Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pocket Reference
Art Kay and Tim Green, Editors
Download eBook at
www.ti.com/analogrefguide
Fourth Edition
Edited by:
We hope you find this collection of formulae as useful as we have. Please send any comments
and/or ideas you have for the next edition of the Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference to
artkay_timgreen@list.ti.com
Additional resources:
• Browse TI Precision Labs (www.ti.com/precisionlabs), a comprehensive online training
curriculum for analog engineers, which applies theory to real-world, hands-on examples.
• Search for complete board-and-system level circuits in the TI Designs – Precision
reference design library (www.ti.com/precisiondesigns).
• Read how-to blogs from TI precision analog experts at the Precision Hub
(www.ti.com/thehub).
• Find solutions, get help, share knowledge and solve problems with fellow engineers and
TI experts in the TI E2E™ Community (www.ti.com/e2e).
Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Physical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Standard decimal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Metric conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Temperature conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Error conversions (ppm and percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Discrete components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Resistor color code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Standard resistor values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Practical capacitor model and specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Practical capacitors vs frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Capacitor type overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Standard capacitance values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Capacitance marking and tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Diodes and LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Analog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Capacitor equations (series, parallel, charge, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Inductor equations (series, parallel, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Capacitor charge and discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
RMS and mean voltage definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
RMS and mean voltage examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Logarithmic mathematical definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
dB definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Log scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Pole and zero definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Time to phase shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Basic op amp configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Op amp bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Full power bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Small signal step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Noise equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Phase margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Stability open loop SPICE analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Instrumentation Amp filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
PCB and wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
PCB conductor spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Self-heating of PCB traces on inside layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
PCB trace resistance for 1oz and 2oz Cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Package types and dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
PCB parallel plate capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
PCB microstrip capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
PCB adjacent copper trace capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
PCB via capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Common coaxial cable specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Coaxial cable equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Resistance per length for different wire types (AWG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Maximum current for wire types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Temperature sensor overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Resistive temperature detector (RTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Diode temperature characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Thermocouple (J and K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A/D conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Binary/hex conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A/D and D/A transfer function (LSB, Data formats, FSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Quantization error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Total harmonic distortion (THD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Effective number of bits (ENOB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Noise free resolution and effective resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Setting time and conversion accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 5
6 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Conversions
Conversions
Conversions
Standard decimal prefixes •
Metric conversions •
Temperature scale conversions •
Error conversions (ppm and percentage) •
Example
Convert 10 mm to mil.
Answer mil
10 mm x 39.4 = 394 mil
mm
Discrete
Red 2 2 2% 50 0.1
Orange 3 3 15 0.01
Yellow 4 4 25 0.001
Green 5 5 0.5% 20
Blue 6 6 0.25% 10
Violet 7 7 0.1% 5
Grey 8 8 0.05% 1
White 9 9
Gold -na- -1 5%
Silver -na- -2 10%
No Band -na- -na- 20%
10.5 10.5 15.4 15.4 22.6 22.6 33.2 33.2 33 48.7 48.7 71.5 71.5
10.6 15.6 22.9 33.6 49.3 72.3
10.7 10.7 15.8 15.8 23.2 23.2 34.0 34.0 49.9 49.9 73.2 73.2
10.9 16.0 16 23.4 34.4 50.5 74.1
11.0 11.0 11 16.2 16.2 23.7 23.7 34.8 34.8 51.1 51.1 51 75.0 75.0 75
11.1 16.4 24.0 24 35.2 51.7 75.9
Table 8: Standard resistor values
11.3 11.3 16.5 16.5 24.3 24.3 35.7 35.7 52.3 52.3 76.8 76.8
11.4 16.7 24.6 36.1 36 53.0 77.7
11.5 11.5 16.9 16.9 24.9 24.9 36.5 36.5 53.6 53.6 78.7 78.7
11.7 17.2 25.2 37.0 54.2 79.6
13
Discrete Components
Discrete Components ti.com/precisionlabs
Rp
ESR C ESL
Figure 3:Figure
Effect 3:
of Effect
ESR andof ESR
ESL and ESL on capacitor
on capacitor frequency
frequency responseresponse
Example
CK06
223K Translate the capacitor marking
2 2 3 K "K" = ±10%
Example
X7R: –55°C to +125°C, ±15.0%
Cathode (-)
Anode (+) Cathode (-)
Cathode (-)
Anode (+) Cathode (-)
Long Lead Short Lead, Flat
Note: The voltages given are approximate, and are intended to show the general trend for
forward voltage drop of LED diodes. Consult the manufacturer’s data sheet for more precise
values.
Analog
Capacitor equations
Capacitor equations
1
C
1 1 1 (1) Series capacitors
C C C
C C
C (2) Two series capacitors
C
Where
Q = charge in coulombs (C)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A)
t = time in seconds (s)
dv
(6) Instantaneous current through a capacitor
dt
Where
i = instantaneous current through the capacitor
C = capacitance in farads (F)
dv = the instantaneous rate of voltage change
dt
1
CV (7) Energy stored in a capacitor
2
Where
E = energy stored in an capacitor in Joules (J)
V = voltage in volts
C = capacitance in farads (F)
Inductor equations
Inductor equations
L� � L� � L� � � � L� Series
(8)Series
(8) inductors
inductors
1
L� � Parallel inductors
1 1 1 (9)Parallel
(9) inductors
� � ��
L� L� L�
L� L�
L� � (10) Two
(10)Two parallel
parallel inductors
inductors
L� � L�
Where
Where
LLtt = equivalent totaltotal inductance
inductance
LL11,, L
L22,, L
L33…L
…LNN == component
componentinductance
inductance
di
v�L Instantaneousvoltage
(11)Instantaneous
(11) voltageacross
acrossananinductor
inductor
dt
Where
Where
v = instantaneous voltage across the inductor
v = instantaneous voltage across the inductor
L = inductance in Henries (H)
L = inductance in Henries (H)
di
� = instantaneous rate of current change
dt = the instantaneous rate of voltage change
��
1
� � LI� Energystored
(12)Energy
(12) storedininananinductor
Inductor
2
Where
Where
EE = energy stored
= energy stored in
in an
an inductor
inductorininJoules
Joules(J)
(J)
II ==current
currentininamps
amps
L = inductance in Henries (H)
L = inductance in Henries (H)
Equation for
Equation for charging
chargingaan
capacitor
RC circuit
��
V� � V� �� � �� � � � (13)
(13) General
General relationship
relationship
Equation for charging a capacitor
Where ��
V�C =�voltage
Where
V V� �� � �� � �the
across � capacitor(13)
at anyGeneral
instant inrelationship
time (t)
VCV ==voltage across
the source the capacitor
voltage charging at
theany
RCinstant
circuit in time (t)
S
VSt = =time
the source voltage charging the RC circuit
in seconds
Where
t = =
time
RC,inthe
seconds
time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
VC = voltage across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
τ = RC, the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
VS = the source voltage charging the RC circuit
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
t = time in seconds
capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common practice to consider
= RC, the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note
this fully charged.
that the capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
practice to consider this fully charged.
capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common practice to consider
this fully charged.
22 Texas Texas
22 Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Analog
Equation for discharging a capacitor
Equation for discharging an RC circuit
��
V� � V� ��� � � � (14) General
(14) General Relationship relationship
Equation for discharging a capacitor
Where
WhereV� � V� ��� � � �
��
(14) General relationship
VV CC == voltage
voltage across
across the capacitor
the capacitor at anyininstant
at any instant time (t) in time (t)
VV ==thethe
i Where initial voltage of the capacitor at t=0s
initial voltage of the capacitor at t=0s
I
t =VCtime in seconds
= voltage across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
τ t=V=IRC,
time intime
= thethe
seconds
constant
initial voltage of thefor charging
capacitor and discharging capacitors
at t=0s
t == time
RC,in the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
seconds
= RC, the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
Graphing equation 14 produces the capacitor discharge curve below. Note
Graphing
that equation
the capacitor 14 produces
is discharged to 0.7%the capacitor
at five discharge
time constants. curve belo
It is com-
Graphing equation 14 produces the capacitor discharge curve below. Note that the
mon practice to consider this fully discharged.
capacitor is 0.7% charged at five time constants. It is common prac
capacitor is 0.7% charged at five time constants. It is common practice to consider
this fullydischarged.
this fully discharged.
