Technical Publications Pune”2 Ge! Electrical Machines - | ISBN 9788184315356 All fights reserved with Technical Publications. No part ofthis book should be reproduced in ary form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage ond retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” “#1, Amit Reslency, 412, Shaniwar Pe, Pune - 411 030, Inc. Printer : ‘Alt DTPinten Scoe. 10/3,Sichagad Road, Pine 411 041 LEE IT I LE EESTable of Contents 41.2 Magnet and its Properties .. 13 Laws of Magnetism ..... 41.4 Magnetic Field... 1.4.1 Magnetic Lines of Force 1.4.2 Direction of Magnetic Field. 1.4.3 Properties of Lines of Force 1.5 Magnetic Flux (e) 1.6 Pole Strength ... 4.7 Magnetic Flux Density (B)..... 1.8 Magnetic Field Strength (H). 1.9 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current (Electromagnets)... 4.9.1 Magnetic Field due to Straight Conductor. 1.9.4.4 Rules to Determine Ditection of Fl Arcund Conductor. 3 1.9.2 Magnetic Field due to Circular Conductor ie. Solenoid 1.10 Permeability 1.10.1 Absolute Permeability (1). 1.10.2 Permeability of Free Space or Vacuum tu. 1.10.3 Relative Permeability jt.) 1.11 Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F. or F).. 112.Reluctance (s) 14 Magnetic Circuits ... 1.14.1 Series Magnetic Circuits, 1.14.2 Senes Circuit with Air Gap . 1.14.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits... . ann 1.14.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with Air a. is1.15 Kirchhoff's Laws for Magnetic Circuit.......... 1-26 1.15.4 Kirehhoff's Flux Law 1-26 1.1.2 Kirchhoff's MME. Law. 1-20 1.16 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Cirouits ......... ses a? 1.17 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing 1-28 1.17.4 Leakage Coefficien! or Hopkinson's Coefficient 24-29 1.17.2 Magnetic Fringing betes 21-29 1.18 Introduction to Electromagnetism ........ 1-31 1.19 Faraday's Experiment..... 1-34 1.20 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction... 1.20.2 Second Law. . x 4-33 1.22 Dynamically Induced E.M-F. 2 1.22.1 Magnitude of Dynamically induced EMF..............0.. 1.22.2 Direction of Dynamically Induced E.M.F. 1.23 Statically Induced E.M.F. .. 1.25 Mutually Induced E.MF. 1.26 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field 1.26.1 Expression for Enemy Stored in the Magnetic Fiel 4.26.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volume 1.27 B-H Curve or Magnetization Curve . 1.27.1 B-H Curve and Permeability 122. ical 1.28 Magnetic Hysteresis .. 1.28.1 Steps in Obiaining Hysteresis Loop 1.28.2 Theory Behind Hysteresis Effect 1.29 Hysteresis Loss....... 1.29.1 Hysteresis Loss Per Unit Volume 1.29.2 Practical Use of Hysteresis Loop . 1.30 Eddy Current Loss 1.31 R-L Series Circuit 1.31.4 R-L Time Constant . . 1.31.2 Current Decay in R-L Circuit Examples with Solutions Review Questions ...2.1 Introduction .. 2.2 Energy Balance...... 2.3 Laws of Electromagnetism. 2.4 Energy Flow in Electromechanical Energy Conversion Device...... 2.5 Types of Magnetic System... 2.6 Singly Excited Magnetic System 2.6.1 Electric Energy Input. . 2.6.2 Magnetic Field Energy Stored. . . se-cresw aur sT reer 2.6.4 Determining Mechanical Force 2.6.5 Mechanical Energy 2.7 Multiple Excited Magnelic System... 2.8 Analysis of Elementary Reluctance Motor.. 2.8.1 Working Principle. 2.8.2 Torque Developed in Reluctance Motor 2.9 Advantages of Field Energy Method Examples with Solutions .. 34Untroduction 3.2 Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator... 3.3 Fleming's Right Hand Rule .. 3.4 Single Turn Alternator 38.1. Yoke 352Polas 3.6.3 Field Winding (F4- F2) 3.84 Armature 3.6.5 Commutatar. 3.5.7 Bearings 3.6 Types of Armature. 2 winding 3.6.1 Lap Winding. .3.6.2 Wave Winding 3.6.3 Comparison of Lap and Wave Type Winding 3.7 E.M.F. Equation of D.C. Machine... 3.8 Winding Terminologies .. 3.9 Single Layer and Double aver Winding. 3.9.4 Single Layer Winding. ....... 3.9.2 Double Layer Winding 3.10 Closed and Open Windings 3.10.1 Closed Type Winding 3.10.2 Open Type Winding... cow peeeeeeeeeeeees i 3.111 Introduction to Armature Reaction 3-18 - 3.12 Concept of Armature Reaction... 3.13 Demagnetising and Cross Magnetising Conductors... 3.13.1 Calculation of Demagnetising and Cross Magnetising Amp-Tums . 3.47.4 Expression of Reactance Voltage . 