPRYLQJWRZDUGWKHFDPS7KHRI¿FHULQFKDUJH3XOOHLQHVHQW
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line several hundred yards in front of the tents. Durnford arrived
and decided to take some of his cavalry to reconnoiter the terrain in
IURQWRIWKHULJKWVLGHRIWKHFDPS,QFOXGLQJ'XUQIRUG¶VFRPSDQ\
WKHUHZHUHQRZDERXWPHQLQDQGDURXQGWKHFDPS

z $ERXW IRXU PLOHV IURP FDPS RQH RI 3XOOHLQH¶V VFRXWLQJ JURXSV
spotted a few Zulus shepherding a herd of cows over the top of a
ridge and pursued them. As the scouts rode over the crest of the
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UHJLPHQWV$VRQHWKLVPDVVRIZDUULRUVURVHXSDQGVSUDQJWRZDUG
WKHWHUUL¿HGVFRXWV7KHVFRXWV¿UHGRIIDYROOH\DQGÀHGEHIRUHWKH
onrushing tide of Zulus.

z The Zulu regiments ran after the retreating scouts in the direction of
WKHFDPS$OWKRXJKWKHEDWWOHKDGVWDUWHGLQDVSRQWDQHRXVPDQQHU

111
 WKH UHJLPHQWV VKRRN WKHPVHOYHV RXW LQWR WKH FODVVLF KRUQVRIWKH
bull formation. Durnford’s group then ran into the approaching left
horn of the Zulu army.
ż 'XUQIRUGKDGKLVPHQGLVPRXQWWDNHVKHOWHULQDJXOOH\DQG
RSHQ¿UH7KLVVORZHGWKHRQUXVKRIWKH=XOXVEXWWKHUHZHUH
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fought a slow retreat toward the camp.

ż A small unit of artillerymen with rockets set up their rocket

launchers but managed to shoot off only a single rocket before
they were overrun and killed.

z %DFNDWWKHFDPSWKHWHUUDLQKLGWKHPRYHPHQWVRIWKHHQFLUFOLQJ
OHIW KRUQ EXW WKH ULJKW KRUQ DQG WKH VROLG ERG\ RI WKH FKHVW
regiments were seen approaching. The thin line of British troops
RSHQHG ¿UH DQG WKH WZR FDQQRQV MRLQHG LQ &RQIURQWHG E\ WKLV
Lecture 16—Isandlwana: 25,000 Zulus Undetected—1879

VXEVWDQWLDO¿UHSRZHUWKH=XOXDGYDQFHJURXQGWRDKDOW7KH=XOXV
replied with their guns and sought to crawl forward during the
pauses between volleys.

z $V PRUH =XOXV DSSHDUHG 3XOOHLQH¶V OLQH FRQWUDFWHG 'XUQIRUG¶V

company eventually made a stand along the lip of a gulley just to
the right and in front of the main line.
ż )RU D VKRUW ZKLOH WKHUH ZDV D VWDOHPDWH EXW DJJUHVVLYH
JURXSVRI=XOXVEHJDQWRPRYHDURXQGWKHÀDQNVRI'XUQIRUG
DQG RWKHU H[SRVHG XQLWV WR LQ¿OWUDWH EHWZHHQ WKH VFDWWHUHG
clusters of British soldiers. With Zulus now coming at him
IURPERWKVLGHVDQGWKHIURQW'XUQIRUGRUGHUHGKLVPHQWR
fall back.

ż :LWK WKHLU ZLWKGUDZDO WKH HQWLUH ULJKW ÀDQN RI WKH PDLQ OLQH
was now exposed. Some of the native infantry began to drop
EDFNWRZDUGWKHFDPSVRRQWKHHQWLUHOLQHFROODSVHG

z 7KH %ULWLVK WULHG WR IDOO EDFN DQG IRUP D VKRUWHU PRUH GHIHQVLEOH
OLQHQHDUWKHWHQWVEXWWKH=XOXVUXVKHGIRUZDUGVRTXLFNO\WKDWWKH\

112
 EHFDPH LQWHUPLQJOHG ZLWK WKH ÀHHLQJ UHGFRDWV DQG WKH VLWXDWLRQ
GHYROYHGLQWRFKDRV6RPHZKHUHLQWKHPHOHH3XOOHLQHZDVVODLQ
as was Durnford.

z 7KHVXUYLYRUVQRZVRXJKWWRÀHHEDFNWRZDUGWKHULYHUDQGHVFDSH
EXWPRVWZHUHFDXJKWE\WKHRQUXVKLQJKRUQVUXQWRJURXQGDQG
VODXJKWHUHG 7RR ODWH &KHOPVIRUG JRW QHZV RI WKH PDVVDFUH DQG
PDUFKHG EDFN DUULYLQJ QHDU GDUN WR ¿QG WKH FDPS ORRWHG DQG
DEDQGRQHG ZLWK QRWKLQJ UHPDLQLQJ EXW EORRGVRDNHG ERGLHV
0RUHWKDQ%ULWLVKKDGEHHQNLOOHG7RWDO=XOXFDVXDOWLHVZHUH
probably similar.

Summing Up Isandlwana
z 7RDYHQJHWKHGHIHDWDW,VDQGOZDQDWKH%ULWLVKRUJDQL]HGDODUJHU
PRUHFDUHIXOO\H[HFXWHGLQYDVLRQ,QDVHULHVRIEDWWOHVWKH=XOXV
ZHUHGHIHDWHG&HWVKZD\RZDVGHSRVHGDQGWKH=XOXNLQJGRPZDV
broken up.

z ,Q HDUOLHU DFFRXQWV RI ,VDQGOZDQD VHYHUDO WKHRULHV ZHUH SXW

forward to explain the British defeat. One of the most commonly
repeated of these is that the British line in front of the camp was
holding back the Zulus—until they ran out of ammunition. Recent
DUFKDHRORJLFDO¿QGVKRZHYHULQGLFDWHWKDWVXI¿FLHQWDPPXQLWLRQ
was reaching the troops.

z $OWKRXJKWKH%ULWLVKPDGHDQXPEHURIVHULRXVHUURUVWKHLUGHIHDW
at Isandlwana was as much a result of the bravery and skill of the
Zulus.
ż In deciding to concentrate their entire army against a single
LVRODWHG DQG YXOQHUDEOH %ULWLVK FROXPQ WKH =XOX JHQHUDOV
demonstrated a sound sense of strategy. Bringing their army
so close to the enemy camp without being detected took
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KRPH WKHLU FKDUJH HYHQ LQ WKH IDFH RI VXVWDLQHG ¿UH WKH
Zulus warriors displayed great individual courage and
determination.

113
 ż $W WKH WLPH UDFLVW DWWLWXGHV GLFWDWHG WKDW VXFK D FDWDVWURSKLF
GHIHDWPXVWVXUHO\EHGXHWR%ULWLVKHUURUVUDWKHUWKDQ=XOXVNLOO
DQGWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHKDVLQÀXHQFHGVXEVHTXHQWDFFRXQWVRIWKH
EDWWOH7RGD\LWLVSRVVLEOHWRVD\WKDWWKHRXWFRPHRI,VDQGOZDQD
ZDV VKDSHG E\ %ULWLVK RYHUFRQ¿GHQFH DQG PLVFDOFXODWLRQ DV
well as by the resolution and cleverness of their foes.

Suggested Reading

.QLJKWZulu Rising.
/RFNDQG4XDQWULOOZulu Victory.

Questions to Consider

1. We often assume that superior technology translates into domination on

Lecture 16—Isandlwana: 25,000 Zulus Undetected—1879

WKHEDWWOH¿HOG,QZKDWZD\VGLGWKH=XOXVFRPSHQVDWHIRUWKHLULQIHULRU
technology?

2. Would you consider the outcome of this battle more the result of British
blunders or Zulu skill?

114
 Adwa: Italy’s Fiasco in Ethiopia—1896
Lecture 17

T
he 19th century was a time of vigorous colonial expansion by Western
LQGXVWULDOL]HGQDWLRQV$VSDUWRIWKLVSURFHVVLQQXPHUDEOHLQGLJHQRXV
peoples were defeated and subjugated by means of military force. In
WKLV OLWDQ\ RI LPSHULDOLVP KRZHYHU WKH %DWWOH RI $GZD VWDQGV RXW 7KHUH
the Ethiopians beat an Italian army intent on turning their country into an
RYHUVHDVSRVVHVVLRQRI,WDO\$VZH¶YHVHHQVXFKXSVHWVGLGKDSSHQEXW$GZD
LVDQRPDORXVIRUWZRUHDVRQV)LUVWWKH(WKLRSLDQVXVHGWHFKQRORJ\WKDWZDV
HTXDO²RU HYHQ VXSHULRU²WR WKDW RI WKH FRORQLDO SRZHU 0RUH LPSRUWDQWO\
WKHLUYLFWRU\KDGSHUPDQHQFH,WGHFLVLYHO\HQGHGWKHZDUDQG(WKLRSLDJDLQHG
international legitimacy and recognition as an independent African nation.

Ethiopia and Italy

z ,Q2WWRYRQ%LVPDUFNWKHFKDQFHOORURI*HUPDQ\KRVWHGWKH
%HUOLQ&RQIHUHQFHDWZKLFKWKHPDMRU(XURSHDQVWDWHVKDGGLYLGHG
XS QHDUO\ DOO RI $IULFD LQWR VSKHUHV RI LQÀXHQFH $PRQJ ,WDO\¶V
allotted share were Eritrea and Somalia in East Africa. Sandwiched
between these was one of the few remaining independent African
QDWLRQV(WKLRSLD,WDO\FRYHWHGWKDWFRXQWU\DQGEHJDQWRORRNIRU
ways to extend its dominion over it.

z (WKLRSLDZDVFRPSRVHGRIDQXPEHURINLQJGRPVHDFKZLWKLWVRZQ
PRQDUFKEXWWKHUHZDVDOVRDQHPSHURU²QDPHG<RKDQQHV²ZKR
UXOHGRYHUDOORIWKHP,QWKHDIWHUPDWKRIWKH%HUOLQ&RQIHUHQFH
there were a number of skirmishes between Ethiopia and the
,WDOLDQV7KHVHHDUO\HQFRXQWHUVJDYHWKH,WDOLDQVDIDOVHFRQ¿GHQFH
WKDW LQ D VWUDLJKW EDWWOH WKH\ FRXOG HDVLO\ RYHUFRPH HYHQ ODUJH
numbers of Ethiopians.

z (WKLRSLDQSROLWLFVRIWKLVHUDZHUHFRPSOLFDWHG,QDGGLWLRQWR,WDO\
DQRWKHU H[WHUQDO WKUHDW ZDV SRVHG E\ (J\SW ZKLFK KDG LQYDGHG
(WKLRSLDLQ,QWHUQDOO\WKHUHZDVVWULIHEHWZHHQWKHQRUWKHUQDQG
southern areas of Ethiopia and power struggles over the throne. The

115
 ,WDOLDQVZHUHDEOHWRSOD\RIIWKHVHFRQÀLFWVEDFNLQJRQHRUDQRWKHU
RIWKHIDFWLRQVLQUHWXUQIRUH[SDQGLQJWKHLULQÀXHQFHDQGWHUULWRU\

z 2QHRIWKHPDLQFRQWHQGHUVIRUSRZHULQ(WKLRSLDZDV0HQHOLN,,
the king of the southern Shoa region. Menelik had given nominal
VXEPLVVLRQ WR WKH FXUUHQW HPSHURU EXW KH SODLQO\ GUHDPHG RI
VHL]LQJ WKH WKURQH IRU KLPVHOI (DJHU WR H[SDQG LQWR (WKLRSLD WKH
Italians sought to take advantage of this internal power struggle by
SURYLGLQJ DLG WR 0HQHOLN KRSLQJ WKDW LI KH ZRQ KH ZRXOG JUDQW
them territorial concessions and favor them in his policy.

z One of the main items that Menelik consistently sought to gain in

his dealings with Europeans was modern weapons. In the course of
QHJRWLDWLRQVZLWKWKH,WDOLDQVDQGRWKHUVKHKDGDFTXLUHGWKRXVDQGV
RIH[FHOOHQWPRGHUQULÀHVDPPXQLWLRQDQGDVXEVWDQWLDOQXPEHURI
TXLFN¿ULQJORQJUDQJHFDQQRQV

z :KHQWKHFXUUHQWHPSHURU<RKDQQHVZDVNLOOHGLQ0HQHOLN¶V
FKDQFH WR VHL]H SRZHU DUULYHG $LGHG E\ KLV PRGHUQ ZHDSRQV
Lecture 17—Adwa: Italy’s Fiasco in Ethiopia—1896

he made himself ruler of the country. He then sought to reach

an accommodation with his Italian backers. In a treaty signed in
5RPH0HQHOLNDFNQRZOHGJHG,WDOLDQFRQWURORYHU(ULWUHDDQGVRPH
coastal regions in return for Italy’s recognition of him as emperor of
Ethiopia. It seemed an amicable agreement but contained within it
was one section that would lead to war.
ż ,QWKHYHUVLRQRIWKHWUHDW\ZULWWHQLQ,WDOLDQWKHZRUGLQJRIRQH
clause essentially stated that Ethiopia would have its foreign
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(WKLRSLD¶VODQJXDJHWKHVDPHFODXVHVHHPHGWRDOORZ0HQHOLN
to conduct his own foreign policy. The difference in terminology
ZDVVXEWOHEXWWKHGLVSDULW\LQPHDQLQJZDVHQRUPRXV

ż :KHQ 0HQHOLN IRXQG RXW DERXW WKH ,WDOLDQ YHUVLRQ KH IHOW
betrayed. When the Italians insisted that he yield to their
GHVLUHVLQDOOGLSORPDWLFPDWWHUVKHUHSXGLDWHGWKHWUHDW\,WDO\
MXPSHGRQWKLVDVDSUHWH[WWRWXUQ(WKLRSLDLQWRDFRORQ\DQG
WKXVWKHZDUEHJDQ

116
Confrontation in Ethiopia
z The Italian general tasked with invading Ethiopia was the governor
RI (ULWUHD 2UHVWH %DUDWLHUL +H KDG DQ DUP\ RI MXVW XQGHU 
PHQRUJDQL]HGLQWRIRXUEULJDGHV7KUHHZHUHPDGHXSRI,WDOLDQ
WURRSV ZKLOH RQH EULJDGH ZDV FRPSRVHG RI$VNDUL QDWLYH WURRSV
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DQG VORZHU ¿ULQJ WKDQ 0HQHOLN¶V DUWLOOHU\ 7R PHHW WKH LQYDVLRQ
regions throughout Ethiopia contributed large contingents of troops.

z The Italians would come from the north. Starting out from his
VWURQJKROG LQ WKH VRXWK 0HQHOLN EHJDQ DQ HSLF PDUFK DFURVV WKH
OHQJWK RI (WKLRSLD DPDVVLQJ VROGLHUV DV KH ZHQW (YHQWXDOO\ KLV
DUP\ SUREDEO\ QXPEHUHG DURXQG  ZDUULRUV DQG PRUH WKDQ
FDQQRQ$VWKHWZRDUPLHVGUHZWRJHWKHUHDFKVLGHZDQWHGWKH
other to be the attacker in order to gain the advantage of defending
a prepared position; the result was a standoff.

z 7KH SULPH PLQLVWHU RI ,WDO\ &ULVSL JUHZ LQFUHDVLQJO\ IUXVWUDWHG

with this inaction and dispatched a series of angry telegrams to
%DUDWLHUL )LQDOO\ KH GHFLGHG WR KDYH %DUDWLHUL UHPRYHG IURP
FRPPDQG EXW FRXOG QRW UHVLVW VHQGLQJ KLP RQH ¿QDO SURYRFDWLYH
message that verged on calling him a coward. Stung by this and
ZLWK KLV VXERUGLQDWHV DJLWDWLQJ IRU DFWLRQ %DUDWLHUL DJUHHG WR
DGYDQFH WRZDUG 0HQHOLN¶V DUP\ ZKLFK ZDV HQFDPSHG QHDU WKH
town of Adwa.

z Baratieri devised a plan in which three of the four brigades of the

Italian army would advance during the night and take up positions
DORQJ D OLQH GH¿QHG E\ WKUHH PRXQWDLQV DQG WKH WZR SDVVHV
separating them.
ż General Dabormida’s brigade would deploy in the northern
pass; General Albertone would position his men in the
VRXWKHUQSDVVDQG*HQHUDO$ULPRQGHZLWKWKHFHQWHUEULJDGH
would array his men on the forward slope of the mountain
that lay between them. Baratieri and the fourth brigade would
act as a reserve.