Percentage Discharged vs. Number of Time Constants
100
Percentage Discharged vs. Number of Time Consta
100
90
80
90
70
Charged Charged
80
60
70
PercentagePercentage
50
40
60
30
50
20
40
10
0
30 0 1 2 3 4 5
20 Number of time Constants (τ = RC)
Figure
10 8: RC discharge curve
Figure 7: RC discharge curve
0
0 1 2 3 4
Number of time Constants (τ = RC)
RMS voltage
RMS voltage
RMS voltage
RMS voltage1 ��
V��� � � � �V�t��� dt (15) General
(15) relationship
General relationship
��� � �� � ��
��
1 ��
V��� � � 1 � �V�t��� dt (15) General relationship
V��� �� � � ���� ���V�t��� dt (15) General relationship
Where ���� � � �� � ��
Where
V(t) = continuous function of time
V(t) = continuous function of time
t=Where
time in seconds
Where
t =V(t)
time continuous
in seconds function of time
T 1 ≤ t=≤continuous
T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
V(t)
T1t ≤ = function of time
= time 2in=seconds
t ≤ T the time interval that the function is defined over
t = time in seconds
T1 ≤ tvoltage
Mean ≤ T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
T1 ≤ t ≤ T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
Mean voltage
Mean voltage
1 ��
Mean
V���� voltage
� � V�t�dt (16) General relationship
��� � �� � ��
��
1 ��
V���� � 1 � V�t�dt (16)(16)
General relationship
General relationship
V ���� � ��� � ���
Where � ��V�t�dt (16) General relationship
��� � �� � ��
V(t) = continuous function of time
t= Where
Where time in seconds
Where
V(t) = continuous function ofthat
time
T
V(t) = ≤continuous
V(t)1 ≤=t continuous
T2 = the time interval
function
function of time the function is defined over
of time
t =time
tt == time inseconds
seconds
time in
in seconds
T1 ≤ t ≤ T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
TT11 ≤≤ t ≤ T22 == the
the time
time interval
interval that
that the
the function
functionisisdefined
definedover
over
V���� RMS for full wave rectified
V��� � (17)
√2 sine wave
V���� RMS for full wave rectified
V��� �V���� (17) RMS for full (17)
waveRMS for fullsine
rectified wave rectified
wave
V��� � 2 √2 � V���� (17) sine
Mean wave
for full wave rectified
V���� � √2 (18) sine wave
π sine wave
2 � V���� Mean for full wave rectified
V���� �2 � V���� (18) Mean for full(18) Mean for full wave rectified
V���� � π (18)wave rectified
sine wave sine wave
π sine wave
Figure
Figure 9: Full wave 8: Fullsine
rectified wave rectified sine wave
wave
Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave
24
ti.com/precisionlabs Analog
RMS voltage
RMS voltage andand mean
mean voltage
voltage
τ
V V (21)
(21) RMSRMS
for afor a square
square wavewave
T
τ
V V (22) Mean for a square wave
T
V (V V V
3
V
(( T (
τ (23) RMS
(23) for afortrapezoid
RMS a trapezoid
τ
V V V (24)
(24) Mean
Mean for afortrapezoid
a trapezoid
2T
τ (25) RMS
V V (25) for
RMSa triangle wave wave
for a triangle
3T
τ
V V (26) Mean
(26) Mean for a triangle
for a triangle wave wave
2T
Logarithmic mathematical
Logarithmic mathematical definitions
definitions
A
A B (27)ofLog
(27) Log of dividend
dividend
B
log A A (29)ofLog
(29) Log of exponent
exponent
log
log (30) Changing
(30) Changing the of
the base base
logof log function
function
log
log
log (31) Example changing
(31) Example to logtobase
changing 2
log base 2
log
(33) Exponential
(33) Exponential function
function to 6 digits.
to 6 digits
Alternative
Alternative notations
notations
Different
(34) Different notation
notation for exponential
for exponential function
exp x (34)
function
dB definitions
Bode plot basics
dB definitions
The frequency response for the magnitude or gain plot is the change in
voltage
Bode plot gain as frequency changes. This change is specified on a Bode plot,
basics
a plot of frequency versus voltage gain in dB (decibels). Bode plots are
The frequency
usually plottedresponse for theplots
as semi-log magnitude or gain ploton
with frequency is the
the change
x-axis, inlog
voltage
scale,gain
as frequency
and gain on the changes. This
y-axis, change
linear is specified
scale. The other on half
a Bode plot,frequency
of the a plot of frequency
versus voltage gain in dB (decibels). Bode plots are usually plotted as semi-log plots
response is the phase shift versus frequency and is plotted as frequency
with frequency on the x-axis, log scale, and gain on the y-axis, linear scale. The other
versus degrees
half of the phase
frequency shift. Phase
response plotsshift
is the phase are versus
usuallyfrequency
plotted as andsemi-log
is plotted as
plots with frequency on the x-axis, log scale, and phase
frequency versus degrees phase shift. Phase plots are usually plotted shift onasthesemi-log
y-axis, linear
plots with scale.on the x-axis, log scale, and phase shift on the y-axis, linear
frequency
scale.
Definitions
V
((36)
36) Voltage
Voltagegain
gaininindecibels
decibels
V
P
((37)
37) Power
Power gain
gain in
in decibels
decibels
P
Figure14:
Figure 13:Finding
Findingvalues
valueson
onlogarithmic
logarithmic axis
axis not
not directly
directly on
on aa grid
grid line
line
Bode plots:
Bode plots: PolesPoles
fP
100 0.707*GV/V = –3 dB
Actual
80 Straight-line
function
approximation
–20 dB/decade
60
G (dB)
40
20
0
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
Frequency (Hz)
+90
+45
(degrees)
0°
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
0
fP –45°/decade
–5.7° at
–45 10
–90°
–84.3° at fP x 10
–45° at fP
–90
Figure
Figure 15: Pole gain 14: Pole gain and phase
and phase
Pole Location
Pole=Location
fP (cutoff freq)
= fP (cutoff freq)
Magnitude (f < fP) = Gdc (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude (f < fP) = GDC (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude (f = fP) = –3 dB
MagnitudeMagnitude
(f > fP) = –20 (f dB/decade
= fP) = –3 dB
Phase (f =Magnitude
fP) = –45° (f > fP) = –20 dB/decade
Phase (0.1 fP < f <(f10
Phase = ffPP) == –45°/decade
–45°
Phase (f > 10 fP) = –90°
Phase (0.1 f < f < 10 fP) = –45°/decade
Phase (f < 0.1 fP) = 0° P
Phase (f > 10 fP) = –90°
Phase (f < 0.1 fP) = 0°
30 Texas 30
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Analog
Pole (equations)
Pole (equations)
V G
G (39) As (39)
a complex number number
As a complex
V j f
f
V G
G
V (40) Magnitude
f (40) Magnitude
f
f
(41)shift
(41) Phase Phase shift
f
G (42) Magnitude
(42) Magnitude in dB in dB
Where
Gv = voltage gain in V/V
Where
GdB = voltage gain in decibels
GGv= voltage gain in V/V
dc = the dc or low frequency voltage gain
GfdB= frequency
= voltageingain
Hz in decibels
GfDC
P == frequency
the dc oratlow
which the pole occurs
frequency voltage gain
θ = phase shift of the signal from input to output
f = frequency in Hz
fP = frequency at which the pole occurs
θ = phase shift of the signal from input to output
j = indicates imaginary number or √ –1
31
Analog ti.com/precisionlabs
BodeBode
plotsplots
(zeros)
(zeros)
80
60 Straight-line
approximation
G (dB)
+20 dB/decade
40
Actual
20 function
+3 dB
0
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
+90°
+90 +45° at fZ
84.3° at fZ x 10
+45 f
(degrees)
5.7° at Z +45°/decade
0° 10
0
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
Frequency (Hz)
–45
–90
Figure
Figure 16: Zero gain 15: Zero gain and phase
and phase
Zero location
Zero =location
fZ = fZ
Magnitude (f < fZ) = 0 dB
Magnitude (f < fZ) = 0 dB
Magnitude (f = fZ) = +3 dB
Magnitude (f = fZ) = +3 dB
Magnitude (f > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
Phase (f Magnitude
= fZ) = +45°(f > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
Phase
Phase (0.1 fZ < f(f<=10
fZ)fZ=) +45°
= +45°/decade
Phase (0.1
Phase (f > 10 fZ) = +90°fZ < f < 10 fZ) = +45°/decade
Phase (f Phase
< 0.1 fZ(f) =
> 0°
10 fZ) = +90°
Phase (f < 0.1 fZ) = 0°
Zero (equations)
Zero (equations)
V��� f
G� � � G�� �j � � � �� (43) As(43) As a complex
a complex number number
V�� f�
V��� f �
G� � � G�� �� � � � (44) Magnitude
(44) Magnitude
V�� f�
f
� � ����� � � (45) shift
(45) Phase Phase shift
f�
Where
GV = voltage gain in V/V
Where
GG ==
V dB
voltage
voltage gain
gain in in decibels
V/V
GG dB
DC==voltage
the dc or lowinfrequency
gain decibels voltage gain
f = frequency in Hz
GDC = the dc or low frequency voltage gain
fZ = frequency at which the zero occurs
f = frequency in Hz
θ = phase shift of the signal from input to output
fZ = frequency at which the zero occurs
θ = phase shift of the signal from input to output
j = indicates imaginary number or √ –1
P
S
(47) Phase
(47) shift fromshift
timefrom time
θ • 360° Phase
Where
TWhere
S = time shift from input to output signal