3.18 Methods of Improving Commutation .. ee 3.181 Resistance Commutation H ie aoa 3.18.11 Advantages of Resistance Commutation poses ee oc» SER 3:18.12 Disadvantanes ofResislace Commulation 6, 318.21 Ging Brush Shit Pere ree pe 3.18.22 Interpoles . pee see 3H 4.3.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule 4.4 Significance of Back E.M.F. 4.4.1 Voltage Equation of a D.C. Motor... 4.4.2 Back E.MF. as a Regulating Mechanism 4.5 Power Equation of a D.C. Motor .. Copyrighted material4.5.1 Condition for Maximum Power . . . 4.6 Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor... 4.6.1 Types of Torque in the Motor Bia ei 62 ‘oui : 4.7 Types of D.C. Motors... 4.8 D.C. Shunt Motor 48.1 Voltage and Current Relationship... 2.60. .s. see esses eee se sees eee he 12 SGD Serie Nr i seated cSaeeatnnanncainash 4B 49.1 Voltage and Current Relationship. Fe POET TOOT 4-13 4.10 D.C. Compound Motor... 4,10.1 Long Shunt Compound Motor 4.40.2 Short Shunt Compound Motor 4.11 Torque and Speed Equations. 4.11.1 Speed Regulation . 4.14 Characteristics of D.C. Series Motor. 4.15 Why Series Motor is Never Started on No Load ?... 4.16 Characteristics of D.C. Compound Motor... 4.17 Applications of D.C. Motors ..... 4.18 Effect of the Armature Reaction on Performance of a D.C. Moto! 4.19 Necessity of Starter... 4.20 Three Point Starter. 4.20.1 Functions of No Volt Coil. 4.20.2 Action of Over Load Release. 4.203 Disadvantage. . 4.20.4 Calculation of steps of starter Resistance 4.21 Four Point Starter. 4.24.4 Disadvantage ......... 4.22 D.C, Series Motor Starter. 4.23 Factors Affecting the Speed of a D.C. Motor... 4.24 Ratings of a D.C. Motor... 4.25 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Moto! 4.25.4 Flux Contol........... 4.25.1.1 Advantages of Flux Control Method 4,25.1.2 Disadvantages of Flux ControlMethod. -. 2. ee4.25.2 Armature Voltage Control Method or Rheostatic Control . .. veveeee 4-40 4.25.2.1 Potential Divider Control 4-4" 4.25.2.2 Advantages of Rheoslatic Control... . a 4-42 4.25.2:3 Disadvantages of Rheostetic Control a. 4-42 4.25.3 Applied Voltage Control... sss es eeereee Deepa ien eR? 4.25.3.4 Advantages of Applied Votage Control 4-43 4,253.2 Disadvantages of Applied Voltage Contol 4-43 4.26 Speed Control of D.C. Series Motor a QBS ERC CONAN i i RA 4.26.4.1 Field Divertor Method 4-85 4.26.1.2 Armature DivertorMethod. 4.26.1.3 Tapped Field Method. z z x z 4-46 26.1.4 Series -P; Fi wr 4: i 4.26.3 Applied Voltage Control. . 4.27 Ward - Leonard System of Speed Control ‘i Example with Solutions Review Questions .... 5.1 Introduction 5.2.1 Copper Losses ........ 5.2.3 Mechanical Losses ..............--..+ 5.3 Efficiency of a D.C. Machine. 5.3.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency . 5.3.2 Current at Maximum Efficiency 5.4 Testing of D.C. Motors 5.4.1 Direct Method of Testing 54.2 Indirect Method of Testing ...............0006 55.1 Advantages . . . 55.2 Disadvantages. 5.6.1 Advantages... 56.2 Disadvantages. 5.7 Retardation Test or Running Down Test.5.7.4 Determination ot. aR LER Ra HEL NAR SANE REE RS 5-15 5.1.2 Determination of Moment of Inertia ()......- 000... cc eee eeeee etree eee B16 5.8 Hopkinson’s Test 5.8.1 Advantages... . 5.8.2 Disadvantages 5.9 Field Test... Examples with Solutions... Review Questions. : fs “ etytor ent) 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Principle of Working... 6.2.1 Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformers ? 6.3 Construction. 6.4 Types of Transformers 6.4.4 Core Type Transformer . 6.4.2 Shell Type Transformer. 6.4.3 Berry Type Transformer 6.4.4 Comparison of Core and Shell Type. 6.5 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer. 6.6 Ratios of a Transformer 6.6.1 Voltage Ratio. 6.6.2 Ideal Transformer 6.6.3 Current Ratio. 6.6.4 Volt Ampere Rating 6.7 Ideal Transformer on No Load 6.8 Practical Transformer on No Load 6.9 Transformer on Load .... 6.10 Effect of Winding Resistances 6.10.1 Equivalent Resistance 6.11 Effect of Leakage Reactances 6.11.1 Equivalent Leakage Reactance. . 6.12 Equivalent Impedance........ 6.13 Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load 6.13.1 Unity Power Factor Load, 008 2 = 1... 6.13.2 Lagging Power Factor Load, cos Oz ....sseseeeseees PT REEL OSA SU eas6.13.3 Leading Power Factor Load, cos 2 . . . 6.14 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer . 6.14.