117
 ż The idea was that this forward deployment would goad
Menelik into launching a frontal assault against these strong
SRVLWLRQVIURPZKLFKWKHGLVFLSOLQHG,WDOLDQVFRXOGEUHDNWKH
larger Ethiopian army.

z $OWKRXJK SHUKDSV QRW EULOOLDQW LW ZDV DW OHDVW D YLDEOH SODQ EXW
QHDUO\ HYHU\WKLQJ ZHQW ZURQJ ZLWK LWV H[HFXWLRQ 7R EHJLQ ZLWK
there was confusion over whether the Italian units were merely
supposed to move into these positions and hold or were meant to
attack.
ż *HQHUDO $OEHUWRQH¶V EULJDGH FKDUJHG ZLWK RFFXS\LQJ WKH
VRXWKHUQSDVVZDVPDGHXSRIIRXUEDWWDOLRQVRI$VNDUL7KH
leading battalion quickly reached its assigned position and
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JRQHIDUHQRXJKRUGHUHGWKHPWRFRQWLQXH

ż %\GDZQWKLVOHDGEDWWDOLRQKDGUHDFKHGWKHHGJHRI0HQHOLN¶V
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Lecture 17—Adwa: Italy’s Fiasco in Ethiopia—1896

RXW RI WKHLU WHQWV E\ WKH VRXQG RI JXQ¿UH WKH (WKLRSLDQV
attacked in waves that grew steadily larger.

ż 7KH ,WDOLDQV LQÀLFWHG KHDY\ FDVXDOWLHV EXW VWRRG OLWWOH FKDQFH

6RRQWKHKLJKTXDOLW\ULÀHVRIWKH(WKLRSLDQVZHUHMRLQHGE\
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even more perilous. The other three battalions of Albertone’s
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IRUZDUGIURPZKHUH%DUDWLHULKDGLQWHQGHGDQGWKXVXQDEOHWR
get support from the rest of the army.

z Baratieri had no choice but to try to assist Albertone’s stranded

brigade. He ordered Dabormida in the northern pass to take
his brigade forward and deploy slightly behind and to the side
RI $OEHUWRQH WKXV OLQNLQJ WKHP WRJHWKHU LQ D GHIHQVLYH OLQH
'DERUPLGDPRYHGRXWEXWZKHQKHFDPHWRDIRUNLQWKHURDGKH
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from the action.

118
 z Menelik now saw a golden opportunity to split the Italian army and
destroy it piecemeal. He drove a large force of his men into the gap
between Albertone’s and Dabormida’s brigades. Albertone’s group
EURNHZLWKPHQDWWHPSWLQJWRÀHHEDFNWRZDUGWKHUHVWRIWKHDUP\

z %\ QRZ WKH FHQWHU EULJDGHV ZHUH DOVR XQGHU DVVDXOW DQG WKH
reserves were trying to shore up the crumbling situation. With most
RI WKH ,WDOLDQV FDXJKW RXW RI SRVLWLRQ WKH (WKLRSLDQV ZHUH DEOH WR
RFFXS\VWUHWFKHVRIKLJKJURXQGDQGSRXU¿UHGRZQRQWKHP7KH
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made particularly good targets for the Ethiopian marksmen. Of 610
,WDOLDQRI¿FHUVLQWKHDUP\EHFDPHFDVXDOWLHV

z Dabormida’s isolated northern battalion had set itself up in a steep

YDOOH\WKXVUHPRYHGIURPWKHNH\]RQHRIWKHEDWWOHWKHVHPHQZHUH
UHODWLYHO\ LJQRUHG IRU D ZKLOH E\ WKH (WKLRSLDQV 1RZ WKH\ WRR
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KDGEHHQVKDWWHUHGDQGWKHVXUYLYRUVZHUHÀHHLQJEDFNZDUGV

z The number of Italians killed is estimated to have been around

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FDVXDOWLHV ZDV SUREDEO\ VOLJKWO\ JUHDWHU $Q DGGLWLRQDO 
Italians soldiers were captured by the Ethiopians. In keeping with
D ORFDO FXVWRP RI WURSK\ WDNLQJ VRPH RI WKH ,WDOLDQ GHDG DQG
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from European nations.

Errors of the Italians

z 7KHYLFWRU\DW$GZDHQGHGWKH,WDOLDQFDPSDLJQWRDQQH[(WKLRSLD
and the country gained international recognition. Menelik ruled
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PDUWLDOHG$OWKRXJKDFTXLWWHGKLVPLOLWDU\FDUHHUZDVRYHUDQGKH
went into retirement.

z The Italians made a number of fundamental errors that resulted in

WKHLU GHIHDW DW$GZD 7DNLQJ D ELJSLFWXUH YLHZ RQH FRXOG DUJXH

119
 that the entire effort to transform Ethiopia into an Italian colony
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PDWHULDOVRUDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWVWKXVLWVFRQTXHVWGLGQRWPDNH
much economic sense. Italian colonialism in East Africa seems to
have been driven more by the desire of some Italian politicians to
gain prestige for their country.

z $VIRUWKHDWWDFNLWVHOILWVXIIHUHGIURPSUREOHPVDWHYHU\OHYHO,WV
SXUSRVH ZDV XQFOHDU ZLWK ERWK RI¿FHUV DQG PHQ XQFHUWDLQ DERXW
whether they were intended to assault the Ethiopian positions or
advance and try to provoke an attack. This failure was exacerbated
by the behavior and attitudes of the generals in charge of the main
EULJDGHV 1RW RQO\ ZHUH WKH\ WRXFK\ DQG DUURJDQW EXW WKH\ ZHUH
also in disagreement over strategy and failed to cooperate.

z 2YHUFRQ¿GHQFHODFNRIFODULW\SLJKHDGHGQHVVPLVFDOFXODWLRQDQG
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net result was one of the greatest victories of an indigenous people
over an imperial power during the era of colonization.
Lecture 17—Adwa: Italy’s Fiasco in Ethiopia—1896

Suggested Reading

-RQDVThe Battle of Adwa.

Questions to Consider

1. 7KH HIIHFWV RI WKH %DWWOH RI$GZD GH¿HG WKH XVXDO SDWWHUQ RI FRORQLDO
ZDUIDUHLQWKDWWKHLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOHDFKLHYHGORQJWHUPLQGHSHQGHQFH
What made things different in this case?

2. Do you think the Italians deliberately misled Menelik with the wording
of clause 17 in the treaty?

120
 Colenso: The Second Boer War—1899
Lecture 18

B
y the close of the 19thFHQWXU\PLOLWDU\WHFKQRORJ\KDGDGYDQFHGWR
the point where the tactics that had served the British Empire well
during the Napoleonic Wars and most of the subsequent century were
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ZRXOG FROOLGH ZLWK QHZ ZHDSRQV DQG WDFWLFV GXULQJ WKH 6HFRQG %RHU:DU
fought between the British and the Boers in South Africa.

Background on the Boers

z The Boers (“farmers”) were the descendants of mostly Dutch
immigrants who had settled around the Cape of Africa in the
17th century.
ż When the British arrived in the 17thFHQWXU\WKHLQGHSHQGHQW
minded Boers resented the idea of submitting to British
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elsewhere in Africa.

ż 7KH\ IRXQGHG WZR %RHU UHSXEOLFV WKH 2UDQJH )UHH 6WDWH DQG
WKH7UDQVYDDOEXWWKHUHZHUHRQJRLQJFRQÀLFWVZLWKWKH%ULWLVK
and with the indigenous African civilizations. The discovery of
diamonds and gold created yet more friction among these groups.

ż An abortive attempt to seize their lands by force masterminded

by British magnate Cecil Rhodes further alienated the Boers.
Tensions increased until war was declared in October of 1899.

z The culture of the Boers was suspicious of formal structures and

LQVWLWXWLRQVWKXVWKH%RHUVVHHPHGLOOVXLWHGWRWDNHRQWKHKLJKO\
RUJDQL]HGDQGGLVFLSOLQHG%ULWLVKDUP\7KH%RHUVKRZHYHUZHUH

121
 IURPWRXJKIDUPHUVWRFNDQGKDGH[FHOOHQW¿HOGFUDIWVNLOOV,QWLPHV
RIZDUWKH\JDWKHUHGLQORRVHJURXSVNQRZQDVcommandosPDNLQJ
DIRUPLGDEOHIRUFHZHOOVXLWHGWRDKLWDQGUXQVW\OHRIZDUIDUH

z -XVWEHIRUHWKHRXWEUHDNRIZDUWKH%RHUJRYHUQPHQWKDGLPSRUWHG
DYDVWTXDQWLW\RIPRGHUQWHFKQRORJLFDOO\VRSKLVWLFDWHG¿UHDUPV
LQFOXGLQJ *HUPDQPDGH 0DXVHU ULÀHV ,Q FRQWUDVW WR WKH ULÀH
EHLQJXVHGE\%ULWLVKWURRSVLQWRZKLFKEXOOHWVKDGWREHLQVHUWHG
RQHE\RQHWKH0DXVHUHPSOR\HGD¿YHEXOOHWFOLSDOORZLQJIRU
swift reloading.

Lead-Up to Colenso
z $WWKHRXWVHWRIWKHZDUWKH%RHUVEHVLHJHGVHYHUDOWRZQVLQFOXGLQJ
/DG\VPLWK :KHQ *HQHUDO 5HGYHUV %XOOHU D VROGLHU RI WKH ROG
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holding a defensive line along the Thukela River. Buller needed
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but the Boers held the crossings and were dug in on high ground
overlooking the river.
Lecture 18—Colenso: The Second Boer War—1899

z ,Q 'HFHPEHU RI  WKH

British suffered embarrassing
defeats at Stormberg and
0DJHUVIRQWHLQSXWWLQJSUHVVXUH
on Buller to score a victory.
Although he had originally
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© Photos.com/Thinkstock.

he now unwisely felt the need

for an immediate assault. This
would take place near the town
of Colenso.
z The commander in chief of the
Boers facing Buller was Louis
%RWKD ZKR KDG UHFHQWO\ EHHQ
given the position. Botha had
In the aftermath of Colenso and
another defeat at the Battle of
Spion Kop, Redvers Buller’s
reputation was so low that critics
derisively called him “Reverse”
Buller.

122
 RQO\DPLQLPDOHGXFDWLRQEXWKHZDVLQWHOOLJHQWDQGDQDWXUDODQG
inspiring leader.

Three-Pronged Assault
z Botha had the Boers dig a series of trenches and foxholes along the
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z $OWKRXJK WKH %ULWLVK RXWQXPEHUHG WKH %RHUV E\ DERXW  WR
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the area and rudimentary intelligence about the Boer positions.

z 7KH VFKHPH WKDW %XOOHU FDPH XS ZLWK FDOOHG IRU D WKUHHSURQJHG
assault.
ż 2Q WKH OHIW +DUW¶V ,ULVK %ULJDGH ZRXOG KHDG WRZDUG D IRUG
where they would cross the river and engage the Boers. In the
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attacks would be supported by several batteries of cannons that
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heads of the attacking British troops.

ż 7KH SODQ ZDV VWUDLJKWIRUZDUG DQG XQLPDJLQDWLYH FRQVLVWLQJ

RI KHDGRQ DVVDXOWV DJDLQVW VWURQJ GHIHQVLYH SRVLWLRQV %XOOHU
seems not to have realized that the hill of Hlangwane was
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JXQ¿UH FRXOG EH GLUHFWHG GRZQ LQWR WKH WUHQFKHV RI WKH %RHU
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ż $ EHWWHU VWUDWHJ\ IRU WKH EDWWOH PLJKW KDYH IRFXVHG RQ ¿UVW
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had been driven from their entrenchments.