TTPS==period
time shift from input to output signal
of signal
θTP= =
phase shiftofofsignal
period the signal from input to output
θ = phase shift of the signal from input to output
Example
Answer
T 0.225 ms
T Ts 0.225ms
ms
( ) • 360° = 81°
1
θ= • 360° =
Tp 1 ms
34
34 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
Amplifier
Basic op amp configurations •
Op amp bandwidth •
Full power bandwidth •
Small signal step response •
Noise equations •
Stability equations •
Stability open loop SPICE analysis •
Amplifier
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 35
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
+
+
(49)
(49)Gain forfor
Gain non-inverting configuration
non-inverting configuration
R�
R�
G�� � �� R1
(49) Gain for non-inverting configuration
R� Rf
VCC
VOUT
VIN
+
VEE
ti.com/amplifiers
36 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
Basic op amp configurations (cont.)
R�
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
G�� � � (50) Gain for inverting configuration
R�
Basic op amp configurations (cont.)
Basic op amp configurations (cont.)
R�
G�� � � (50) Gain(50) Gain
for inverting for inverting
configuration configura
R�
+
R1 Rf
VIN VCC
VOUT
+
VEE
RN
Transfer function
R�
V��� � � �V� � V� � � � V� � (52) summing amplifi
R�
VN RN R1 = R2 = …=RN
R 2
V2
VN R2
R Rf
RN1
V1 VCC
V2 R1 Rf
VN R2 VOUT
Vcc
V1
V2 R1 Rf
- + VEE Vout
+ Vcc
V1 Inverting summing configuration
Figure 20:
-+ Vout
ti.com/amplifiers Vee
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference + 37
Figure 21: Inverting summing configuration
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
R� V� V� V� Transfer
(53) Transfer function
function forfor non-
V��� � � � �� � � � � � � inverting summing
(53)noninverting summing amplifier
amplifier
R �� N N N forforequal
equalinput
inputresistors
resistors
Where
R1 = R2 = … = RN
Where
R1N==Rnumber of input resistors
2 = … = RN
N = number of input resistors
Rin Rf
VCC
R1
VOUT
V1 R2
V2 RN
VEE
VN
ti.com/amplifiers
38 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
Simple
Simplenon-inverting amp
non-inverting amp withwith Cf filter
Cf filter
R1 Rf
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
Figure 23:
24: Frequency
Frequency response
response for
for non-inverting
non-inverting op
op amp
amp with
with C
Cff filter
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 39
39
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
Cf
R1 Rf
R1 Rf VCC
VIN
Vcc VOUT
Vin
-+ Vout
+
VEE
Vee
Figure 24: Inverting amplifier with Cf filter
Figure 25: Inverting amplifier with Cf filter
Figure
Figure 25: Frequency
26: Frequency response
response for inverting
for inverting op amp
op amp with
with C Cf filter
f filter
ti.com/amplifiers
40 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
Op amp bandwidth
Op amp bandwidth
GBW = Gain
GBW • BW
� Gain���BW (60) Gain
(60) bandwidth product
Gain bandwidth defined
product defined
Where
Where
GBWGBW = bandwidth
= gain gain bandwidth product,
product, listedlisted
in opinamp
op amp
datadata sheet specification table
sheet
Gain = closed loop
specification gain, set by op amp gain configuration
table
Gain BW = the loop
= closed bandwidth limitation
gain, set by op ampof thegain
amplifier
configuration
BW = the bandwidth limitation of the amplifier
Example
Note that the same result can be graphically determined using the AOL curve as
Note shown same result can be graphically determined using the AOL curve
that thebelow.
as shown below.
Open-loop gain and phase vs. frequency
Open-loop gain and phase vs. frequency
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 41
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
Full powerbandwidth
Full power bandwidth
Full power bandwidth
SR Maximum output without slew-rate induced
V� � (61) output without slew-rate induced distortion
(61) Maximum
2πfSR distortion
Maximum output without slew-rate induced
V� � (61)
2πf distortion
Where
VP = maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
Where
Where
VSR
P= = slew ratepeak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
VPmaximum
= maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
f = =frequency
SR of applied signal
SRslew raterate
= slew
f = ffrequency
= frequencyof applied signal
of applied signal
Maximum output voltage vs. frequency
Maximum output voltage vs. frequency
Maximum output voltage vs. frequency
�� �. ��/��
�� � � � �. ����� �� �. �����
��� ���������
�� �. ��/��
�� � � � �. ����� �� �. �����
��� ���������
ti.com/amplifiers
42 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
42
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
Small
Small signal step
signal step response
response
0.35
τ� � RiseRise
(62)
(62) timetime
for afor a small
small signal
signal stepstep
f� Small signal step response
Where 0.35
(62) Rise time for a small signal step
τ� �of a small signal step response
R = the rise time
Where f�
R
C = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit
t f= the rise time of a small signal step response
Wherebandwidth of the op amp circuit
fC = the closed-loop
Small signal step response waveform
R = the rise time of a small signal step response
fC = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit
Figure
Figure 28: 29: Small
Maximum signal
output step response
without slew-rate induced distortion
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 43
43
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
ti.com/amplifiers
44 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 45
45
45
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
1/f total
1/f total noise
noise calculation
calculation
1/f total noise calculation
E�_������ � � ��� �f� (65) Normalized1/f
(65) Normalized 1/fnoise
noiseatat1 1Hz
Hz
E�_������ � � ��� �f� (65) Normalized 1/f noise at 1 Hz
Where
Where
E Where = 1/f noise normalized to 1 Hz
ENN_NORMAL
_NORMAL = 1/f noise normalized to 1 Hz
EN_NORMAL
eBF = 1/f noise
= noise spectral normalized
density to 1 in
measured Hzthe 1/f region
eBF = =noise spectral density measured in thethe1/f
1/fregion
fOe=BFthe noise spectral
frequency thatdensity
the 1/f measured
noise eBF isinmeasured region
at
fOfO= =the
the frequency that the 1/f noise eBF is measuredat
frequency that the 1/f noise e BF is measured at
f�
E�_������� � � E�_������ ��� � f� (66) 1/f total noise calculation
f � 1/fnoise
total noise calculation
E�_������� � � E�_������ ��� �� � (66)
(66) 1/f total calculation
f�
Where
Where = total rms noise from flicker
EN_FLICKER
EN_FLICKER= =1/ftotal
EN_NORMAL
Where noisermsnormalized
noise fromtoflicker
1 Hz
E E
fHN_FLICKER
=N_NORMAL ==total
1/f frequency
upper cutoff noise normalized
rms noise orfrom tobandwidth
1 Hz
flicker
noise
E f=H = upper
fLN_NORMAL
lower =cutoff
cutoff frequency
1/f frequency,
noise or noise
normally
normalized bandwidth
to set
1Hzto 0.1 Hz
f = lower cutoff frequency, normally
f = upper cutoff frequency or noise bandwidth
L set to 0.1 Hz
H
fL = lower cutoff frequency, normally set to 0.1Hz
Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Number of Percent chance
Table 17:Number
standard Peak-to-peak
deviations
of conversion
reading is inchance
Percent range
2σstandard
(same as deviations
Number ±1σ) reading
of standard deviations is in range
68.3% Percent chance reading is in range
2σ (same as ±1σ) 68.3%
3σ (same as 2σ
±1.5σ)
(same as ±1σ) 86.6% 68.3%
3σ (same as ±1.5σ) 86.6% 86.6%
4σ (same as3σ (same as ±1.5σ)
±2σ) 95.4%
4σ (same as4σ±2σ)
(same as ±2σ) 95.4% 95.4%
5σ (same as ±2.5σ) 98.8%
5σ (same as ±2.5σ)
5σ (same as ±2.5σ) 98.8% 98.8%
6σ (same as ±3σ) 99.7%
6.6σ (same as ±3σ)
6σ (same as 99.7%
6σ (same as ±3σ) 99.7%
±3.3σ) 99.9%
6.6σ (same as(same
6.6σ ±3.3σ)
as ±3.3σ) 99.9% 99.9%
ti.com/amplifiers
46 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
46
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
1000
Noise Spectral Density (nV/rtHz)
100
10
‐55C
25C
1
125C
0.1
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Resistance (Ω)
Figure 32:
Figure 31: Noise
Noise spectral
spectral densitydensity vs. resistance
vs. resistance
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 47
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
Ac response
Ac responseversus frequency (Dominant 2-Pole System)
versus frequency
Ac response versus frequency
Figure 32 illustrates
Figure a bode
33 illustrates a bodeplot
plotwith four different
with four differentexamples
examples of peaking.