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit i 6.15 Approximate Voltage Drop ina Transformer. 6.16 Voltage Regulation of Transformer... 6.16.1 Expression for Voltage Regulation . 6.16.2 Zero Voltage Regulation a ceseceeaes 6.16.3 Constants of a Transformer. BR 6.17 Losses in a Transformer 6.17.1 Core or Iron Losses. . . 6.17.2. Copper Losses .... 6.18 Efficiency of a Transformer. 6.19 Condition for Maximum Efficiency.............. 6.19.1 Load Current lan at Maximum Efficiency. . 6.19.2 kVA Supplied at Maximum Efficiency 6.20 Parallel Operation of Transformers ....... 6.21 Conditions for Satisfactory Parallel Operation . 6.21.1 Explanation of Conditions ........ 6.22 Parallel Operation of Two Ideal Transformers 6.23 Paraile| Operation of Transformers with Equal Voltage Ratios 6.24 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios .. 6 - 54 6.25 Polarity Test .... 6.26 Indirect Loading Tests on Transformer 6.26.1 Open Circuit Test (0.C. Test) 6.26.2 Short Circuit Test ( S.C. Test) i 5 6.26.3 Caleulation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests... . 6-66 6.26.4 Calculation of Regulation vevvinccsnserarancenins AGB. 6.27 Sumpner's Test (Back to Back Test) .. saa = "70. 6.28 Separation of Core Losses .... 6.29 Impulse Test .... i 6.30 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer 6.33 Transformation Ratio of an Autotransforme: 6.34 Copper Saving in Autotransformer...6.35 Power Transfer in Autotransformer.. 6.31 VA Rating of Autotransformer 6.37 Conversion of Two Winding Transformer to an Autotransformer.. 6.37.1 Additive Polarity. 6.37.2 Subiractive Polarity . e 6.38 Advantages of ‘Autotransformer 6.39 Limitations of Autotransformer. 6.40 Applications of Autotransformer. Examples with Solutions... Review Questions.....Basics of Magnetism 1.1 Introduction All of us are familiar with a magnet. It is a piece of solid body which possesses a property of attracting iron pieces and pieces of some other metals. This is called a natural magnet . While as per the discovery of Scientist Oersted we can have an electromagnet. Scientist Oersted stated that any current carrying conductor is always surrounded by a magnetic field..The property of such current is called magnetic effect of an electric current, Natural magnet of an electromagnet, both have close relation with electromotive force (em), mechanical force experienced by conductor, elecitic current etc. To understand this relationship it is necessary to study the fundamental concepts of magnetic circuits. 1.2 Magnet and its Properties ‘A magnet is a piece of solid body which possesses property of attracting iron and some other metal pieces. i) When such a magnet is rolled into iron pieces it will be observed that iron pieces cling to it as shown in Fig. 1.1 Iron pieces accumulnie The maximum iron pieces accumulate at more al the ends the two ends of the magnet while very few “3 € accumulate at the centre of the magnet. vy The points at which the iron pieces Fig. 1.1 Natural magnet accumulate maximum are called Poles of the magnet while imaginary line joining these poles is called Axis of the magnet. ii) When such magnet is suspended freely by a piece of silk fibre, it turns and always adjusts itself in the direction of North and Fig. 1.2 Freely suspended South of the earth. The pole which adjusts itself in the direction of North is called North seeking or North (N) pole, while the pole which points in the direction of South is called South seeking or South (S) pole. Such freely suspended magnet is shown in the Fig. 1.2. a-4)Electrical Machines -1 1-2 Basics of Magnetism This is the property due to which it is used in the compass needle which is'used by navigators to find the directions. iii) When a magnet is placed near an iron or steel piece, its property of attraction gets transferred to iron or steel piece. Such transfer of property of attraction is also possible by actually rubbing the pole of magnet on an iron or steel piece. Such property is called magnetic induction. Magnetic Induction : The phenomenon due to which a magnet can induce magnetism in a (iron or steel) piece of magnetic material placed near it without actual:physical contact fs called magnetic induction. iv) An ordinary piece of magnetic material when brought near to any pole N or S gets attracted towards the pole. But if another magnet is brought near the magnet such that two like poles ('N' and 'N' or 'S' and 'S'), it shows a repulsion in between them while if two unlike poles are brought fear, it shows a force of attraction. Key Point: Like poles repel each other and the wtlike poles attract each other. Repulsion is the sure test of magnetism as ordinary piece of magnetic material always shows attraction towards both the poles. 