123
 z 7KHFRPPDQGHURIWKHPDLQDUWLOOHU\VHFWLRQZDV&RORQHO/RQJDQ
LPSHWXRXVDQGDJJUHVVLYHRI¿FHUZKREHOLHYHGWKDWDUWLOOHU\VKRXOG
EH XVHG DW SRLQWEODQN UDQJH /RQJ FRPPDQGHG D EDWWHU\ RI 
FDQQRQVZKLFKKHSXVKHGDKHDGRIWKHLQIDQWU\DQGGUHZXSLQDQHDW
row only 700 yards from the river. This forward positioning placed
the cannons and their crews within range of the Boers in their pits.

z 7KH %RHUV WRRN DGYDQWDJH RI WKLV WDUJHW XQOHDVKLQJ D GHDGO\ ¿UH
WKDWNLOOHGRUZRXQGHGVL[RIWKHDUWLOOHU\RI¿FHUVLQWKH¿UVWFRXSOH
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OD\GHDGPRUHZHUHZRXQGHGDQGWKHJXQVZHUHUXQQLQJORZ
on ammunition. The battered survivors ran back to the cover of a
GHHSJXOOH\DEDQGRQLQJWKHLUURZRIFDQQRQV

z 0HDQZKLOH RQ WKH OHIW +DUW¶V ,ULVK %ULJDGH KDG PDGH DQ HTXDOO\
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RUGHUHGWLJKWO\SDFNHGUDQNV
Lecture 18—Colenso: The Second Boer War—1899

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ZDV VXSSRVHG WR VKRZ WKHP WKH ORFDWLRQ RI D IRUG ,QVWHDG
WKH JXLGH OHG WKHP WR D GHHS QDUURZ EHQG 7KLV ORRS ZDV
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+DUW¶VPHQPDUFKHGLQIRUPDWLRQ

ż $JDLQWKH%RHUVZHUHSUHVHQWHGZLWKDQLUUHVLVWLEOHWDUJHWDQG
XQOHDVKHGDZLWKHULQJ¿UHIURPWKHLU0DXVHUV+DUWXUJHGKLV
PHQIRUZDUGZKHUHWKH\FURZGHGLQWRWKHHQFORVHGHQGRIWKH
ORRSWKHQPLOOHGDERXWFRQIXVHGO\

ż Some desperate soldiers threw themselves into the river and

attempted to swim across but were either drowned or shot.
:KHQ VRPH RI WKH RI¿FHUV EHJDQ WR GLVSHUVH WKH PHQ WR
PDNHWKHPPRUHGLI¿FXOWWDUJHWV+DUWDQJULO\RUGHUHGWKHP
EDFNLQWRFORVHUDQNV)LQDOO\DIWHUDQKRXUWKHEULJDGHZDV
RUGHUHG WR ZLWKGUDZ ,Q WKDW WLPH WKH\ KDG VXIIHUHG 
casualties.

124
z The other main prong of the assault under Hildyard got started a
little later and managed to move toward the town of Colenso.
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RUGHUZKLFKGLGQRWPDNHWKHPDVHDV\DWDUJHW1HYHUWKHOHVVWKH\
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SUHVVHGIRUZDUGWRWKHHGJHRIWKHWRZQDQGWRRNFRYHUUHWXUQLQJ
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EXWZLWKWKHRYHUDOODWWDFNFRPSOHWHO\VWDOOHGWKH\FRXOGQRWFURVV
WKHULYHUDQGHYHQWXDOO\UHWUHDWHGDVZHOO

z )LQDOO\ WKHUH ZDV WKH GLYHUVLRQDU\ DVVDXOW RQ +ODQJZDQH +LOO E\
Dundonald. He pushed his men in skirmish order up through the
EURNHQJURXQGDWWKHEDVHRIWKHKLOOZKLOHVHQGLQJVRPHDURXQG
WKH VLGH WR RXWÀDQN WKH %RHUV +H SUHVVHG WKH %RHUV KDUG EXW GLG
not have quite enough men to break the impasse and capture the
hill. He sent urgent messages asking for some of the reserves to be
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seize the important high ground was lost.

z 3DUW RI WKH SUREOHP ZDV %XOOHU ZKR VKRXOG KDYH VWD\HG DW KLV
central command post to oversee the battle and take advantage of
such opportunities. Instead he had become obsessed with recovering
the battery of 12 cannons that Long had abandoned out on the plain.
Buller had personally gone to the gulley in which the surviving
artillerymen were hiding to supervise the recovery attempts. This
effectively removed the commander in chief from playing any role
in the larger battle.

z Even though the battle had been going on for only a couple of hours
DQGKHVWLOOKDGDJRRGQXPEHURIKLVWRWDOIRUFHVXQFRPPLWWHGDIWHU
IDLOLQJWRUHFRYHUWKHFDQQRQV%XOOHUVHHPVWRKDYHORVWWKHDELOLW\
to objectively evaluate the situation. He abruptly called off the
attack and precipitously ordered everyone to retreat. The jubilant
%RHUVZHUHDEOHWRWDNHSRVVHVVLRQRI¿QHDUWLOOHU\SLHFHV

z 7RWDO %ULWLVK FDVXDOWLHV DW &ROHQVR ZHUH  NLOOHG ZRXQGHG

PLVVLQJRUFDSWXUHG2QWKH%RHUVLGHWKHUHZHUHIHZHUWKDQ

125
 FDVXDOWLHV:LWKSRRUVFRXWLQJXVHRIRXWGDWHGWDFWLFVDQGHUURUV
RI MXGJPHQW PDGH E\ WKH %ULWLVK FRPPDQGHUV LW KDG EHHQ D
thorough debacle.

End of the Boer War

z 6RPHZKDW EHODWHGO\ %XOOHU EHJDQ WR OHDUQ IURP KLV PLVWDNHV
+H ODXQFKHG DQRWKHU RIIHQVLYH WKLV WLPH JDWKHULQJ LQWHOOLJHQFH
on the route and the Boer positions. His men advanced in open
RUGHU PDNLQJ XVH RI DYDLODEOH FRYHU DQG QDWXUDO IHDWXUHV RI
the geography. Carefully aimed artillery softened up the Boer
GHIHQVHVDKHDGRIWKHWURRSVDQGDQLQQRYDWLYHcreeping barrage
RIFDQQRQ¿UHZDVXVHGWRJLYHWKHPFRYHUZKLOHDGYDQFLQJ%\
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continued toward Ladysmith.

z 0HDQZKLOHRQWKHRWKHUZHVWHUQIURQWRIWKHZDU/RUG5REHUWV
was appointed as commander. He managed to drive back the
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the main phase of war. Boer guerillas fought on for some time
Lecture 18—Colenso: The Second Boer War—1899

DQG KDUDVVHG WKH %ULWLVK ZLWK KLWDQGUXQ UDLGV 7R FXW RII
VXSSRUW IRU WKHP 5REHUWV FRQWURYHUVLDOO\ URXQGHG XS %RHU
families and imprisoned them. He also systematically burned and
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WKHUHDIWHUWKH8QLRQRI6RXWK$IULFDEHFDPHSDUWRIWKH%ULWLVK
Commonwealth.

z The Boer War plainly demonstrated that one era of military tactics
ZDVRYHUDQGWKHFRQÀLFWIRUHVKDGRZHGPDQ\RIWKHWHFKQLTXHV
that would feature in 20thFHQWXU\ ZDUIDUH 7KH REVROHVFHQFH
of these old methods was most clearly evident at the Battle
RI &ROHQVR ZKHUH WKH SLJKHDGHG GHWHUPLQDWLRQ RI WKH %ULWLVK
commanders to use outdated tactics resulted in an ineffectual
attack and turned what should have been a battle into little more
than target practice for the Boers.

126
 Suggested Reading

.QLJKWColenso, 1899.
3DNHQKDPThe Boer War.

Questions to Consider

1. $W WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKH 6HFRQG %RHU :DU WKH %ULWLVK ZHUH JXLOW\ RI
¿JKWLQJZLWKWKHWDFWLFVRI³WKHODVWZDU´:KDWDUHVRPHRWKHUH[DPSOHV
of this?

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JXHULOODVW\OHZDUIDUH"

127
 Tannenberg: Ineptitude in the East—1914
Lecture 19

I
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Alexander Samsonov stumbled through a swamp near the border of East
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5XVVLDQDUP\FRQGXFWLQJDVXFFHVVIXOLQYDVLRQLQWR*HUPDQWHUULWRU\%XW
the Germans had somehow turned the tables and encircled Samsonov’s army.
Attacks from every direction had fragmented his once seemingly invincible
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$URXQG  DP ZKHQ WKH UHIXJHHV SDXVHG IRU D UHVW 6DPVRQRY ZDONHG
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WKHPRVWGUDPDWLFHSLVRGHVRIWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DUWKH%DWWOHRI7DQQHQEHUJ

Early Invasion of France

z The years leading up to the outbreak of World War I had seen
Lecture 19—Tannenberg: Ineptitude in the East—1914

the European nations locking themselves into a complex web

of alliances and treaties. One major power block consisted of
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ZDVDFRDOLWLRQRI)UDQFH5XVVLDDQGWKH8QLWHG.LQJGRP

z :KHQ FRQWHPSODWLQJ ZDU *HUPDQ\¶V JUHDWHVW FKDOOHQJH ZDV WKH

fact that it was sandwiched between Russia and France. Realizing
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weeks. The plan called for committing seven of the eight German
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$UP\WRJXDUGWKHHDVWHUQERUGHUZLWK5XVVLD

z Although the main Russian armed forces would take several

PRQWKV WR PRELOL]H WKHLU )LUVW DQG 6HFRQG DUPLHV ZHUH DOUHDG\
stationed on the border. The German Eighth Army numbered about
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%HFDXVHRIWKLVWKH*HUPDQVH[SHFWHGWKHWZR5XVVLDQ

128
 armies to immediately advance into Germany when war broke
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DWWDFNHG )UDQFH WKH 5XVVLDQV ZHUH REOLJDWHG WR LQYDGH *HUPDQ\
within 15 days.

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GD\ WKH ZHVWHUQ *HUPDQ DUPLHV EHJDQ WKHLU GULYH WRZDUG 3DULV
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the border and began their promised attack. The German territory
they invaded was East Prussia.

z This territory was a sparsely inhabited zone composed of a mixture

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PLGGOHRIWKLV]RQHZHUHWKH0DVXULDQ/DNHVDPLOHQHWZRUNRI
waterways and bodies of water that constituted a formidable barrier.
The Masurian Lakes would create a natural split in the invading
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favored defense and impeded rapid movements.

z The man in charge of the German Eighth Army was General

Maximilian von Prittwitz. His Russian opponents were Pavel von
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6DPVRQRYWKHJHQHUDORIWKH5XVVLDQ6HFRQG$UP\
ż The Russian high command directed Rennenkampf and the
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went around the southern end. This pincer movement was
intended to catch the German Eighth Army between the two
Russian forces and annihilate it.

ż The two Russian generals were members of rival cliques in

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between them. Although they had been ordered to maintain
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probably impeded such cooperation.

129
 z The Russian invasion of East Prussia began promisingly. By August
 5HQQHNDPSI¶V QRUWKHUQ DUP\ KDG DGYDQFHG PRUH WKDQ 
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counterattack near the town of Gumbinnen.

z $IWHUVRPHEDFNDQGIRUWK¿JKWLQJWKH5XVVLDQKHDY\DUWLOOHU\KHOSHG
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seems to have been content with this relatively minor victory; further
pursuit of the Germans on his part would be lackadaisical.

z At roughly the same time that Prittwitz heard about the reversal at
*XPELQQHQDUHSRUWUHDFKHGKLPWKDWWKHVRXWKHUQ5XVVLDQ6HFRQG
Army was also advancing into East Prussia. Prittwitz seems to
have realized that he was in imminent danger of being encircled by
the Russians. He decided to abandon the region and withdraw his
DUP\PLOHVEHKLQGWKH9LVWXOD5LYHU3ULWWZLW]ZDV¿UHGE\WKH
German high command.
Lecture 19—Tannenberg: Ineptitude in the East—1914

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HPLQHQW JHQHUDOV ZDV FDOOHG LQ +LQGHQEXUJ¶V FKLHI RI VWDII ZDV
DQRWKHU JRRG FKRLFH (ULFK /XGHQGRUII DQ HQHUJHWLF DQG FUHDWLYH
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rushed toward the front to assume command.

A Bold German Plan

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+RIIPDQ VDZ D SRWHQWLDO RSSRUWXQLW\ LQ WKH 5XVVLDQ DGYDQFH
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Second armies did not seem to be coordinating their movements.
The units of the German Eighth Army were widely dispersed
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KRZHYHU WKH *HUPDQV FRQFHQWUDWHG DOO WKHLU XQLWV WRJHWKHU WKH\
might be able to take on one of the Russian armies on terms that
were close to equal.

130
z Hoffman proposed withdrawing all units that were currently
facing Rennenkampf in the north and concentrating them against
Samsonov’s army in the south. This was a risky move because if
5HQQHQNDPSIZHUHWRDGYDQFHPRUHDJJUHVVLYHO\WKHUHZRXOGEH
nothing to stop him. Another danger was that the Germans might
become trapped between the two Russian armies. Everything
depended on Rennenkampf maintaining his glacial pace and on the
two Russian armies failing to coordinate their movements.

z :KHQ +LQGHQEXUJ DQG /XGHQGRUII DUULYHG WKH\ TXLFNO\ FDPH

WR WKH VDPH FRQFOXVLRQ DV +RIIPDQ DQG WKH EROG SODQ ZDV SXW
LQWR DFWLRQ %HWZHHQ$XJXVW  DQG  WKH *HUPDQ XQLWV IDFLQJ
Rennenkampf marched swiftly southward to join up with their
comrades opposing Samsonov. Only a handful of cavalry was left
EHKLQGDVDÀLPV\VFUHHQ

z 'XULQJ WKLV WHQVH WLPH WKH *HUPDQV¶ UHVROYH WR SHUVLVW LQ WKHLU
maneuver was bolstered by several blunders made by the Russians.
ż (DUO\LQWKHLQYDVLRQDFRS\RIWKH5XVVLDQV¶SODQVKDGEHHQ
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that the two armies planned to proceed by separate paths
divided by the Masurian Lakes.

ż ,Q DGGLWLRQ WKH 5XVVLDQ DUPLHV¶ FRPPXQLFDWLRQ HTXLSPHQW

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listen in on these transmission.