of ac ac peaking.
Figure 33 illustrates a bode plot with four different examples of ac peaking.
Figure
Figure 33: 32: Stability
Stability – ac peaking
– ac peaking relationship
relationship exampleexample
Figure 33: Stability – ac peaking relationship example
Phase margin versus ac peaking
Phase
Phase marginversus
margin versus ac
acpeaking
peaking
This graph illustrates the phase margin for any given level of ac peaking.
This This
graphgraph illustrates
illustrates thephase
the phasemargin
margin for
for any
anygiven
givenlevel of of
level ac ac
peaking.
peaking.
Note that 45° of phase margin or greater is required for stable operation.
NoteNote
thatthat
45°45°of phase
of phasemargin
marginor
or greater isrequired
greater is requiredforfor stable
stable operation.
operation.
Figure 34: Stability – phase margin vs. peaking for a two-pole system
Figure 34: Stability – phase margin vs. peaking for a two-pole system
Figure 33: Stability – phase margin vs. peaking for a two-pole system
ti.com/amplifiers
48 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
Figure 35:Figure
Stability
34:–Stability
transient overshootovershoot
– transient example example
Note:
FigureThe
Figure 36:curves
35: assume
Stability
Stability a two-pole
––phase
phase margin system.
marginvs.
vs.percentage
percentageovershoot
overshoot
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 49
49
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
VFB
R1 RF C1 1T
VIN
L1 1T
V+
VO
VOUT
Riso
CL
V–
Figure 36: Common spice test circuit used for stability
V�
A��_������ � � (68)
(69) Loaded Loaded
open-loop open-loop gain
gain
V��
1 1
�� (71) Closed-loop
(70) noise gain noise gain
Closed-loop
β V��
A��_������ � β � � V� (71)
(72) Loop gain Loop gain
Where
VO = the voltage at the output of the op amp.
Where
VVOOUT = the
= the voltage
voltage at output delivered
the output of thetoopthe load, which may be important to the
amp.
application but is not considered in stability
VOUT = the voltage output delivered to the load, analysis.
which may be important to
VFB =thefeedback voltage
application but is not considered in stability analysis.
RF , R1, RISO and CL = the op amp feedback network and load. Other op amp
VFB = feedback voltage
topologies will have different feedback networks; however, the test circuit will be the
Rsame
F , R1for
, RiS0 andcases.
most CL = the op amp
Figure feedback
38 shows network and
the exception load.
to the rule (multiple feedback).
C1 andOther op components
L1 are amp topologies thatwill have different
facilitate feedbackThey
SPICE analysis. networks;
are large (1TF, 1TH)
to make
however, the test
the circuit circuit will
closed-loop forbe the
dc, butsame
openfor most
loop for cases.
ac frequencies. SPICE
requires
Figure 37 showsoperation
closed-loop the exception
at dc to
forthe rule (multiple feedback).
convergence.
C1 and L1 are components that facilitate SPICE analysis. They are large
(1TF, 1TH) to make the circuit closed-loop for dc, but open loop for ac
frequencies. SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc
for convergence.
ti.com/amplifiers
50 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
VFB
VFB
R1 RF
R1 RF
CIN CF
Cin CF
L1 1T
V+
V-
VIN C1 1T
- Riso
- Riso VOUT
C1 1T
Vin +
VO Vout
C
+ L
+
Vo CL
V–
V+
Figure 37: Alternative (multiple feedback) SPICE test circuit used for stability
Figure 38: Alternative (multiple feedback) SPICE test circuit used for stability
A��_������ � V� LoadedLoaded
(73) (72) open
open loop loop gain
gain
V��
β � (74) (73) Feedback
Feedback factor factor
V�
1 V�
� (75) (74) Closed-loop
Closed-loop noise gain
noise gain
β V��
Where
Where
VO = the voltage at the output of the op amp.
VO = the voltage at the output of the op amp.
VOUT = the voltage output delivered to the load. This may be important to the
V OUT = the voltage
application output
but is not delivered
considered to the load.
in stability This may be important to
analysis.
VFB =the application
feedback but is not considered in stability analysis.
voltage
V F, R
RFB , RISO and voltage
=1feedback CF = the op amp feedback network. Because there are two paths for
feedback, the loop is broken at the input.
RF, R1, Riso and CF = the op amp feedback network. Because there are two
C and L1 are components that facilitate SPICE analysis. They are large (1TF, 1TH)
1 paths for feedback, the loop is broken at the input.
to make the circuit closed loop for dc, but open loop for ac frequencies. SPICE
C 1 and L1
requires are components
closed-loop thatatfacilitate
operation SPICE analysis. They are large
dc for convergence.
C =(1TF, 1TH) to make
the equivalent inputthe circuit closed
capacitance loop
taken forthe
from dc,op
but open
amp loop for This
datasheet.
IN
ac frequencies. SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc for
capacitance normally does not need to be added because the model includes it.
convergence.
However, when using this simulation method the capacitance is isolated by
Cthe = theinductor.
IN 1TH equivalent input capacitance taken from the op amp datasheet.
This capacitance normally does not need to be added because the
model includes it. However, when using this simulation method the
capacitance is isolated by the 1TH inductor.
ti.com/amplifiers
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 51
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
R1 RF
+Vs
- VOUT
+
Voffset
-Vs
+
VIN
Volts
VOUT
Voffset 50mVpp
Test tips
• Choose test frequency << fcl
• Small signal (Vpp ≤ 50 mV) ac output square wave (for example, 1 kHz)
• Adjust VIN amplitude to yield output ≤ 50 mVpp
• Worst cases is usually when Voffset = 0 (Largest RO, for IOUT = 0A).