1.3 Laws of Magnetism There are two fundamental laws of magnetism which are as follows : © Law 42 It states that ‘Like magnetic This is already mentioned in the properties of magnet. Law 2: This law is experimentally proved by Scientist Coulomb and hence also known as Coulomb's Law. ‘The force ( F ) exerted by one pole on the other pole is, a) Directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths, b) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and c) Nature of medium surrounding the poles. Mathematically this law can be expressed as, Mi M: Fe“ et M, and My are pole strengths of the poles while'd is distance between the poles. KMiMz + az Where K depends on the nature of the surroundings and called permeability.Electrical Machines - | 1-3 Basics of Magnetism 1.4 Magnetic Field We have seen that magnet has its influence on the surrounding medium. The region around a magnet within. which the influence of the magnet can be experienced is called magnetic field. Existence of such field can be experienced with the help of compass needle, iron or pieces of metals or by bringing another magnet in vicinity of a magnet. 1.4.1 Magnetic Lines of Force The magnetic field of magnet is represented by imaginary lines around it which are called magnetic lines of force. Note that these lines have no physical existence, these are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday to get the visualization of distribution of such lines of force. 1.4.2 Direction of Magnetic Field The direction of magnetic field can be obtained by conducting small experiment Let us place a permanent magnet on table and cover it with’ a sheet of cardboard. Sprinkle steel or iron fillings uniformly over the sheet. Slight tapping of cardboard causes fillings to adjust themselves in a particular pattern as shown in the Fig. 13. Cardboard sheet ovens Fig. 1.3 Magnetic lines of force The shape of this pattern projects a mental picture of the magnetic field present around a magnet. A line of force can be defined as, Consider the isolated N pole (we cannot separate the pole but imagine to explain line of force) and it is allowed to move freely, in a magnetic field. Then path along which it moves is called line of force. Its shape is as shown in the Fig. 1.3 and direction always from N-pole towards S-pole. The direction of lines of force can be understood with the help of small compass needle. If magnet is placed with compass needles around it, then needles will take positions as shown in the Fig. 1.4, The tangent drawn at any Fig. 1.6 Compass needle experimentElectrical Machines -| 1-4 Basics of Magnetism point, of the dotted curve shown, gives direction of resultant force at that point. The N poles are all pointing along the dotted line shown from N- pole to its S-pole. ‘The lines of force for a bar magnet and U-shaped magnet are shown in the Fig. 1.5. Fig. 1.5 (a) Bar magnet Fig. 1.5 (b) U-shaped magnet Attraction between the unlike poles and repulsion between the like poles of two magnets can be easily understood from the direction of magnetic lines of force. This is shown in the Fig. 1.6 (a) and (b). Repulsion > as Attraction Lines of force Lines of force ‘Magnet 2 Fig. 1.6 (a) Force of attraction Fig. 1.6 (b) Force of repulsion 1.4.3 Properties of Lines of Force Though the lines of force are imaginary, with the help of them various magnetic effects can be explained very conveniently. Let us see the various properties of these lines of force. 1) Lines of force are always originating on a Extemal to N-pole and terminating on a S-pole, external {7 magnet to the magnet. 2) Each line forms a closed loop as shown in the Fig. 1.7. Key Point: This means that a line emerging from N-pole, continues upto S-pole external to the magnet Fig. 1.7 Lines of force complete while it is assumed to continue from S-pole to N-pole the closed path internal to the magnet completing a closed loop. Suck lines internal to the magnet are called as lines of induction.