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VXI¿FLHQW HIIRUW WR UHFRQQDLVVDQFH WR WUDFN WKH *HUPDQV¶
movements.

z %\ $XJXVW  WKH *HUPDQV KDG UHGHSOR\HG DQG ZHUH DVVDXOWLQJ
Samsonov from all sides. The Russian battalions were caught
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GHWHUPLQDWLRQ)RUWKHQH[WWKUHHGD\VWKH*HUPDQYLVHFRQWLQXHGWR
FORVHDURXQGWKH5XVVLDQVIRUFLQJWKHPLQWRDQHYHUVPDOOHUSRFNHW

131
 z Another factor that came into
play was the inadequate supply
system of the Russian army.
There were not enough transport
animals to carry the needed
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measures taken to keep the men

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fed were badly organized and
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were now in a weakened state
from lack of food.

z $OO WKLV WLPH +LQGHQEXUJ DQG For three days, Samsonov’s

Ludendorff anxiously watched battalions fought a nearly
continuous series of desperate
Rennenkampf’s army to the battles among the bogs and
north. If Rennenkampf were to forests of East Prussia, but they
WXUQVRXWKKHFRXOGHDVLO\SXVK were ultimately overcome by the
Germans.
aside the thin screening force
Lecture 19—Tannenberg: Ineptitude in the East—1914

and come crashing in on the

Germans from the rear. This was the crisis point of the battle; the
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WKH\QHHGHGWLPHWR¿QLVKLWVGHVWUXFWLRQ

z 5HQQHQNDPSI KRZHYHU FRQWLQXHG KLV FUDZOLQJ SURJUHVV GXH

ZHVWZDUG:KDWHYHUWKHFDXVHRIKLVIDLOXUHWRWXUQVRXWKWKHUHVXOW
was that the Germans were able to complete their destruction of the
Russian Second Army.

z %\$XJXVW6DPVRQRY¶VYDVWDUP\KDGEHHQFRPSOHWHO\VKDWWHUHG
DQG 5XVVLDQ UHVLVWDQFH KDG FUXPEOHG 7KDW QLJKW 6DPVRQRY
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incredible numbers of exhausted and demoralized Russian troops
began to surrender to the victorious German soldiers. The Russian
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ZRXQGHG$JDLQVWWKLVVKRFNLQJQXPEHU*HUPDQFDVXDOWLHVZHUHD
PHUHWR

132
Victory at Tannenberg
z The elated German commanders selected the name Tannenberg
IRU WKLV YLFWRU\ UHFDOOLQJ D FDWDVWURSKLF GHIHDW WKH *HUPDQV KDG
experienced in 1410. By giving the victorious 1914 battle the same
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disgrace of the earlier disaster.

z Hindenburg and Ludendorff now turned to the threat of

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6HSWHPEHU  WKH *HUPDQV EHJDQ DWWDFNLQJ WKH QRUWKHUQ 5XVVLDQ
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but was able to withdraw intact and remained a viable combat unit.

z The sequence of linked battles in East Prussia had ultimately been

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WKH5XVVLDQVKDGVXIIHUHGFDVXDOWLHVDQGORVWDJUHDWGHDO
of equipment; one army commander had committed suicide; and
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on this scale did not seriously weaken the overall strength of the
Russian army.

z 7KH UHDO VLJQL¿FDQFH RI WKH %DWWOH RI 7DQQHQEHUJ OLHV LQ WKH
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ż The Germans had launched their invasion of France with great
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victory in France was so certain it would be safe to remove two
army corps away from the offensive in France and send them
to reinforce the Eighth Army in East Prussia. But by the time
WKHVH IRUFHV KDG EHHQ WUDQVSRUWHG DFURVV *HUPDQ\ WKH %DWWOH
of Tannenberg was already won.

ż 0HDQZKLOHKRZHYHUWKHRIIHQVLYHLQ)UDQFHKDGERJJHGGRZQ
and was ultimately stopped just a few miles short of Paris at the
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the Germans might have succeeded in capturing Paris had the
attack in France not been fatally weakened at that key moment

133
 by sending these two army corps to East Prussia. If they had
FDSWXUHG 3DULV WKH *HUPDQV PLJKW KDYH ZRQ :RUOG :DU ,
and the subsequent course of the 20th century would have been
radically different.

Suggested Reading

6KRZDOWHUTannenberg.
6ZHHWPDQTannenberg, 1914.

Questions to Consider

1. $W 7DQQHQEHUJ WKH *HUPDQ FRPPDQGHUV WRRN D KXJH ULVN E\ OHDYLQJ
Rennenkampf unguarded while they concentrated against Samsonov. It
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ZDVLWDEULOOLDQWO\FDOFXODWHGULVNDQGZK\"
Lecture 19—Tannenberg: Ineptitude in the East—1914

2. If the Germans had not withdrawn the two army corps from the attack
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:RUOG:DU,KRZGR\RXWKLQNWKLVZRXOGKDYHFKDQJHGWKHKLVWRU\RI
the 20th century?

134
 Gallipoli: Churchill Dooms Allied Assault—1915
Lecture 20

A
IWHUWKHEDWWOHVRI7DQQHQEHUJDQGWKH0DUQH:RUOG:DU,ERJJHG
down into trench warfare. Britain’s leaders began to look for a way
to break this stalemate. Britain’s greatest area of advantage over
*HUPDQ\ ZDV LWV SRZHUIXO QDY\ WKXV :LQVWRQ &KXUFKLOO FDPH XS ZLWK D
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waterway separating Europe from Asia. It was believed that British warships
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DOO\²RXW RI WKH ZDU DQG IDFLOLWDWH FRPPXQLFDWLRQ ZLWK 5XVVLD )RU WKLV
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these were supplemented by the newer dreadnaught Queen Elizabeth and a
EDWWOHFUXLVHUWKH,QÀH[LEOH.

The Naval Campaign

z 7KH QDYDO DVVDXOW DW *DOOLSROL EHJDQ RQ )HEUXDU\   7HQ
British battleships cruised into the entrance of the Dardanelles
and engaged the Turkish guns on the shore. But after eight hours
RI VWHDG\ ERPEDUGPHQW QRW D VLQJOH 7XUNLVK FDQQRQ KDG EHHQ
destroyed. Although subsequent attacks achieved a bit more
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WKHLUDELOLW\WRGLVDEOHWKH7XUNLVKFDQQRQV'XULQJWKHQH[WPRQWK
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with minimal results.

z The British minesweeping efforts in the straits were even more

ineffectual. The navy had been unwilling to commit its frontline
PLQHVZHHSHUV WR WKH H[SHGLWLRQ DQG LQVWHDG KDG GLVSDWFKHG DQ
DVVRUWPHQWRIWUDZOHUVDQG¿VKLQJYHVVHOVPDQQHGE\XQWUDLQHG
civilian crews. These slow ships were easy targets for Turkish
gunners on shore.
ż (YHQWXDOO\ WKH FLYLOLDQV ZHUH UHSODFHG E\ YROXQWHHU QDY\
FUHZVEXWWKHVKLSVZHUHVLPSO\QRWXSWRWKHWDVN2XWRI

135
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to remove only 2 mines out of nearly 400.

ż Confronted with these failures and under increasing pressure

WR SURGXFH UHVXOWV WKH FRPPDQGHU RI WKH QDYDO VTXDGURQ
experienced a breakdown and had to be replaced.

z 3UREDEO\ XQZLVHO\ WKH QHZ DGPLUDO FRPPLWWHG KLPVHOI WR DQ DOO
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into the Dardanelles and blasted away at the defenses on shore.
$JDLQKRZHYHUWKHUHVXOWVZHUHQHJOLJLEOH
ż In return for destroying one large Turkish cannon and
WHPSRUDULO\ GLVDEOLQJ IRXU RWKHUV WKH QDYDO VTXDGURQ SDLG D
high price.
Lecture 20—Gallipoli: Churchill Dooms Allied Assault—1915

ż Three battleships struck mines and were sunk; three more

were severely damaged; and many other ships suffered lighter
GDPDJH2YHUDOORQHWKLUGRIWKHVTXDGURQZDVHLWKHUVXQNRU
disabled.

The Land Campaign

z Rather than cutting their losses and abandoning what was a bad
LGHDWRVWDUWZLWKWKH%ULWLVKQRZGHFLGHGWRFRPPLWDUP\WURRSVWR
an amphibious invasion aimed at seizing control of the straits. This
GHFLVLRQXQGHUPLQHGWKHRULJLQDOFRQFHSWRIWKHSODQZKLFKZDVWR
use naval power to assist the ground war in Europe without drawing
any troops away from that front.

z The man put in charge of the amphibious attack on Gallipoli

was General Ian Hamilton. Although he was an intelligent and
H[SHULHQFHGRI¿FHUKLVOHDGHUVKLSVW\OHZDVSDVVLYHDQGKDQGVRII
ZKHQ ZKDW ZDV QHHGHG LQ WKH FRPLQJ FDPSDLJQ ZDV D YLJRURXV
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capabilities and the terrain of the Gallipoli Peninsula.

136
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defended by only two Turkish divisions. When the ineffectual
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troops in the Gallipoli Peninsula with two more divisions.

z Hamilton devised an unnecessarily complicated plan that involved

seven different landing sites plus a diversionary attack. Hamilton’s
RUGHUVWRXQLWFRPPDQGHUVUDUHO\VSHFL¿HGFOHDUREMHFWLYHVOHDYLQJ
a number of the assault groups uncertain as to how far they should
advance or whether or not they were intended to constitute one of
the main attacks.

z 7KH ODQGLQJV EHJDQ RQ $SULO  6RPH  %ULWLVK WURRSV RI
the 29th DQG 5R\DO 1DYDO GLYLVLRQV ZHUH DVVLJQHG WR ODQG RQ ¿YH
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men of the 1st$XVWUDOLDQDQG1HZ=HDODQGGLYLVLRQVNQRZQE\WKH
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French troops were to land on the Asian side of the straits at a site
FDOOHG.XP.DOH

z 7KH ODQGLQJV PHW ZLWK PL[HG VXFFHVV 7R WKH QRUWK DW = EHDFK
the ANZACS disembarked about a mile north of the intended
spot. They initially met only weak defenses and might have seized
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ANZACS became pinned in a narrow zone close to the beach.

z )XUWKHU VRXWK DW < EHDFK WKH %ULWLVK WURRSV ODQGHG FRPSOHWHO\
unopposed and scrambled up a high cliff. They had a chance to
seize a considerable amount of important high ground further inland
EHIRUHWKH7XUNVFRXOGUHDFWEXWLQFUHGLEO\WKHFRPPDQGHUKDGKLV
men merely sit at the top of the cliff for the whole day.

137
 z $W9:DQG;EHDFKHVZKLFKHQFLUFOHGWKHWLSRIWKHSHQLQVXOD
British troops encountered more opposition. These sites were
overseen by Turkish trenches.
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FUDPPHGZLWKVROGLHUVNLOOLQJGR]HQVEHIRUHWKH\FRXOGHYHQ
set foot ashore.

ż A naval bombardment was supposed to suppress the Turkish

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cut in the side of the steamer and run down ramps onto the
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:KHQ WKH PHQ HPHUJHG IURP WKH VKLS WKH\ UDQ VWUDLJKW LQWR
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survivors huddled inside until nightfall.
Lecture 20—Gallipoli: Churchill Dooms Allied Assault—1915

ż 2QDOOWKHEHDFKHVWKHDWWDFNLQJWURRSVVRRQEHFDPHERJJHG
down in the rough terrain after making only minimal headway.
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z 2YHU WKH QH[W WZR PRQWKV WKH $OOLHV ZRXOG SRXU PRUH
reinforcements into these landing zones. The troops lived a hellish
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fruitless series of battles with their Turkish opponents. At the tip
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slowly advance the British lines but at a great cost in lives.

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decided to try one more landing at a site north of the ANZACS
called Suvla Bay.

138
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to draw the Turks’ attention away from the new landings. In
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quarters of its men.

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stalemate.

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replaced the previously intolerable heat. The Allies at last admitted
defeat and began to organize an evacuation. Although they feared
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carried off with hardly any losses.

Outcome of Gallipoli
z The bloodshed from the Gallipoli campaign was appalling. An
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‹$WDNDQ6,9*,1L6WRFN7KLQNVWRFN

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the commander who had taken prompt action to oppose the landings, Mustapha
Kemal; he later became president of Turkey.

139
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z Recriminations over the disaster resulted in several individuals

losing their jobs. Hamilton was dismissed from his command just
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PDLQ DUFKLWHFW RI WKH FDPSDLJQ &KXUFKLOO DOVR ZDV WKH REMHFW RI
much opprobrium and was removed as head of the Admiralty.

z Considering the enormous scale of losses incurred for no military

RUVWUDWHJLFJDLQWKH*DOOLSROLFDPSDLJQPXVWFRXQWDVRQHRIWKH
greatest military blunders. The entire episode constitutes a litany of
mistakes to avoid.
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Lecture 20—Gallipoli: Churchill Dooms Allied Assault—1915

XQZDUUDQWHG DVVXPSWLRQV DQG ZDV FRPSOHWHO\ XQUHDOLVWLF LQ

its expectations. The planning was inept and the allocation
of resources poorly executed. Spending several months on a
series of ineffectual naval attacks gave the Turks ample time
WR SUHSDUH WKHLU GHIHQVHV DQG WKH ¿QDO QDYDO DVVDXOW ZDV D
complete disaster.

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of glaring weaknesses in the planning and organization of the
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Allies’ inability to admit their errors caused them to continue
to pour vast quantities of men and resources into a project that
they should have known was doomed to failure.

140
 Suggested Reading

+DUWGallipoli.
3ULRUGallipoli: The End of the Myth.

Questions to Consider

1. The campaign at Gallipoli was particularly rich in the variety of blunders

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LQFRUUHFW DVVXPSWLRQV SRRU SODQQLQJ GHOD\V LQDGHTXDWH HTXLSPHQW
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failure of the expedition?

2. $OWKRXJK *DOOLSROL ZDV DQ XWWHU GLVDVWHU IURP D PLOLWDU\ SHUVSHFWLYH

SDUDGR[LFDOO\ DOPRVW DOO WKH QDWLRQV LQYROYHG HPHUJHG IURP WKH
campaign with strengthened senses of identity and national pride. How
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7KLQNRIFRPSDUDWLYHH[DPSOHVVXFKDVWKHEDWWOHVRI7KHUPRS\ODHRU
the Alamo.)

141
 World War II: Royal Navy Goes Down—1941–42
Lecture 21

B
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impressive record is not without blemishes. Two of the worst
British naval disasters took place within a few months of each other
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RI 0DOD\D 7KHUH ZKDW ZDV WKRXJKW WR EH D WHFKQRORJLFDOO\ VRSKLVWLFDWHG
battleship—the Prince of Wales—was easily sunk by Japanese bombers.
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VKLSV ZDV DEDQGRQHG E\ LWV QDY\ HVFRUWV DQG PRVW ZHUH VXQN7KH FDXVH
RIWKLV¿DVFRZDVSUHPDWXUHSDQLFRYHUDWKUHDWWKDWLQUHDOLW\GLGQRWH[LVW
This lecture explores these maritime misfortunes.
Lecture 21—World War II: Royal Navy Goes Down—1941–42

Singapore and the Sinking of the Prince of Wales

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LWV EDWWOHVKLSV²JLDQW KHDYLO\ DUPRUHG YHVVHOV VSRUWLQJ PDVVLYH
cannons. A few voices had begun to question the supremacy of
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leviathans were vulnerable to
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within the Royal Navy still
believed that the vessels could not
be sunk by airplanes.
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of Britain’s naval defenses was
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at the southern tip of the Malay
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Britain had spent £60 million
constructing and fortifying a At the outset of World War II,
the Japanese were undergoing
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a rapid build-up of their army
defenses focused on repelling and navy and had developed a
attacks from the sea. number of superior aircraft.