• Use Voffset as desired to check all output operating points for stability
• Set scope = ac couple and expand vertical scope scale to look for
amount of overshoot, undershoot, and ringing on VOUT
• Use 1x attenuation scope probe on VOUT for best resolution
ti.com/amplifiers
52 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
+15V
CCM1 1nF
RIN1
VIN- 1kΩ RG VOUT
CDIF Rg
10nF Out
1kΩ Ref
RIN2 RG
U1 INA333
VIN+ 1kΩ
CCCMDIF== common-mode
differential filter filter
capacitance
capacitance
Note: Selecting
Note: Selecting C CDIF ≥≥ 10
10 C CCM sets
sets the
the differential
differential mode
mode cutoff
cutoff frequency
frequency 10
10 times
times
DIF CM
Clower
DIF = differential
than the filter capacitance
common-mode cutoff frequency. This prevents common-mode noise
Note: than
lower Selecting CDIF ≥ 10 CCM sets
the common-mode cutoffthe differential
frequency. mode
This cutoff common-mode
prevents frequency 10 times
noise
from
from being
lowerbeing converted
than the into differential
common-mode
converted into differential noise due
due to
cutoff frequency.
noise to component
This tolerances.
prevents tolerances.
component common-mode noise
Note:
from Selecting CDIF ≥ into
being converted 10 Cdifferential
CM sets thenoise
differential
due to mode cutoff tolerances.
component frequency 10 times
lower than the common-mode cutoff frequency. This prevents common-mode noise
from being converted into differential noise due to component tolerances.
ti.com/amplifiers
53
53
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 53
53
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs
Notes
ti.com/amplifiers
54 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs PCB and
PCB andWire
Wire
PCB trace resistance for 1oz and 2oz Cu •
Conductor spacing in a PCB for safe operation •
Current carrying capacity of copper conductors •
Package types and dimensions •
PCB trace capacitance and inductance •
PCB via capacitance and inductance •
Common coaxial cable specifications •
Coaxial cable equations •
Resistance per length for wire types •
Maximum current for wire types •
Minimum spacing
Voltage between Bare board Assembly
conductors
(dc or ac peaks) B1 B2 B3 B4 A5 A6 A7
0.05 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.05 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm
0-15
[0.00197 in] [0.0039 in] [0.0039 in] [0.00197 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in]
0.05 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.05 mm 0.13 mm 0.25 mm 0.13 mm
16-30
[0.00197 in] [0.0039 in] [0.0039 in] [0.00197 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00984 in] [0.00512 in]
0.1 mm 0.6 mm 0.6 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.4 mm 0.13 mm
31-50
[0.0039 in] [0.024 in] [0.024 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.016 in] [0.00512 in]
0.1 mm 0.6 mm 1.5 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.5 mm 0.13 mm
51-100
[0.0039 in] [0.024 in] [0.0591 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.020 in] [0.00512 in]
0.2 mm 0.6 mm 3.2 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
101-150
[0.0079 in] [0.024 in] [0.126 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 3.2 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
151-170
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.126 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 6.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
171-250
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.252 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 12.5 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.8 mm
251-300
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.492 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.031 in]
0.25 mm 2.5 mm 12.5 mm 0.8 mm 0.8 mm 1.5 mm 0.8 mm
301-500
[0.00984 in] [0.0984 in] [0.492 in] [0.031 in] [0.031 in] [0.0591 in] [0.031 in]
B1 Internal conductors
B2 External conductors uncoated sea level to 3050m
B3 External conductors uncoated above 3050m
PCB and wire
Figure
Figure 41: Self 40: Self of
heating heating of PCB
PCB traces on traces on inside layer
inside layer
Example
Example Find the current that will2
cause a 20Ԩ temperature rise in a PCB trace that is 0.1 inch
wide and
Find the current useswill
that 2 oz/ft
cause copper. (Assume
a 20°C traces on outside
temperature rise in of
a PCB.)
PCB trace
2
that is 0.1 Answer
inch wide and uses 2 oz/ft copper. (Assume traces on
outside of PCB.)
First translate 0.1 inch to 250 sq. mils. using bottom chart. Next find the current
Answer associated with 10Ԩ and 250 sq. mils. using top chart (Answer = 5A).
First translate 0.1 inch to 250 sq. mils. using bottom chart. Next find
the currentExtracted with permission from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1.
associated with 10°C and 250 sq. mils. using top chart
For additional information the entire specification can be downloaded at www.ipc.org
(Answer = 5A).
Extracted with permission from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1.
For additional information the entire specification can
be downloaded at www.ipc.org 57
PCBtrace
PCB trace resistance for 1 oz-Cu
PCB traceresistance
resistancefor
for11oz
ozCu
Cu
11 5mil
5mil
10mil
10mil
25mil
25mil
100m
100m 50mil
50mil
100mil
100mil
10m
10m
1m
1m
100µ
100µ
10µ
10µ
1µ
1µ
11 10
10 100
100 1000
1000 10000
10000
Trace
Tracelength
length(mils)
(mils)
Figure
Figure 42:
42:PCB
Figure 41: trace
PCBPCB resistance
trace
trace vs.
vs.length
resistance
resistance and
vs. length
length width
andand for
for11
width
width oz-Cu,
for 25°C
1 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 25°C25°C
Figure
Figure 43:
Figure PCB
43:42:
PCB trace
PCB
trace resistance
trace vs.
vs.length
resistance
resistance vs. and
length
length width
andand for
width
width 11oz-Cu,
forfor 125°C
1 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 125°C
125°C
Example
Example
Example
What
Whatisisthe
theresistance
resistanceof
ofaa2020mil
millong,
long,55mil
milwide
widetrace
tracefor
foraa11oz-Cu
oz-Cuthickness
thicknessat
at
What
25°C is
and the resistance
125°C?
25°C and 125°C? of a 20 mil long, 5 mil wide trace for a
1 oz-Cu thickness at 25°C and 125°C?
Answer
Answer
Answer
R25C
R25C==222mΩ,
R25C mΩ,R125C
mΩ, R125C
R125C ==33mΩ.
= mΩ. The
3 mΩ. points
TheThe are
arecircled
points
points on
onthe
are circled
circled curves.
theon the curves.
curves.
Figure
Figure 44:
45: PCBtrace
PCB traceresistance
resistancevs.
vs.length
length and
and width
width for
for 2
2 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 125°C
125°C
Figure 45: PCB trace resistance vs. length and width for 2 oz-Cu, 125°C
Example
Example
What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
Example
What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
25°Cisand
What the125°C?
resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a
25°C and 125°C?
2 oz-Cu thickness at 25°C and 125°C?
Answer
Answer
Answer
R25C
R25C= =
22mΩ,
mΩ,R125C == 3
R125C = mΩ. The
Thepoints
pointsare
arecircled
circled on
theR25C =2
curves. mΩ, R125C 33 mΩ.
mΩ. The points are circled ononthe
thecurves.
curves.
Common package
Common packagetypetype
and dimensions
and dimensions
120.2mil
3.05mm
PCB parallel
PCB parallel plate
plate capacitance
capacitance
Where
PCB parallel plate capacitance
Where
kk ==Permittivity
Permittivity of free space.
of free space.
k ∙ ℓ version
Both the metric and imperial ∙ w ∙ εofr the constant are given. Capacitance for parallel copper
k = Both the
8.854·10-3 metric
pF/mm, and imperial
or 2.247·10-4 pF/mil version of (81)the constant are given.