142
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RI %ULWDLQ GHFLGHG WKDW D SRZHUIXO VTXDGURQ VKRXOG EH VHQW WR
Singapore. He optimistically believed that the presence of a few
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IURP DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRU )XUWKHU WKH $OOLHV EHOLHYHG WKDW WKH
-DSDQHVH ZHUH LQFDSDEOH RI SURGXFLQJ KLJKWHFKQRORJ\ ZHDSRQV
although they had developed a number of aircraft that were far
superior to their American and British counterparts.

z 7KH QHZHVW PHPEHU RI WKH %ULWLVK EDWWOHVKLS ÀHHW ZDV WKH Prince
of Wales7KHVKLSZDVIHHWORQJGLVSODFHGQHDUO\WRQV
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ż The ship featured a number of innovations in armament and
armor. The navy believed that the Prince of Wales represented
the cutting edge of warship construction and would be more
than capable of handling any threats—by sea or air—it might
encounter.

ż 2QLWV)DU(DVWPLVVLRQWKHPrince of Wales was accompanied

by one of Britain’s older warships: the outdated but fast
battlecruiser Repulse. The two ships arrived in Singapore on
'HFHPEHUDQGZHUHGHVLJQDWHG)RUFH=

z 2Q 'HFHPEHU  WKH -DSDQHVH ODXQFKHG WKHLU DLU DWWDFN RQ 3HDUO
+DUERU DQG -DSDQHVH ERPEHUV GHFLPDWHG WKH 86 3DFL¿F ÀHHW
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in Thailand.

z The commander of Force Z decided to sail north and oppose the

Japanese landings. Although some British planes were potentially
DYDLODEOH WR SURYLGH DLU FRYHU IRU WKH VKLSV WKH DGPLUDO PDGH QR
effort to arrange for this. The Prince of Wales and the Repulse,
DORQJ ZLWK D IHZ VPDOO GHVWUR\HUV OHIW 6LQJDSRUH DQG EHJDQ D
fruitless attempt to intercept the Japanese invasion convoys.

143
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KDG EHHQ VSRWWHG E\ -DSDQHVH VHDUFK DLUFUDIW DQG VXEPDULQHV
and the admiral realized that they should head back to Singapore.
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disembarking nearby on the coast. This report later turned out to
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temptation to check it out.

z 2QDUULYLQJDWWKHVXSSRVHGODQGLQJVLWHLQWKHPRUQLQJWKH%ULWLVK
ZHUH PHW ZLWK DQ HPSW\ EHDFK (YHQ DW WKLV SRLQW WKH\ FRXOG
KDYHWXUQHGEDFNDQGSHUKDSVHVFDSHGEXWWKHDGPLUDOQH[WFKRVH
to linger to investigate a tugboat that had been sighted pulling a
couple of barges.
ż This poor decision shows the British admiral’s disregard for
the threat posed by Japanese aircraft—he knew that Force Z
had been seen and would be attacked if it stayed in the area.
Lecture 21—World War II: Royal Navy Goes Down—1941–42

ż Compounding this error was the fact that Force Z was within
range of a British airbase and could easily have summoned
¿JKWHU SODQHV WR SURYLGH DLU FRYHU DJDLQVW -DSDQHVH ERPEHUV
but the admiral sent no message.

z 7KH ¿UVW -DSDQHVH DLU DVVDXOW FDPH MXVW EHIRUH QRRQ $ ZDYH RI
planes dropping bombs was followed by a second with torpedoes.
The complex antiaircraft guns on the Prince of Wales turned out
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moving bombers threw off the gunners’ aim.

z Two torpedoes struck the Prince of WalesQHDUO\GLVDEOLQJWKHVKLS

7KHUHVXOWDQWÀRRGLQJFDXVHGWKHVKLSWRWDNHRQDQGHJUHHOLVW
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followed.

z ,QDOO-DSDQHVHERPEHUVWRRNSDUWLQWKHDVVDXOWRQ)RUFH=7KH
Prince of WalesZDVVWUXFNE\IRXUPRUHWRUSHGRHVORVWDOOSRZHU
FDPH WR D KDOW DQG EHJDQ WR VHWWOH LQ WKH ZDWHU HYHQWXDOO\ JRLQJ
under. The RepulsePDQDJHGWRVKRRWGRZQDIHZSODQHVEHIRUHLW

144
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VKLSVZHUHNLOOHGZKLOHWKHUHVWZHUHSLFNHGXSE\GHVWUR\HUV

Convoy PQ 17
z ,QWKHVXPPHURI5XVVLDKDGEHHQLQYDGHGE\*HUPDQ\9LWDO
to Russia’s efforts to survive the Nazi onslaught were weapons
and other materials supplied by Britain and the United States. The
PDLQSUREOHPKRZHYHUZDVVLPSO\WUDQVSRUWLQJWKHJRRGVSDVWWKH
Germans to the Soviet Union.

z The primary way in which this was accomplished was by

dispatching convoys of merchant ships from England that would
dock at Russia’s northern ports. Because these convoys had to
WUDYHODORQJWKHORQJFRDVWRI1RUZD\ZKLFKZDVRFFXSLHGE\WKH
*HUPDQV WKH\ ZHUH YXOQHUDEOH WR DWWDFN E\ *HUPDQ VXEPDULQHV
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in toward their destination.

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German bombers and from below by lurking submarines.
ż 7KH VDLORUV LQ WKHVH FRQYR\V ZHUH PRVW IULJKWHQHG KRZHYHU
by the prospect of an ambush by Germany’s surface warships.

ż 7KHGHVWUR\HUVDUPHGWUDZOHUVDQGRWKHUVPDOOZDUVKLSVWKDW
accompanied the merchant ships were notionally equipped to
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confronted with the thick armor and huge guns of a German
battleship or heavy cruiser.

z 2I DOO WKHVH WKUHDWHQLQJ *HUPDQ YHVVHOV WKH PRVW SRZHUIXO DQG
most dreaded was the Tirpitz. The nightmare scenario for British
convoy planners was that this ship would lunge out from Norway
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the sinking of the Prince of Wales had exposed the vulnerability of

145
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of the Arctic Ocean meant that aircraft in this theater were often
either grounded or ineffectual.

z The Arctic supply convoys began in September 1941. Outbound

FRQYR\VZHUHJLYHQWKHGHVLJQDWLRQ34DORQJZLWKWKHQXPEHURI
WKHFRQYR\%\-XQHRIWKHVHKDGEHHQUXQZLWKYDU\LQJ
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essential supplies got through to sustain the Soviet war effort. On
-XQH&RQYR\34VHWVDLO,WFRQVLVWHGRIPHUFKDQW
vessels escorted by 6 navy destroyers and about a dozen smaller
warships.

z 34WUDYHUVHGPRUHWKDQWZRWKLUGVRILWVURXWHZLWKRXWWRRPXFK
PLVKDS DQG UHDFKHG D SRLQW QRUWK RI %HDU ,VODQG 7KXV IDU WKUHH
VKLSV KDG EHHQ VXQN E\ VXEPDULQHV DQG ERPEHUV EXW RQ VXFK D
Lecture 21—World War II: Royal Navy Goes Down—1941–42

GDQJHURXVSDWKWKHVHZHUHDFFHSWDEOHDQGH[SHFWHGORVVHV

z 7KH *HUPDQV KRZHYHU ZHUH WR\LQJ ZLWK WKH LGHD RI WU\LQJ WR
LQWHUFHSW 34  ZLWK WKH Tirpitz and some other heavy warships.
The Tirpitz DQG LWV HVFRUWV OHIW WKHLU DQFKRUDJH EXW VHYHUDO
GHVWUR\HUVUDQDJURXQGDQGWKHVKLSVZHUHVRRQUHFDOOHGDQGZHQW
back into hiding.

z $ %ULWLVK UHFRQQDLVVDQFH ÀLJKW KDG SDVVHG RYHU WKH Tirpitz’s

anchorage and discovered that the ship had left its moorings. This
news immediately touched off a great deal of concern among the
British commanders at the Admiralty. The man in overall charge of
QDYDODIIDLUVZDV)LUVW6HD/RUG'XGOH\3RXQGZKRIHDUHGWKDWWKH
Tirpitz might be heading toward the convoy. Pound precipitously
decided that he had to act on the assumption that the ship was on its
ZD\WRDWWDFN347KLVZDVDSDQLFN\DQGXQZDUUDQWHGGHFLVLRQ

z Believing that the best chance the ships had for survival was to
VFDWWHU 3RXQG VHQW D VKRFNLQJ PHVVDJH WR 34  RUGHULQJ WKH
convey to “disperse and proceed to Russian ports.” Although no
HQHP\ ZDV LQ VLJKW WKH HVFRUWLQJ %ULWLVK ZDUVKLSV KDG QR FKRLFH

146
 EXWWRDEDQGRQWKHVORZPRYLQJDQGGHIHQVHOHVVPHUFKDQWVKLSVWR
WKHLUIDWHVWLOOPLOHVIURPWKHLUGHVWLQDWLRQDQGLQDVWUHWFKRI
ZDWHUNQRZQWREHLQIHVWHGZLWK*HUPDQ8ERDWV

z *HUPDQ 8ERDWV DQG ERPEHUV SRXQFHG RQ WKH KHOSOHVV PHUFKDQW

ships that had been presented to them by Pound’s order. The valiant
merchant crews attempted a number of desperate strategies to evade
WKH*HUPDQVEXWWKH\ZHUHUXWKOHVVO\KXQWHGGRZQ,QWKHHQG
out of the 35 merchant ships were sunk. If the Tirpitz had actually
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WKHVKLSVDQGFUHZVWKHLUYLWDOFDUJRVZHUHDOVRVHQWWRWKHERWWRP
of the ocean.

Naval Disasters
z Both the sinking of the Prince of Wales and the disaster of Convoy
34  UHVXOWHG IURP EDG GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ DQG PLVMXGJPHQW RI
opponents.
ż Although most navies were slow to appreciate the new danger
SRVHG E\ DLU SRZHU WKH %ULWLVK JURVVO\ XQGHUHVWLPDWHG WKH
FRPSHWHQFH RI WKH -DSDQHVH ZKLOH VHYHUHO\ RYHUYDOXLQJ WKH
abilities and intimidation effect of their own ships.

ż 2QFH)RUFH=KDGVHWRXWLWVFRPPDQGHUSHUVLVWHGIDUWRRORQJ
LQ D SRRUO\ GH¿QHG PLVVLRQ DQG VKRZHG WHUULEOH MXGJPHQW LQ
ULVNLQJKLVVKLSVIRUQHJOLJLEOHJRDOVZKLOHVWXEERUQO\UHIXVLQJ
to make use of available air cover.

z &RQYHUVHO\ ZLWK 34  WKH %ULWLVK IDWDOO\ RYHUHVWLPDWHG WKH

DJJUHVVLYHQHVV RI WKH *HUPDQV DQG ZHUH H[FHVVLYHO\ LQÀXHQFHG
by their fears of the Tirpitz. The obsession with this one ship
warped their strategy and led to the decision to disperse the
convoy unnecessarily. These debacles illustrate that even the best
RUJDQL]DWLRQVFDQVWXPEOHEDGO\UHVXOWLQJLQFDODPLW\

147
 Suggested Reading

0LGGOHEURRNDQG0DKRQH\Battleship.
:RRGPDQArctic Convoys, 1941–1945.

Questions to Consider

1. ,Q RQH RI WKH LQFLGHQWV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV OHFWXUH WKH %ULWLVK QDY\
PDGH WKH HUURU RI XQGHUHVWLPDWLQJ LWV RSSRQHQW DQG LQ WKH RWKHU RI
overestimating the opponent. Both ended disastrously. Which do you
think was the worse error and why?

2. $OWKRXJK 3HDUO +DUERU LV PRUH IDPRXV WKH VLQNLQJ RI WKH Prince of
WalesZDVWKHPRUHGH¿QLWLYHLOOXVWUDWLRQRIWKHZHDNQHVVRIEDWWOHVKLSV
relative to air power. Why are militaries so often slow to recognize the
Lecture 21—World War II: Royal Navy Goes Down—1941–42

threats posed by new technologies?