planes
ℓ =PCB parallel plate capacitance
length (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
k = in mm, or-3
8.854∙10 -4
w = width (metric
pF/mm,
imperial in mil)
or 2.247∙10
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
pF/mil
r Where
ℓε == PCB relative dielectric constant (εr ≈ 4.5 for FR-4)
length (metric k ∙ in
ℓ ∙ mm,
w ∙ εr or imperial in mil) Capacitance for parallel copper
(81)
w = width (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
k = Permittivity of free space. planes
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
h= k = 8.854·10-3 pF/mm, or 2.247·10-4 pF/mil
ℓ = separation between
or imperial inplanes (metric in mm, or imperial w in mil)
Where length (metric in mm, mil)
w
h l A εr
A
Figure 45: PCBl parallel plate capacitance
h εr
Example Calculate the total capacitance for ℓ=5.08mm,
h
Figure w=12.7mm,
45: PCB h=1.575mm,
parallel plate capacitance εr = 4.5 εr
Example(8.854 ∙ 10–3 pF⁄mm)
Calculate ∙ (5.08mm)
the total ∙ (12.7mm)
capacitance ∙ (4.5)
for ℓ=5.08mm,
C(pF) = 45: PCB parallel plate capacitance
Figure = 1.63pF
w=12.7mm, h=1.575mm, ε = 4.5
1.575mm
r
Example Calculate
–3 the total capacitance for ℓ=5.08mm,
(8.854 ∙ 10 pF⁄mm) ∙ (5.08mm) ∙ (12.7mm) ∙ (4.5)
C(pF) = Calculate
Example w=12.7mm, h=1.575mm,
the1.575mm εr = 4.5
total capacitance = 1.63pF
for ℓ=200mil,
w=500mil, h=62mil, εr = 4.5
(8.854 ∙ 10–3 pF⁄mm) ∙ (5.08mm) ∙ (12.7mm) ∙ (4.5)
C(pF) = –4 = 1.63pF
C(pF) = (2.247
Example ∙ 10 pF⁄mil)
Calculate ∙ (200mil)
the1.575mm
total ∙ (500mil)
capacitance for ∙ℓ=200mil,
(4.5)
= 1.63pF
62mil ε = 4.5
w=500mil, h=62mil, r
Example
C(pF) = (2.247 ∙ 10Calculate
–4 the total
pF⁄mil) capacitance
∙ (200mil) for∙ (4.5)
∙ (500mil) ℓ=200mil,
= 1.63pF
62mil εr = 4.5
w=500mil, h=62mil,
–4
C(pF) = (2.247 ∙ 10 pF⁄mil) ∙ (200mil) ∙ (500mil) ∙ (4.5)
= 1.63pF
62mil
kC ∙ ℓ ∙ (εr + 1.41)
C(pF) =
ln ( 0.8 ∙w+t (
5.98 ∙ h (84) Capacitance for microstrip
Where
kL = PCB inductance per unit length.
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
kL = 2nH/cm, or 5.071nH/in
kC = PCB capacitance per unit length.
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
kC = 0.264pF/cm, or 0.67056pF/in
ℓ = length of microstrip (metric in cm, or imperial in inches)
w = width of microstrip (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
For imperial:
t = thickness of copper (metric in mm, or imperial in mil) Copper thickness (mils) =
1.37 • (number of ounces)
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
i.e. 1oz Cu = 1.37mils
εr = relative permittivity, approximately 4.5 for FR-4 PCB i.e. ½oz Cu = 0.684mils
ℓ
W
t
h
Example
Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for ℓ=2.54cm, w=0.254mm,
t=0.0356mm, h=0.8mm, εr = 4.5 for FR-4
5.98 ∙ 0.8mm
L(pF) = (2 nH⁄cm) ∙ (2.54cm) ∙ ln ( 0.8 ∙ 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
) = 15.2nH
C(pF) = (0.264pF/cm) ∙ (2.54cm)(4.5 + 1.41) = 1.3pF
ln ( 5.98 ∙ 0.8mm
0.8 ∙ 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
)
Example Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for ℓ=1in, w=10mil,
t=1.4mil, h=31.5mil, εr = 4.5 for FR-4
L = 15.2nH, C=1.3pF. Note: this is the same problem as above with imperial units.
[
L(nH) ≈ kL ∙ h 1 + ln (4hd )] (87) Inductance for via
Where
kL = PCB inductance per unit length.
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
kL = 0.2nH/mm, or 5.076∙10-3nH/mil
kC = PCB capacitance per unit length.
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
kC = 0.0555pF/mm, or 1.41∙10-3pF/mil
h= separation between planes
d= diameter of via hole
d1 = diameter of the pad surrounding the via
d2 = distance to inner layer ground plane.
εr = PCB dielectric constant (εr = 4.5 for FR-4)
d1
d Top Layer
Trace
Middle Layer
GND
h Plane
d2
Bottom Layer
Trace
L=1.2nH, C=0.46pF. Note: this is the same problem as above with imperial units.
Dielectric type
Type ZO Application
Test equipment and RF power to a few
RG-58 53.5Ω 28.8 0.195 13.1 PE
hundred watts, and a couple hundred MHz
RG-8 52Ω 29.6 0.405 5.96 PE
RF power to a few kW, up to several
RG-214/U 50Ω 30.8 0.425 6.7 PE
hundred MHz
9914 50Ω 26.0 0.405 4.0 PE
RG-6 75Ω 20 0.270 5.6 PF Video and CATV applications. RF to a few
hundred watts, up to a few hundred MHz,
RG-59/U 73Ω 29 0.242 9.7 PE sometimes to higher frequencies if losses
can be tolerated
RF power to a few kW, up to several
RG-11/U 75Ω 17 0.412 3.65 PE
hundred MHz
Used in some test equipment and 100Ω
RG-62/U 93Ω 13.5 0.242 7.1 ASP
video applications
RG-174 50Ω 31 0.100 23.5 PE Miniature coax used primarily for test
equipment interconnection. Usually short
RG-178/U 50Ω 29 0.071 42.7 ST runs due to higher loss.
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable equations
equations
C 2πε
ℓ D (89) Capacitance
(84)Capacitance per length
per length
Coaxial
d cable equations
L μC D2πε
ℓ 2πℓ d D
(90) (84) Inductance
(85)Inductance per per length
length
Capacitance per length
d
L 1 μ
(86) Characteristic impedance
Where
Where C 2π ε
LL==inductance
inductance in in henries
henries (H)
(H)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
Z = impedance in ohms (Ω)
Where
Zd == impedance
diameter of in ohms
inner (Ω)
conductor
L = inductance in henries (H)
D = inside diameter of
d = diameter of inner conductorshield, or diameter of dielectric insulator
C = capacitance in farads (F)
ε = dielectric constant of insulator (ε = εr εo )
D = inside diameter ofinshield,
Z = impedance ohms or (Ω)diameter of dielectric insulator
µ = magnetic permeability (µ = µr µo )
d = diameter of inner conductor
εl = length
dielectric cable of insulator (ε = εr εo )
constant
of the
D = inside diameter of shield, or diameter of dielectric insulator
μ = magnetic permeability
ε = dielectric constant (μof
= insulator
μr μo ) (ε = εr εo )
ℓ = lengthµ = magnetic permeability (µ = µr µo )
of the cable
l = length of the cable
Insulation
Table 20: Resistance per length for different wire types (AWG)
Thermoplastic at 125°C
Polyvinylchloride Nylon
(high density) at 90°C
(semi-ridged) at 80°C
Polyvinylchloride
Silicon at 200°C
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Wire gauge
Neoprene
at 105°C
Kapton
Teflon
Kynar
AWG Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A)
30 2 3 3 3 4
28 3 4 4 5 6
26 4 5 5 6 7
24 6 7 7 8 10
22 8 9 10 11 13
20 10 12 13 14 17
18 15 17 18 20 24
16 19 22 24 26 32
14 27 30 33 40 45
12 36 40 45 50 55
10 47 55 58 70 75
Note: Wire is in free air at 25°C
Example
What is the maximum current that can be applied to a
30 gauge Teflon wire in a room temperature environment?
What will the self-heating be?
Answer
Imax = 4A
Wire temperature = 200°C
Thermistor •
Resistive temperature detector (RTD) •
Diode temperature characteristics•
Thermocouple (J and K) •
Sensor
70
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor RTDRTDRTD
RTD RTD Diode
Diode Diode
Diode Diode Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple TableTable
Sensor
22: Temperature
Temp range
Temp range
Temp range
Temprange–55°C –55°C–55°C < T < 150°C
< –55°C
T < 150°C 150°C
<150°C –200°C
–200°C <–200°C
T<T
–200°C 850°C
<<<T850°C 850°C –55°C
–55°C < –55°C
T<T
–55°C 150°C
<<<T150°C
T< <150°C –250°C
–250°C <–250°C
T<T
–250°C 1800°C
<<<T1800°C
T< <1800°C
Temp range –55°C < T< <<
T T<150°C –200°C <T<T<850°C
< 850°C –55°C <150°C
T < 150°C –250°C <1800°C
T < 1800°C
Cost
CostCost
Cost LowLow Low
Low HighHighHigh
High LowLow Low
Low LowLow Low
Low
Accuracy Good
AccuracyGood
CostAccuracy Low
accuracy
Good
accuracy at one
accuracy
at one at one Excellent
Excellent accuracy
Excellent
accuracy
High
accuracy PoorPoor accuracy
Poor
accuracy without
accuracy
without
Low
calibration.
without calibration.
calibration. Good Good accuracy
Good
accuracy accuracy
withwith polynomial
with
polynomial
Low
polynomial
Accuracy Good accuracy at one Excellent accuracy Poor accuracy without calibration. Good accuracy with polynomial
temperature.
temperature.
temperature. correction.
correction.
correction.
correction.