148
 Dieppe Raid: Catastrophe on the Beach—1942
Lecture 22

O
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WKH VXUIDFH WKH UDLG IDLOHG WR DFFRPSOLVK DQ\ RI LWV REMHFWLYHV
VHL]LQJFRQWURORI'LHSSHGHPROLVKLQJ*HUPDQDUWLOOHU\EDWWHULHVFDSWXULQJ
*HUPDQODQGLQJFUDIWDQGGHVWUR\LQJ*HUPDQSODQHV,QWKHHQGPRVWRIWKH
DWWDFNHUVQHYHUHYHQPDGHLWRIIWKHODQGLQJEHDFKHVRQO\RQHJURXSRIJXQV
ZDVGHPROLVKHGQRYHVVHOVZHUHREWDLQHGDQGWKH%ULWLVKVXIIHUHGJUHDWHU
FDVXDOWLHVWKDQWKH*HUPDQVLQWKHDLUEDWWOH,QGHHGWKHDWWDFNRQ'LHSSH
had one of the worst casualty rates of any major operation during World War
,,ZLWKWKH$OOLHVORVLQJPRUHWKDQPHQ

Operation Jubilee
z ,Q  *HUPDQ\ KDG FRQTXHUHG PRVW RI :HVWHUQ (XURSH DQG
its armies were pushing deep into the Soviet Union. The British
were under pressure from Stalin to attack Germany from the west
to relieve the Russians. The British were not yet ready to open a
VHFRQGIURQWE\XQGHUWDNLQJDPDMRULQYDVLRQRI:HVWHUQ(XURSH
EXW WKH\ GHFLGHG WR VWDJH D QXPEHU RI KLWDQGUXQ UDLGV DJDLQVW
WDUJHWVLQ*HUPDQRFFXSLHGDUHDVLQFOXGLQJ1RUZD\DQG)UDQFH

z 7KH PRVW DPELWLRXV RI WKHVH VFKHPHV ZDV WR DVVDXOW DQG EULHÀ\
VHL]H WKH )UHQFK FRDVWDO WRZQ RI 'LHSSH ORFDWHG MXVW DFURVV WKH
(QJOLVK&KDQQHO'LHSSHLWVHOIZDVQRWRIDQ\VWUDWHJLFLPSRUWDQFH
EXWLQDGGLWLRQWRWKHV\PEROLFYDOXHRIVWULNLQJDJDLQVW1D]LKHOG
(XURSHWKHUDLGPLJKWSURYLGHDXVHIXOWHVWRIWKH$OOLHV¶DELOLW\WR
PRXQWDODUJHVFDOHDPSKLELRXVODQGLQJDJDLQVWDGHIHQGHGWDUJHW

z Responsibility for these raids fell to a group known as Combined

2SHUDWLRQV ZKLFK ZDV KHDGHG E\ /RUG 0RXQWEDWWHQ +H OREELHG
KDUGWRJHWKLVSODQIRUDQDWWDFNRQ'LHSSHDSSURYHG$WWKHWLPH
PRUH WKDQ  YROXQWHHU &DQDGLDQ VROGLHUV KDG DUULYHG LQ
(QJODQGEXWKDGQRWVHHQDQ\VLJQL¿FDQWDFWLRQ,WZDVWKXVGHFLGHG

149
 WKDW &DQDGLDQV ZRXOG PDNH XS WKH EXON RI WKH LQYDGLQJ IRUFH
DORQJZLWKVRPH%ULWLVKFRPPDQGRV$PHULFDQ5DQJHUVDQGD
handful of free French troops.

z 7KHUDLGZDVVHWIRU-XO\EXWEDGZHDWKHUFDXVHGLWWREHSRVWSRQHG
until August. Its code name was to be Operation Jubilee. The
RSHUDWLRQ¶VJRDOVZHUHLOOGH¿QHGDQGWKHPDVVLYHVL]HRIWKHUDLG
ZDV XQXVXDO 7KH LPPHGLDWH WDFWLFDO REMHFWLYHV ZKLFK LQYROYHG
VHL]LQJWKHWRZQDQGEORZLQJXSDIHZRXWSRVWVVLPSO\ZHUHQRW
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been to learn whether or not the Allies were capable of mounting
such an operation and its symbolic political value as a blow struck
DW1D]LRFFXSLHG(XURSH

Subsidiary Landings
z 7R VXSSRUW WKH PDLQ DWWDFN RQ 'LHSSH VL[ VXEVLGLDU\ ODQGLQJV
Lecture 22—Dieppe Raid: Catastrophe on the Beach—1942

were planned against points on the surrounding coastline. Because

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HPSODFHPHQWVWKUHDWHQLQJWKHSULPDU\LQYDVLRQWKH\ZHUHWLPHGWR
WDNHSODFHMXVWEHIRUHWKHPDLQODQGLQJ7RWKHHDVWRI'LHSSHWKHVH
VLWHV ZHUH GHVLJQDWHG %OXH %HDFK <HOORZ %HDFK , DQG <HOORZ
%HDFK ,, 7R WKH ZHVW ZHUH *UHHQ %HDFK 2UDQJH %HDFK , DQG
Orange Beach II.

z 7KHFDUHIXOO\FUDIWHGSODQV¿UVWEHJDQWRJRDZU\ZKHQWKHERDWV
WUDQVSRUWLQJWKHXQLWVLQWHQGHGWRODQGRQWKH<HOORZ%HDFKHVUDQ
LQWR D VPDOO *HUPDQ FRDVWDO FRQYR\ $ FRQIXVHG EXW ¿HUFH JXQ
battle erupted between the warships escorting the Allied troop
WUDQVSRUWYHVVHOVDQGWKHLU*HUPDQFRXQWHUSDUWV,QWKHFKDRVWKH
troop ships became widely scattered.
ż ,Q WKH DIWHUPDWK RI WKH EDWWOH RXW RI WKH RULJLQDO  WURRS
FDUULHUV  UHWXUQHG WR (QJODQG ZLWK GDPDJH  ZHUH XQVXUH
ZKHWKHU WR SURFHHG DQG  FRQWLQXHG WRZDUG WKH EHDFKHV$W
<HOORZ%HDFK,PHQVWUXJJOHGDVKRUHDQGZHUHPHWZLWK
heavy opposition. They were unable to progress more than a
FRXSOHKXQGUHG\DUGVDQGHYHQWXDOO\DOOEXWRQHZHUHNLOOHG
or captured.

150
 ż $W<HOORZ ,, D VLQJOH ERDW FRQWDLQLQJ  PHQ DUULYHG DW WKH
beach. This tiny band disembarked and boldly headed inland.
They sniped at the German battery that was their target but
were hopelessly outnumbered and eventually returned to the
EHDFKUHERDUGHGWKHLUFUDIWDQGHVFDSHG

z -XVW GRZQ WKH FRDVW URXJKO\  PHQ FDPH DVKRUH DW WKH QDUURZ
%OXH%HDFKORFDWHGEHORZDVWHHSFOLII2QO\DVLQJOHUDYLQHOHGXS
IURPWKHEHDFKDQGLWZDVEORFNHGE\EDUEHGZLUHDQGPDFKLQHJXQ
nests. The men were trapped on the beach by a substantial seawall
topped by more barbed wire. With nowhere to go and completely
H[SRVHGWRPXOWLSOH*HUPDQPDFKLQHJXQSRVLWLRQVWKHPHQZHUH
mown down as soon as they stepped out of their boats. More than
90 percent of the regiment was wiped out.

z $W WKH VXEVLGLDU\ EHDFKHV WR WKH ZHVW RI 'LHSSH VLPLODU VFHQHV
unfolded. The troops who landed at Green Beach had been given
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VWDWLRQ GHVWUR\ D *HUPDQ VWURQJSRLQW ZLSH RXW WKH *HUPDQV RQ
WKH KHDGODQG RYHUORRNLQJ 'LHSSH FDSWXUH DQ DLU¿HOG GHVWUR\ D
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stiff opposition and suffered heavy casualties; they were eventually
pushed back to the beach.

z 7KHRQO\GH¿QLWHVXFFHVVWRRNSODFHDWWKH2UDQJH%HDFKHVZKHUH
two groups managed to reach one of their targets: a German gun
emplacement. The commandos engaged the battery’s guards in a
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and the explosion knocked out the battery for the duration of the raid.

Main Attack at Dieppe

z The main effort was directed at the beach in front of the town of
Dieppe. Because this area was the focal point of all the German
GHIHQVHV WKH ODQGLQJ DPRXQWHG WR D IURQWDO DWWDFN RQ WKH PRVW
heavily defended location. The Allied troops would have to come

151
 ashore on an exposed beach overlooked on three sides by higher
JURXQGWKDWZDVIXOORI*HUPDQWURRSVPDFKLQHJXQVDQGFDQQRQV

z )RUDQDWWDFNRQWKLVVLWHWRKDYHDQ\FKDQFHRIVXFFHVVWKHRSWLPDO
method would have entailed either destroying or capturing the
gun emplacements on the cliffs. The earliest plan had called for
SDUDWURRSHUV WR NQRFN RXW WKH *HUPDQ FDQQRQ EDWWHULHV EXW WKLV
idea was later vetoed.
ż Another good option would have been to suppress or obliterate
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UHIXVHGWRFRQWULEXWHDZDUVKLSDQGWKHRQO\QDYDOJXQVXSSRUW
came from a handful of small destroyers.

ż Attacks from aircraft could have bombed the German positions

EHIRUH WKH VROGLHUV FDPH DVKRUH EXW WKHUH ZDV FRQFHUQ WKDW
bombing might produce rubble in the streets of Dieppe
Lecture 22—Dieppe Raid: Catastrophe on the Beach—1942

that might impede the advance of the troops off the beach.
7KHUHIRUHDLUDWWDFNVZHUHOLPLWHGWRDIHZTXLFNVWUD¿QJUXQV

z The British organizers planned to land a sizable contingent of

Churchill tanks on the beach along with the soldiers. The tanks were
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then constitute an armored spearhead that would punch through the
German defenses and quickly lead the infantry into the town. The
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z 7REHJLQZLWKWKHOHDGLQJWDQNVGLGQRWDUULYHRQWKHEHDFKXQWLO
15 minutes after the infantry had already gone ashore. Without the
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WKH WLPH WKH WDQNV VKRZHG XS WKH DWWDFN KDG ORVW LWV PRPHQWXP
the men were focused on seeking places to hide from the German
gunners rather than pushing forward.
ż :KHQ WKH WDQNV ¿QDOO\ ODQGHG DQ DGGLWLRQDO VHULRXV SUREOHP
arose: The tanks could not get traction on the large stones of
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eventually immobilizing themselves in the stones.

152
 © John Rattle/iStock/Thinkstock.
At the time of Dieppe, Churchill tanks had not yet been deployed in battle; they
were brand new and were designed with heavier armor than previous models.

ż About half the tanks quickly got stuck in the shingle or were
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beyond it.

ż 7KHVH WDQNV URDUHG IRUZDUG RQO\ WR GLVFRYHU WKDW HYHU\ VWUHHW
leading into the town had been blocked with concrete barriers.
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either been killed or were in the boats that never got to the beach.

ż The 15 tanks tried to use their cannon and machine guns to

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z The main attack on the beach in front of Dieppe was a catastrophe.

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WKHEHDFKZKHUHWKH\ZHUHVWHDGLO\SLFNHGRIIE\*HUPDQJXQQHUV

153
 2IIVKRUH WKH $OOLHG FRPPDQGHUV FRPPLWWHG DQRWKHU HUURU E\
electing to send in an additional wave of troops. Many of the new
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ZHUHLQVWDQWO\GHFLPDWHGE\¿UHIURPWKH*HUPDQVRQWKHKHLJKWV

“Lessons” for D-Day

z %\PLGPRUQLQJLWZDVFOHDUWKDWWKHDWWDFNVKDGIDLOHGPLVHUDEO\
the only course of action was to try to extricate as many survivors
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many groups were simply marooned on their beaches. By the
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VXUUHQGHU7RWDO$OOLHGFDVXDOWLHVH[FHHGHG

z )URPFRQFHSWLRQWRH[HFXWLRQWKH'LHSSHUDLGZDVIXOORIHUURQHRXV
HVWLPDWHVXQFOHDUREMHFWLYHVSRRUSODQQLQJDQGVORSS\H[HFXWLRQ
Lecture 22—Dieppe Raid: Catastrophe on the Beach—1942

The only bright spot was the considerable valor displayed by the
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ZHUHJUDQWHGDORQJZLWKDVOHZRIOHVVHUDZDUGV

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well as for intense air and naval bombardment prior to the landings.

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EHHQ IDLUO\ REYLRXV DQG WKHUH ZHUH QXPHURXV RWKHU DPSKLELRXV
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experience with this type of attack. Even if the Dieppe raid was
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was avoidable—and unforgivable.

154
 Suggested Reading

1HLOODQGVThe Dieppe Raid.

=XHKONHTragedy at Dieppe.

Questions to Consider

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SURYLGHG YDOXDEOH OHVVRQV IRU ''D\ :KLFK RI WKHVH OHVVRQV GR \RX
WKLQNVKRXOGKDYHEHHQREYLRXVZLWKRXWXQGHUJRLQJWKH¿DVFRDW'LHSSH
and which do you think could have been learned only from experience?

2. The Dieppe raid suffered from numerous overly optimistic or erroneous

assumptions. Which of these assumptions do you think was most
destructive in its effects?

155
 Operation Market Garden: A Bridge Too Far—1944
Lecture 23

E
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Holland witnessed an event that has never been equaled either before
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the skies over Holland on that day in early autumn of 1944 were part of
a bold Allied offensive designated Operation Market Garden; its ambitious
goal was nothing less than achieving complete victory in Europe by the end
of the year.
Lecture 23—Operation Market Garden: A Bridge Too Far—1944

Origins of the Operation

z The Allies had assumed that once their beachheads in Normandy
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WKH FRPPDQG RI )LHOG 0DUVKDO %HUQDUG 0RQWJRPHU\ EURNH
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central France and raced toward the German frontier. The Allies
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the only remaining question was who would get the credit.

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1RZKRZHYHUKHFDPHXSZLWKDQDW\SLFDOO\GDULQJVFKHPHWKDW
would enable his army to win the race.
ż The main barrier between his forces and Germany were the
PDQ\ULYHUVLQFOXGLQJWKH5KLQHWKDWÀRZHGWKURXJK+ROODQG
and emptied into the North Sea. The bridges spanning these

156
 REVWDFOHVIRUPHGQDWXUDOFKRNHSRLQWVDQGZKRHYHUFRQWUROOHG
these controlled the doorways that led into Germany.

ż Montgomery’s plan called for a colossal airborne assault that

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chain of seven of these vital bridges. The furthest of the targets
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contingents of troops holding its designated bridge would be
isolated deep within enemy territory.

ż A powerful ground army spearheaded by tanks would then

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ground army would cross the bridge and drive for the next one.

ż 7KLV VHTXHQFH ZRXOG EH UHSHDWHG XQWLO WKH ODVW EULGJH ZKLFK
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entry into Germany.

ż The airborne landing component of this plan was code named

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plan was referred to as Operation Market Garden.

z The plan was bold but also fraught with potential dangers. Because
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lightly armed when they confronted the enemy and could easily
be massacred by more heavily armed German troops. A central
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IRU;;;&RUSVWRDUULYHDWWKHIXUWKHVWDLUERUQHWURRSV²WKHRQHV
holding the bridge at Arnhem—within 48 hours.

z 7KHWDVNJLYHQWR;;;&RUSVZDVFRPSOLFDWHGE\WKHIDFWWKDWWKHLU
main route of advance was a single narrow road. All the Germans
had to do to thwart the entire plan was cut this tenuous route or

157
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airborne troops to be overrun.

z 3HUKDSV WKH ELJJHVW SRWHQWLDO ÀDZ LQ WKH SODQ ZDV WKDW WKH IDLOXUH
of any one part would result in the failure of the entire operation.
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Arnhem bridge over the Rhine. Even if all the other bridges were
WDNHQLIWKH$UQKHPEULGJHZDVQRWKHOGRULI;;;&RUSVFRXOGQ¶W
UHDFKLWWKHQDOOWKHRWKHUVXFFHVVHVZRXOGEHLQYDLQ

Advance to the Arnhem Bridge

z 2Q6HSWHPEHUWKRXVDQGVRIDLUFUDIWEHDULQJWKHDLUERUQHIRUFHV
lumbered into the skies and headed for their drop zones in Holland.
There were three main landing sites: American troops of the 101st
$LUERUQH 'LYLVLRQ DOLJKWHG QHDU WKH WRZQ RI (LQGKRYHQ  PLOHV
Lecture 23—Operation Market Garden: A Bridge Too Far—1944

EHKLQG HQHP\ OLQHV DQG ZHUH FKDUJHG ZLWK VHL]LQJ WKUHH EULGJHV
there. The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division was dropped 53 miles behind
the front line near Nijmegen and also had three bridges to capture
DQG KROG )LQDOO\ WKH %ULWLVK st Airborne Division was deposited
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taking the vital Arnhem bridge.

z The Eindhoven and Nijmegen landings met with mixed success.

Some of the bridges were quickly seized by the American
SDUDWURRSHUV EXW VHYHUDO ZHUH EORZQ XS E\ WKH *HUPDQV EHIRUH
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along the road to open a corridor and reach the embattled airborne
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RIWKH¿UVWGD\;;;&RUSVKDGDGYDQFHGDWRWDORIRQO\PLOHV

z 'HVSLWH WKHVH VHWEDFNV WKH RYHUDOO JRDOV RI 0DUNHW *DUGHQ ZHUH
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relief as the British tanks rolled across the bridges they had fought
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VHFXUH WKH QH[W VWHSSLQJVWRQH DORQJ WKH URXWH WR $UQKHP %\

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“A Bridge Too Far”

z The British airborne troops assigned to Arnhem were at a
disadvantage from the start of the operation because the Royal Air
Force had insisted that the men be dropped 8 to 10 miles outside
RI WKH WRZQ 2QFH RQ WKH JURXQG WKH PHQ H[SHULHQFHG GLI¿FXOWLHV
communicating among their scattered detachments or with higher
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)LQDOO\WKHSDUDWURRSHUVGLGQRWKDYHGHWDLOHGVWUHHWPDSVRI$UQKHP

z 6KRUWO\DIWHUODQGLQJWKH%ULWLVKJHQHUDOLQFKDUJHRIWKHDLUERUQH
troops attacking Arnhem effectively removed himself from control
of the battle when he rather unwisely went forward to assess the
VLWXDWLRQ RQO\ WR ¿QG KLPVHOI FXW RII IURP KLV PHQ +H EHFDPH
trapped in the home of a friendly Dutch family when a German
armored vehicle happened to park outside. Although he eventually
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commander’s leadership.

z Most of the groups assigned to seize the Arnhem bridge became

ERJJHGGRZQLQ¿JKWLQJ*HUPDQWURRSVZKLOHWU\LQJWRPRYHIURP
their drop zones toward the target.
© yellowpaul/iStock/Thinkstock.

The rebuilt bridge over the Rhine in Arnhem that was the focal point of such
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159
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surrounding the northern end of the bridge. With his battalion
VXSSOHPHQWHGE\VWUDJJOHUVIURPRWKHUJURXSV)URVWHQGHGXS
with about 750 men.

ż 1RVLJQL¿FDQWUHLQIRUFHPHQWVZRXOGUHDFK)URVWDQGRYHUWKH
QH[W VHYHUDO GD\V WKH *HUPDQV UHSHDWHGO\ DWWDFNHG KLV VPDOO
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Lecture 23—Operation Market Garden: A Bridge Too Far—1944

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battle formations and launching counterattacks. Some German
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isolated pockets.

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DW DOO WKHVH SRLQWV ;;; &RUSV JRW WR ZLWKLQ MXVW D IHZ PLOHV RI
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running low on ammunition and other critical supplies.
ż The airborne troops at the north end of the Arnhem bridge
KHOGRQIRUWKUHHORQJGD\VZLWKQHDUO\DOORIWKHPLQFOXGLQJ
)URVWKLPVHOIEHLQJZRXQGHG$IWHUDKHURLFGHIHQVHDQGZLWK
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ż The main body of British troops who landed near Arnhem

established a defensive position at the adjacent town of

160
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paratroopers only added to the number of trapped men.

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VWLOO VHFXUHO\ KHOG E\ WKH *HUPDQV 0DUNHW *DUGHQ KDG IDLOHG
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the decision to evacuate the surviving airborne troops across the
river; this was accomplished during the night of September 25. Of
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*DUGHQZHUHFORVHWR

Summing Up Market Garden

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in the Ardennes Forest—an operation that has come to be known as
the Battle of the Bulge. It would not be until the spring of 1945 that
$OOLHGWURRSVZRXOG¿QDOO\DGYDQFHWKURXJK+ROODQGZLWK$UQKHP
LWVHOIEHLQJOLEHUDWHGLQPLG$SULO

z Operation Market Garden is routinely listed among the great

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SODQQLQJRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGH[HFXWLRQ

z +RZHYHU0DUNHW*DUGHQPD\QRWGHVHUYHDVPXFKFRQGHPQDWLRQ
as many of the other military blunders we have examined. Without
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that might have exerted a great impact on the course of the war.
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WR VXFFHHGLQJ :KLOH DQDO\]LQJ DOO WKH SODQ¶V ÀDZV ZH FDQ VWLOO
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margin can sometimes be that separates a brilliant success from an
appalling disaster.

161
 Suggested Reading

.HUVKDZIt Never Snows in September.

5\DQA Bridge Too Far.

Questions to Consider

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*DUGHQFRQWULEXWHGPRUHWRWKHIDLOXUHRIWKHRSHUDWLRQDQGZK\"

2. 'RHV0DUNHW*DUGHQGHVHUYHWREHFRQVLGHUHGDWUXHPLOLWDU\EOXQGHURU
was it a decent plan that barely failed?
Lecture 23—Operation Market Garden: A Bridge Too Far—1944

162
 The Great Blunders: Four Paths to Failure
Lecture 24

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QHDUO\XQLYHUVDOO\H[FRULDWHGDVEOXQGHUV,QWKLVOHFWXUHZH¶OOORRNDWZKDW
sets these apart for special condemnation.

Examining Military Blunders

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perform an action that dramatically altered the outcome for the
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WKLV LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ ORVLQJ D EDWWOH EHFDXVH RQH ZDV RXWQXPEHUHG
or outmatched or had suffered a random misfortune is not alone
enough to qualify it as a blunder.

z 7KXV JHQXLQH EOXQGHUV DOVR LQYROYH DQ HOHPHQW RI EODPH

7KH HDVLHVW WDUJHWV IRU VXFK FHQVXUH DUH LQGLYLGXDOV XVXDOO\
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of an institution or society can create an atmosphere that leads to
poor choices or misguided actions by an entire group. In other
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may have been decades in the making.

z 2I FRXUVH LQ UHDOLW\ WKH FDXVHV RI PLOLWDU\ EOXQGHUV DUH RIWHQ
PRUH FRPSOH[ WKDQ MXVW D VLQJOH IDFWRU LQGHHG PRVW PLOLWDU\

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worthwhile to try to identify key moments or decisions that did
more than others to ensure tragedy.

Failures of Planning
z We can identify four general categories of military mistakes: failures
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effectively doom one side even before a battle is joined.

z %HJLQQLQJZLWKWKHEURDGHVWSHUVSHFWLYHVXFKIDLOXUHVFDQRFFXUDW
WKHVWUDWHJLFOHYHOZKHQWKHREMHFWLYHVIRUDQHQWLUHRSHUDWLRQDUH
either unclear or poorly chosen.
ż 6RPHWLPHV HYHQ DWWHPSWLQJ D PLOLWDU\ RSHUDWLRQ LV D SRRU
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success are disproportionately outweighed by the potential
Lecture 24—The Great Blunders: Four Paths to Failure

losses that could be incurred by failure.

ż An ancient example of this is the Sicilian expedition that

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committing the majority of its forces in pursuit of an objective
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:KHQWKHH[SHGLWLRQZDVGHVWUR\HG$WKHQVORVWERWKLWVHPSLUH
and the larger war.

z Another common contributor to disaster that occurs at the planning

stage is the failure to gather proper intelligence. Not adequately
VFRXWLQJ RXW WKH %RHU SRVLWLRQV DW &ROHQVR ZKLFK GLUHFWO\
FRQWULEXWHGWRWKHVXEVHTXHQWERWFKHGDVVDXOWVLOOXVWUDWHVWKLVSRLQW

z $UHODWHGÀDZLVGHOLEHUDWHO\LJQRULQJLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWFRQWUDGLFWV
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its origins in Lord Auckland’s disregard of the reports and
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164
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of the cases is the failure to take into account the particular
characteristics of the terrain on which an army will operate. At
&RXUWUDLWKHZHWPDUVK\¿HOGEURNHWKHPRPHQWXPRIWKHKHDYLO\
armored French knights and made them vulnerable to the crude but
effective weapons of the Flemish shopkeepers.

Failures of Leadership
z $ VHFRQG EURDG FDWHJRU\ RI HUURU LV IDLOXUHV RI OHDGHUVKLS ZKLFK
RIWHQ WDNH WKH IRUP RI LQFRPSHWHQFH $OO WRR RIWHQ LQ ZDUIDUH
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inept General Elphinstone effectively sealed the fate of thousands
of his soldiers.

z 6RPHWLPHV D QRUPDOO\ FRPSHWHQW OHDGHU LV FRQIURQWHG E\ D

situation that proves to be beyond his abilities. When the renowned
Chinese general Cao Cao had to conduct a campaign on the water
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previously solid Roman general Crassus was forced to deal with the
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rise to the task.

z $QRWKHUZLGHVSUHDGIDLOXUHRIOHDGHUVKLSLVRYHUFRQ¿GHQFH9DOHQV
DW $GULDQRSOH 1DSROHRQ LQ 5XVVLD DQG WKH %ULWLVK DW *DOOLSROL
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coupled with a corresponding lack of respect for one’s opponent.
Custer’s arrogant belief that he could defeat any number of Native
Americans and Chelmsford’s disregard for the threat posed by the
Zulus caused both men to lead their troops to destruction.

Failures of Execution
z Failures of execution are most typically manifested as tactical errors
RQWKHEDWWOH¿HOG2QHH[DPSOHWKDWZHKDYHVHHQPXOWLSOHWLPHVLV
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LW WR EH GHVWUR\HG SLHFHPHDO ,Q RWKHU FDVHV D FOHYHU HQHP\ FDQ

165
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Mongols deliberately enticed the Russians into spreading out their
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z A variant of this error occurs when control of the army itself is split
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,I WKH JHQHUDOV DUH ULYDOV RU SHUVRQDOO\ GLVOLNH RQH DQRWKHU VXFK
a divided command becomes a recipe for disaster. The animosity
between the leaders of the British army and navy contingents
during the campaign to capture Cartagena produced a comedy of
HUURUVWKDWXQIRUWXQDWHO\HQGHGLQWUDJHG\IRUWKHLUPHQ

z $QRWKHUW\SHRIEDWWOH¿HOGHUURULQYROYHVIDLOXUHVLQFRPPXQLFDWLRQ
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Russian armies at the Battle of Tannenberg. Perhaps one of the
most infamous examples of miscommunication leading to disaster
Lecture 24—The Great Blunders: Four Paths to Failure

is the charge of the Light Brigade.

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WR FDOO RII DQ XQVXFFHVVIXO RSHUDWLRQ $W 6\UDFXVH *DOOLSROL DQG
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Failures of Adaptation
z The fourth broad category of failure that we have witnessed is the
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because of advances in technology.
ż $W&XOORGHQWKHFKDUJHRIWKH+LJKODQGHUVDJDLQVWWKHFDQQRQV
and massed ranks of British muskets was brave but fruitless.

ż An interesting twist on failures to adapt to new weapons is the

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166
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use it most effectively.

z Another frequent error made with new technology is the failure

to appreciate how destructive it can be. The sinking of the Prince
of Wales was the direct result of naval commanders failing to
recognize the threat that aircraft posed to those previously dominant
armored warships.

Lessons of the Past

z )DLOXUHV RI SODQQLQJ OHDGHUVKLS H[HFXWLRQ DQG DGDSWDWLRQ²
we have seen ample evidence of each of these while tracing the
history of military blunders across time and around the world.
:LWKWKHSRVVLEOHH[FHSWLRQRIIDLOXUHVWRDGDSWWRQHZWHFKQRORJ\
the underlying theme that runs throughout these categories is a
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illustrates this point.

z The border zone between the Indian subcontinent and central

Asia—a region roughly equivalent to modern Afghanistan and
parts of Pakistan—has been invaded repeatedly over a span of more
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HUD6RYLHW8QLRQDQGWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV

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D GLYHUVH DUUD\ RI SROLWLFDO HQWLWLHV DQG FXOWXUHV PRWLYDWHG
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experiences of many of these invading armies were eerily similar:
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centralized government.

167
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Invaders of Afghanistan represent nearly the entire historical range of military
technology, from swords and spears, through early gunpowder weapons, to
modern tanks, cruise missiles, and drones.

z Such was the case with three of the more famous of these invasions:
Lecture 24—The Great Blunders: Four Paths to Failure

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by poorly chosen motivations for mounting the invasion.

z Two key factors that remained constant from the days of Alexander
through the Soviet invasion played a primary role in the similar
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z Even a cursory look at the experiences of the many invaders of

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we are simply not very good at learning from the past.
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mistakes might not be exemplary does not mean that we should
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it is essential to at least attempt to glean its lessons.

168
 ż In his account of the Romans’ rise to domination over the
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these you can choose for yourself and your country noble deeds
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This message remains vital and important today.

Suggested Reading

&RKHQDQG*RRFKMilitary Misfortunes.
+ROWInto the Land of Bones.

Questions to Consider

1. 2I WKH YDULRXV FDWHJRULHV RI PLOLWDU\ IDLOXUH IDLOXUHV RI SODQQLQJ
OHDGHUVKLSH[HFXWLRQDQGDGDSWDWLRQZKLFKGR\RXWKLQNLVWKHPRVW
blameworthy? Which do you think has been the greatest cause of
military disasters and why?

2. Why do you think humans have a tendency repeat the same mistakes?
Why are we not better at learning from the mistakes of the past?

169
 Bibliography

$GNLQ 0DUN The Charge: The Real Reason Why the Light Brigade Was
Lost /RQGRQ 3LPOLFR %RRNV  6WDQGDUG QDUUDWLYH RI WKH FKDUJH WKDW
advocates a few controversial views but is a solid overall account.

$QGUHD $ - Contemporary Sources for the Fourth Crusade /HLGHQ
1HWKHUODQGV %ULOO  &RPSOHWH WUDQVODWHG DVVHPEODJH RI PHGLHYDO
writings concerning the Fourth Crusade. Not a coherent narrative but useful
to read to see how the Crusade was viewed at the time.