Goodtemperature.
accuracy at one
accurate
Less
temperature
accurate over range. range.
Good accuracy with
Accuracy LessLess
accurate
Less overover
accurate range.
fullover
full full
fullrange. Excellent accuracy Poor accuracy without calibration
Less accurate over full range polynomial correction
sensor overview
Linearity
Linearity VeryVery
Linearity
Linearity nonlinear.
Very
Very Follows
nonlinear.
nonlinear. Follows
nonlinear. Follows
Follows Fairly
Fairly linearlinear
Fairly
Fairly linear
linear Fairly
Fairly linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly linear
linear Fairly
Fairly linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly linear
linear
reciprocal of logarithmic
reciprocal
reciprocal of logarithmic
reciprocal logarithmic
ofoflogarithmic Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity < 4.5%
Nonlinearity < 4.5% 4.5%
full full
of scale.
<of<4.5% scale.
ofoffull scale. Slope
Slope
fullscale. ≈ -2mV/C
Slope
-2mV/C
≈Slope
Fairly -2mV/C
-2mV/C
≈ ≈linear Nonlinearity
Slope ≈ -2mV/CNonlinearity Nonlinearity
< 10%
Nonlinearity < 10% 10%
full
<of<10% full
of scale scale
ofoffull scale
fullscale
function.
function.function.
function. Relatively
Relatively Fairly
simple
Relatively
simple
Relatively linear
quadratic
simple
quadratic
simple quadratic Slope
quadratic Slope varies
Slope
varies
Slope according
varies
according
varies to current
according
to current
according to current Complex
Complex
tocurrent Complex
10th10th
Complex orderFairly
order
10th
10th linear
polynomial
order
polynomial
order polynomial
polynomial
Very nonlinear. Follows reciprocal Slope varies according to current
Table 21: Temperature sensor overview
21: Temperature sensor overview
Linearity function.
function.function.
Nonlinearity
function.< 4.5% of full scaleexcitation, excitation, diode
excitation,
diode
excitation, type,type,
diode
diode and and
type,
diode
type, diode
and diode
anddiode Nonlinearity < 10% of full scale
70
70
70
|of logarithmic function excitation, diode type, and
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
Relatively simple quadratic function Complex 10th order polynomial
Construction LessLess
Construction
Construction rugged
Less
rugged rugged Depends
Depends Depends
on TypeType
on
(can(can
Type (can Rugged
Rugged Rugged
diode processing MostMost rugged
Most
rugged rugged
Construction Less rugged Dependson on Typebe(can
be bebe Rugged Most rugged
rugged)
rugged) rugged)
rugged)
Construction Less rugged Depends on Type (can be rugged) Rugged Most rugged
Output
Output range
Output
range
Output range
range Typically
TypicallyTypically
10s 10s
Typically to
10s 100s
10s
to 100s toof 100s
kΩ
to100s kΩ
of full full
ofofkΩ 18 to18
fullto18390
kΩfull 18 390
Ωtofor
to Ω
390
390 for
PT100PT100
ΩΩfor PT100
forPT100 0.4 to
0.40.8V
0.4 0.8V
to0.4 0.8V
toto0.8V 10s 10s of
10s millivolts
of millivolts
10s millivolts
ofofmillivolts
Typically
scale.
scale. 10s
VeryVery
scale.
wide
scale. Very 100s
wide
toVery wide
variation
wide kΩ
variation
variation
ofvariation
in in inin180 180 to
180
3.9
to 180 3.9
kΩ
to kΩ
3.9
for
to3.9 for
PT1000
kΩ PT1000
kΩfor PT1000
forPT1000
Output resistance.
resistance.
resistance.
18 to 390 Ω for PT100
resistance.
full scale 0.4 to 0.8V 10s of millivolts
range 180 to 3.9 kΩ for PT1000
Very
Applications
Applications
Applications
Applications wide
Generalvariation
General
General
purpose
General in resistance
purpose
purpose
purpose Scientific
ScientificScientific
and and industrial
industrial
Scientific and industrial
andindustrial LowLow
costcost
Low
Low temperature
cost
temperature
cost monitor
temperature
monitor
temperature Industrial
monitor Industrial
monitor temperature
Industrial temperature
temperature
Industrial temperature
LowLow
costcost
Low
Low linear
cost
linear
cost response
linear
response
linear response
response measurement
measurement
measurement
measurement
Low cost temperature monitor Industrial temperature
Applications
General
General General
General General
Requires
Requires purpose
excitation
Requires excitation
excitation
Requires excitation Scientific
Requires
Requires and industrial
excitation
Requires excitation
excitation
Requires excitation Requires
RequiresRequires
Requires excitation
excitation
excitation Self-powered
Self-powered
Self-powered
Lowexcitation
cost linear response Self-powered
Requires
Requires Requires
measurement
coldcold junction
cold
junction comp
junction
comp comp
Requires cold junction comp
Self-powered
General Requires excitation Requires excitation Requires excitation
Requires cold junction comp
1 Convert resistance to
Thermistor: RResistance
R to temperature, (87)
(92) Convert Steinhart-Hart
resistance to temperature
T
equation
temperature for for a thermistor
a thermistor
1
Where Convert resistance to
Where R R (87)
T
T = temperature in Kelvin temperature for a thermistor
T = temperature in Kelvin
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
a,Where
b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
R = resistance in ohms
RT==resistance
temperature in Kelvin
in ohms
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart
Thermistor: Temperature equation constants Steinhart-Hart equation
to resistance,
R = resistance in ohms
[ [
Thermistor:x Temperature
x to resistance, Steinhart-Hart equation
Convert temperature to
y Temperature
Thermistor: y+ (88)
to resistance, Steinhart-Hart equation
2 2 resistance for a thermistor
[ [
1y x x Convert temperature to
y+ (93) Convert(88)
x T 2 2 (89)temperature
Factor to resistance
resistance
usedforinaEquation
thermistor
88
c for a thermistor
1
x T (94) Factor(89) Factor
used in used93
Equation in Equation 88
y cb x
(90) Factor used in Equation 88
3c 4
b x (95) Factor(90)
used in Equation
Factor used93
in Equation 88
y
3c 4
Where
R = resistance in ohms
T = temperature in Kelvin
Where
Where
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
R==
Rx, resistance
yresistance
= ininΩohms
Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
T = temperature ininKelvin
T = temperature Kelvin
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
x, y = Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
x, y = Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
RTD equation
RTD equation temperature
temperature to resistance
to resistance
RTD equation
RTD equation resistance
resistance to temperature
to temperature (T<0°C) (T<0°C)
�
RTD resistance
� � � �� �� ��� �� (99) RTD resistance for T<0°C
(94)
for T<0�
���
Where
Where
(�)
T = temperature in degrees Celsius (°C)
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (T<0�)
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (T<0°C)
αI = polynomial coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0�
αi = polynomial coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0°C
th
Table 23: Coefficients for 5 order RTD resistance to temperature
IEC-751
Table 24:DIN
Coefficients
43760 for 5th orderUS
RTD resistance to temperature
Industrial
BS 1904 Standard US Industrial
IEC-751 Standard
ASTM-E1137 D-100
DIN 43760
EN-60751 JISC 1604 American American ITS-90
BS 1904 US Industrial
α0 –2.4202E+02
ASTM-E1137 –2.3820E+02 –2.3818E+02
Standard –2.3864E+02
US Industrial –2.3791E+02
α1 EN-60751
2.2228E+00 JISC 1604
2.1898E+00 D-100 American Standard
2.1956E+00 American
2.1973E+00 ITS-90
2.2011E+00
αα2
0 –2.4202E+02
2.5857E-03 –2.3820E+02
2.5226E-03 –2.3818E+02
2.4413E-03 –2.3864E+02 2.3223E-03
2.4802E-03 –2.3791E+02
αα3
1 –4.8266E-06
2.2228E+00 –4.7825E-06
2.1898E+00 –4.7517E-06
2.1956E+00 –4.7791E-06
2.1973E+00 –4.6280E-06
2.2011E+00
αα4
2
–2.8152E-08
2.5857E-03 –2.7009E-08
2.5226E-03 –2.3831E-08
2.4413E-03 –2.5157E-08
2.4802E-03 –1.9702E-08
2.3223E-03
αα5
3
1.5224E-10 1.4719E-10
–4.8266E-06 –4.7825E-06 1.3492E-10
–4.7517E-06 1.4020E-10
–4.7791E-06 1.1831E-10
–4.6280E-06
α4 –2.8152E-08 –2.7009E-08 –2.3831E-08 –2.5157E-08 –1.9702E-08
α5 1.5224E-10
Example 1.4719E-10 1.3492E-10 1.4020E-10 1.1831E-10
Answer
Example
� � ��������� � 0�� ∗ �60�� � ����0��� � 00� ∗ �60�� � �������� � 0�� ∗ �60�� � �
Find the temperature given an
� �������� ITS-90
� 0�� ∗ �60�PT100
� resistance of 60 Ω.