%DUEHUR$OHVVDQGURThe Day of the Barbarians1HZ<RUN:DONHU

Entertaining account of the Battle of Adrianople; intended for a general
audience.

%ODFN-HUHP\Culloden and the ’451HZ<RUN6W0DUWLQ¶V'HWDLOHG

DFFRXQW RI WKH HQWLUH -DFRELWH UHEHOOLRQ ZLWK DQ HPSKDVLV RQ PLOLWDU\
maneuvers.

%ULJKWRQ 7HUU\ Hell Riders: The Truth about the Charge of the Light
Brigade1HZ<RUN+ROW([FHOOHQWDQGGHWDLOHGDQDO\VLVWKDWSURYLGHV
many relevant quotes from eyewitnesses and has a nice series of appendices
examining various controversies associated with the charge.

&RKHQ (OLRW DQG -RKQ *RRFK Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of

Failure in War1HZ<RUN9LQWDJH,QWHUHVWLQJDWWHPSWWRDQDO\]HWKH
causes behind military disasters and to categorize the various factors that
cause these mishaps.

'DOU\PSOH:LOOLDPReturn of a King: The Battle for Afghanistan, 1839–42.

1HZ <RUN 9LQWDJH  6FKRODUO\ EXW KLJKO\ HQWHUWDLQLQJ WHOOLQJ RI WKH
disastrous British intervention in Afghanistan and the principal characters
Bibliography

involved in it.

170
'H &UHVSLJQ\ 5DIH Imperial Warlord: A Biography of Cao Cao /HLGHQ
1HWKHUODQGV %ULOO  7KRURXJK VFKRODUO\ ELRJUDSK\ RI &DR &DR
including an assessment of his career and later reputation.

'RQRYDQ -DPHV A Terrible Glory: Custer and the Little Bighorn. New
<RUN /LWWOH %URZQ DQG &RPSDQ\  6WDQGDUG ZRUN RQ WKH EDWWOH WKDW
examines it and the events leading up to it in detail.

)HJOH\5DQGDOOThe Golden Spurs of Kortrijk/RQGRQ0F)DUODQG

Entertaining account of the battle that usefully includes background material
on the region and on late medieval social and economic developments.

)LHOGV 1LF Syracuse, 415–413 BC 2[IRUG 8. 2VSUH\  7\SLFDO
2VSUH\ SURGXFW SURYLGLQJ D VROLG EXW EULHI RYHUYLHZ RI WKH FDPSDLJQ
accompanied by excellent maps.

)LQH -RKQ The Early Medieval Balkans $QQ $UERU 0, 8QLYHUVLW\
RI 0LFKLJDQ  6XUYH\ E\ DQ HPLQHQW KLVWRULDQ WKDW KDV D VKRUW EXW
authoritative section on Pliska.

*DEULHO 5LFKDUG Genghis Khan’s Greatest General: Subotai the Valiant.

1RUPDQ2.8QLYHUVLW\RI2NODKRPD*RRGELRJUDSK\RIWKH0RQJRO
JHQHUDOLQFRUSRUDWLQJSULPDU\VRXUFHV

+DOGRQ -RKQ The Byzantine Wars 6WURXG *ORXFHVWHUVKLUH 8. 7KH

+LVWRU\ 3UHVV  &RYHUV %\]DQWLQH ZDUIDUH RYHU DQ \HDU VSDQ EXW
contains a useful account of the Battle of Pliska.

+DUGLQJ 5LFKDUG Amphibious Warfare in the Eighteenth Century: The

British Expedition to the West Indies, 1740–17425RFKHVWHU1<%R\GHOO
1991. Dry but detailed scholarly study of the attack on Cartagena.

+DUW3HWHUGallipoli1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV([KDXVWLYH
DFFRXQW RI WKH GRRPHG FDPSDLJQ ZLWK H[WHQVLYH TXRWHV IURP GLDULHV DQG
other documents by those who participated.

171
 +HVV(DUOInto the Crater: The Mine Attack at Petersburg&ROXPELD6&
8QLYHUVLW\RI6RXWK&DUROLQD3UHVV6ROLGXSWRGDWHQDUUDWLYHRIWKH
Battle of the Crater.

+ROW )UDQN Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan.
%HUNHOH\ 8QLYHUVLW\ RI &DOLIRUQLD 3UHVV  ,QWHUHVWLQJ UHFRXQWLQJ RI
Alexander’s experiences in Afghanistan that implicitly draws many parallels
to later invasions.

+RSNLUN3HWHUThe Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia.

1HZ<RUN.RGDQVKD&ODVVLFDFFRXQWRIWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHVWUXJJOHRI
Britain and Russia for supremacy in central Asia.

-RQDV5D\PRQGThe Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire.

&DPEULGJH0$+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV7KHEHVWDQGHVVHQWLDOO\
the only) modern book on the topic in English. A bit more interested in the
internal politics of Ethiopia than the military details of the battle but still a
good account.

.DJDQ'RQDOGThe Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition,WKDFD1<

&RUQHOO8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2QHYROXPHRI.DJDQ¶VPXOWLYROXPHKLVWRU\
RIWKH3HORSRQQHVLDQ:DU7KHGH¿QLWLYHZRUNRQWKHVXEMHFW

.HUVKDZ5REHUWIt Never Snows in September+HUVKDP6XUUH\8.,DQ

$OODQ  ,QWHUHVWLQJ FRXQWHUSRLQW WR VWDQGDUG DFFRXQWV RI 2SHUDWLRQ
Market Garden; this book focuses on telling the story of the battle from the
German perspective.

.QLJKW ,DQ Colenso, 1899 2[IRUG 8. 2VSUH\  6KRUW EXW ZHOO
LOOXVWUDWHGDFFRXQWRIWKHEDWWOHWKDWDOVRFRYHUV6SLRQ.RS

———. Zulu Rising: The Epic Story of Isandlwana and Rorke’s Drift. New
<RUN 0DF0LOODQ  %DODQFHG DFFRXQW RI WKH EDWWOHV WKDW LQFRUSRUDWHV
Bibliography

WKH ODWHVW DUFKDHRORJLFDO DQG KLVWRULFDO HYLGHQFH GHEXQNLQJ VRPH HDUOLHU

interpretations.

172
.XOLNRZVNL 0LFKDHO Rome’s Gothic Wars 1HZ <RUN &DPEULGJH
8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV6ROLGVFKRODUO\VXUYH\RI5RPH¶VUHODWLRQVZLWKWKH
Goths from the 3rd through the 5th centuries.

/LHYHQ 'RPLQLF Russia against Napoleon 1HZ <RUN 3HQJXLQ 

6ROLG WHOOLQJ RI WKH HQWLUH FRXUVH RI 1DSROHRQ¶V ZDU ZLWK 5XVVLD IURP WKH
background of the invasion of Russia to the eventual counterinvasion of
France.

/RFN5RQDQG3HWHU4XDQWULOOZulu Victory: The Epic of Isandlwana and

the Cover Up/RQGRQ*UHHQKLOO*RRGQDUUDWLYHWKDWLVVWUHQJWKHQHG
by the inclusion of many primary sources.

0DF'RZDOO 6LPRQ Adrianople, AD 378 2[IRUG 8. 2VSUH\ 

'HSHQGDEOH EULHI VXUYH\ RI WKH FDPSDLJQ DQG EDWWOH WKDW LV D KHDY\ RQ
describing the units involved.

0D\7LPRWK\The Mongol Art of War<DUGOH\3$:HVWKROPH3XEOLVKLQJ

 8SWRGDWH JHQHUDO VXUYH\ RI KRZ WKH 0RQJROV ZDJHG ZDU E\ D
Mongol expert.

0LGGOHEURRN 0DUWLQ DQG 3DWULFN 0DKRQH\ Battleship: The Loss of the

Prince of Wales and the Repulse 1HZ<RUN 3HQJXLQ $XWKRULWDWLYH
description and analysis of the destruction of Force Z that incorporates many
interviews with survivors.

1HLOODQGV5RELQThe Dieppe Raid/RQGRQ$XUXP*RRGPDWWHURI

IDFWGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHUDLGZLWKDFKDSWHURQWKHHYHQWVDWHDFKEHDFK

1LFROOH ' DQG 9 6KSDNRYVN\ Kalka River, 1223. 2[IRUG 8. 2VSUH\
2001. One of the few works to focus exclusively on the battle. Includes
excellent maps.

3DNHQKDP 7KRPDV The Boer War 1HZ <RUN 5DQGRP +RXVH 
Classic work on the entire war that has a nice mixture of thoroughness and
readability.

173
 3KLOEULFN1DWKDQLHOThe Last Stand: Custer, Sitting Bull, and the Battle of
the Little Bighorn1HZ<RUN9LNLQJ:HOOZULWWHQDFFRXQWZLWKJRRG
maps and many interesting details.

3KLOLSV-RQDWKDQThe Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. New

<RUN3HQJXLQ([FHOOHQWGHWDLOHGDFFRXQWRIWKHHQWLUH&UXVDGHDQG
WKH¿JXUHVLQYROYHGZULWWHQLQDIDVWSDFHGOLYHO\VW\OH

3ULRU 5RELQ Gallipoli: The End of the Myth 1HZ +DYHQ &7 <DOH
8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV  *RRG RYHUYLHZ WKDW LQFOXGHV LQWHUHVWLQJ FULWLFDO
analysis of many of the commonly asserted theories concerning the
expedition and the reasons for its failure.

5HLG 6WXDUW Culloden Moor, 1746 2[IRUG 8. 2VSUH\  6KRUW EXW
balanced description of the battle that includes more modern analysis of its
events.

5LFKPRQG+:The Navy in the War of 1739–481HZ<RUN&DPEULGJH

8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV6FKRODUO\VXUYH\RIWKHEURDGHUFRQÀLFWRIZKLFKWKH
siege of Cartagena was a part.

5\DQ&RUQHOLXVA Bridge Too Far1HZ<RUN)DZFHWW%HVWVHOOLQJ

DFFRXQWRIWKHEDWWOHDQGWKHEDVLVIRUDELJEXGJHWPRYLH$ELWROGQRZDQG
some aspects have been disputed by later scholarship but still a great read.

6DGOHU -RKQ Culloden: The Last Charge of the Highland Clans, 1746.
6WURXG*ORXFHVWHUVKLUH8.7HPSXV(QWHUWDLQLQJVWXG\RIWKHEDWWOH
incorporating many quotes from eyewitnesses.

6DPSVRQ*DUHWKThe Defeat of Rome in the East: Crassus, the Parthians,

and the Disastrous Battle of Carrhae 3KLODGHOSKLD 3$ &DVHPDWH 3UHVV
$WKRURXJKDQGEDODQFHGGHVFULSWLRQDQGDQDO\VLVRIWKHFDPSDLJQWKH
SURWDJRQLVWVDQGWKHEDWWOH7KHEHVWVWDUWLQJSRLQW
Bibliography

6FKPXW]-RKQThe Battle of the Crater: A Complete History-HIIHUVRQ1&

0F)DUODQGDQG&RPSDQ\3UREDEO\WKHPRVWFRPSUHKHQVLYHUHWHOOLQJ
RIWKHGLJJLQJRIWKHPLQHWKHH[SORVLRQDQGWKHEDWWOHWKDWIROORZHG

174
6KHOGRQ5RVH0DU\Rome’s Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand. London:
9DOHQWLQH 0LWFKHOO  &RYHUV WKH HQWLUH KLVWRU\ RI 5RPDQ3DUWKLDQ
relations. Useful for understanding the broader context.

6KRZDOWHU 'HQQLV Tannenberg: Clash of Empires 'XOOHV 9$ 3RWRPDF

%RRNV7KHPRVWDXWKRULWDWLYHDQGGHWDLOHGERRNRQWKHEDWWOHEXWDELW
of a dry read; could use more maps and illustrations.

6ZHHWPDQ -RKQ Tannenberg, 1914 /RQGRQ &DVVHOO  1LFH KLJKO\

UHDGDEOHDFFRXQWRIWKHEDWWOHDLPHGDWWKHJHQHUDOUHDGHUZLWKRXWVWDQGLQJ
and copious maps and illustrations.

Thucydides. The Landmark Thucydides. Edited by Robert Strassler. New

<RUN)UHH3UHVV([FHOOHQWHGLWLRQRI7KXF\GLGHV¶VThe Peloponnesian
WarZLWKWUDQVODWLRQQRWHVPDSVDQGXVHIXODSSHQGLFHV

7MRD +RFN The Battle of Chibi (Red Cliffs). Create Space Independent
3XEOLVKLQJ 3ODWIRUP DYDLODEOH RQ $PD]RQFRP  $FFHVVLEOH
translation of selected passages from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
that tell the story of Red Cliffs and the battle’s chief protagonists.

7XUQEXOO 6WHSKHQ Battles of the Samurai /RQGRQ $UPV DQG $UPRXU

1992. Offers broader coverage of samurai warfare and tactics and provides
LQWHUHVWLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ WKH ORQJ KLVWRU\ RI FRQÀLFW OHDGLQJ XS WR
1DJDVKLQRDVZHOODVDFKDSWHUVSHFL¿FDOO\RQWKHEDWWOH

———. Nagashino, 15752[IRUG8.2VSUH\*RRGTXLFNJHQHUDO

VXUYH\RIWKHDUPLHVJHQHUDOVFDPSDLJQDQGEDWWOH

9HUEUXJJHQ - ) The Battle of the Golden Spurs 5RFKHVWHU 1< %R\GHOO
3UHVV  7KH GH¿QLWLYH VFKRODUO\ ZRUN RQ WKH EDWWOH EXW LQ ERWK
RUJDQL]DWLRQDQGVW\OHQRWYHU\UHDGHUIULHQGO\

:RRGPDQ 5LFKDUG Arctic Convoys, 1941–1945 %DUQVOH\ 8. 3HQ DQG

6ZRUG  'HWDLOHG FKURQRORJLFDO DFFRXQW RI HYHU\ RQH RI WKH $UFWLF
FRQYR\VLQFOXGLQJ34

175
 =DPR\VNL $GDP 1812: Napoleon’s Fatal March on Moscow. New
<RUN +DUSHU &ROOLQV  6XSHUODWLYH QDUUDWLYH RI 1DSROHRQ¶V LOOIDWHG
H[SHGLWLRQ'HWDLOHGVFKRODUO\DQGHQWHUWDLQLQJ

=XHKONH 0DUN Tragedy at Dieppe 9DQFRXYHU &DQDGD 'RXJODV DQG

0F,QW\UH/HQJWK\DFFRXQWVWURQJRQJLYLQJWKHVWRULHVRILQGLYLGXDO
participants in the disaster.
Bibliography

176