� ����6�
Answer
• 60 • 60 • 60
• 60
nkT I nkT I
V� � �n � � �� � �n � � (100) Diode(95)
voltage
Diode voltage
q I� q I�
Diode equation vs. temperature
Where
Where
VD = diode
nkT voltageI vs. nkT
temperature
I and current
VVD�=
n diode�n
=�diode voltage
� � �� vs.�temperature and1 current
�n � �from (95) Diode voltage
q ideality
I-23
�
factor (ranges
q I�
to 2)
n k==diode
1.38 xideality
10 J/K, Boltzmann’s
factor constant
(ranges from 1 to 2)
T = temperature in Kelvin
k Where
= 1.38 x 10-23 -19 J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
q
VD= =1.60 x 10
diode voltageC, charge of an electron
vs. temperature and current
TI==temperature
forward diode in current
Kelvin in amps
n = diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
-19
qkIS===1.60
saturation
1.38xx1010 current
-23 C, charge of an electron
J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
I= T forward
= temperature in Kelvinin amps
diode current
-19 qV�
q
I =�1.60
�T ��x 10
⁄��
��� C, charge
�� � of an electron (96) Saturation current
IS = saturation current
�
nkT
I = forward diode current in amps
IS = saturation current
Where
IS = saturation current
qV�
α �T ��⁄�� ���
I� =�constant related
�� to�the cross sectional area of the
(101) junction
Saturation Saturation current
(96) current
nkT
VG = diode voltage vs. temperature and current
n = diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
Where -23
IkS == 1.38
Where
x 10 current
saturation J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
T=
α = constant
temperature in Kelvin
related
IS = saturation-19 currentto the cross sectional area of the junction
q = =1.60
V diodex 10 C, charge
voltage of an electron
vs. temperature and current
G
α = constant related to the cross sectional area of the junction
n = diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
VkG == 1.38
diodex voltage
-23
10 J/K, vs.Boltzmann’s
temperatureconstant
and current
n T= =diode
temperature in Kelvin
ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
-19
q = 1.60 x 10-23 C, charge of an electron
k = 1.38 x 10 J/K, Boltzmann’s constant
T = temperature in Kelvin
q = 1.60 x 10-19 C, charge of an electron
75
�
Thermoelectric
V� � � �� ���� (102) Thermoelectric voltage (97)
voltage
���
Where
Where
VV T = thermoelectric voltage
T = thermoelectric voltage
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
ci = translation coefficients
ci = translation coefficients
Table 24: Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage
Table 25: Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
–219� to 760� 760�temperature
Type J thermocouple to 1,200�to voltage
c0 0.0000000000E+00
–219°C to 760°C2.9645625681E+05 760°C to 1,200°C
c1
c0 5.0381187815E+01 –1.4976127786E+03
0.0000000000E+00 2.9645625681E+05
c2
c 3.0475836930E-02
5.0381187815E+013.1787103924E+00 –1.4976127786E+03
1
c3 –8.5681065720E-05 –3.1847686701E-03
c2 3.0475836930E-02 3.1787103924E+00
c4 1.3228195295E-07 1.5720819004E-06
c3 –8.5681065720E-05 –3.1847686701E-03
c5 –1.7052958337E-10 –3.0691369056E-10
c4 1.3228195295E-07 1.5720819004E-06
c6 2.0948090697E-13 --
c –1.7052958337E-10 –3.0691369056E-10
c75 –1.2538395336E-16 --
c6
c8 2.0948090697E-13
1.5631725697E-20 -- —
c7 –1.2538395336E-16 —
c8 1.5631725697E-20 —
76
ti.com/precisionlabs Sensor
Where
VT = thermoelectric voltage
Where
VTT==temperature in degrees
thermoelectric voltage Celsius
Tci == temperature
translation coefficients
in degrees Celsius
α0, α1 = translation coefficients
ci = translation coefficients
αTable 26: Type K thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
0, α1 = translation coefficients
c0 27: Type
Table 0.0000000000E+00 –1.7600413686E+01
K thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
c1 3.9450128025E+01 3.8921204975E+01
–219°C to 760°C 760°C to 1,200°C
c2 2.3622373598E-02 1.8558770032E-02
c0 0.0000000000E+00 –1.7600413686E+01
c 3 –3.2858906784E-04 –9.9457592874E-05
cc41 3.9450128025E+01 3.1840945719E-07 3.8921204975E+01
–4.9904828777E-06
cc52 2.3622373598E-02 –5.6072844889E-10 1.8558770032E-02
–6.7509059173E-08
cc6 –5.7410327428E-10
–3.2858906784E-04 5.6075059059E-13 –9.9457592874E-05
3
c7 –3.1088872894E-12 –3.2020720003E-16
c4 –4.9904828777E-06 3.1840945719E-07
c8 –1.0451609365E-14 9.7151147152E-20
c –6.7509059173E-08 –5.6072844889E-10
c9 5 –1.9889266878E-17 –1.2104721275E-23
cc
106
–5.7410327428E-10
–1.6322697486E-20 -- 5.6075059059E-13
αc07 –3.1088872894E-12
-- 1.1859760000E+02 –3.2020720003E-16
αc1 --
–1.0451609365E-14–1.1834320000E-04 9.7151147152E-20
8
c9 –1.9889266878E-17 –1.2104721275E-23
c10 –1.6322697486E-20 —
α0 — 1.1859760000E+02
α1 — –1.1834320000E-04
78
ti.com/precisionlabs Sensor
Binary/hex conversions •
A/D and D/A transfer function •
Quantization error •
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) •
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) •
Total harmonic distortion (THD) •
Effective number of bits (ENOB) •
Noise-free resolution and effective resolution •
A/D conversion
ti.com/adcs
81 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
Binary (Base-2) 0 1
Decimal (Base-10) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Hexadecimal (Base-16) 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary Decimal
=
=
LSD LSD
8 + 4 + 0 + 1
8 + 4 + 0 + 1
Example conversion: Decimal to binary
Example conversion:
Example conversion:Decimal
Decimalto binary
to binary
Decimal Binary
Decimal Binary
LSD
=
=
LSD
128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 = 236
MSD 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 = 236
A/D conversion
ti.com/adcs
82 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
Binary
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
Hexadecimal
Conversion
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
8 + 4 + 1 = 13 (D) 8 8++14=+91 = 13 (D) 8+1=9
161 160
161 160
Hexadecimal
D 9
D 9 MSD LSD
MSD 208 + 9 = 217
208 + 9 = 217
Example Conversion: Hexadecimal to decimal
and
Example Conversion: decimal totohexadecimal
Hexadecimal binary
Decimal (Base-10) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal (Base-16)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A BCDE F
Hexadecimal Decimal
16 618 R = 10 (A)
=
2 6 A F 16 38 R = 6 (6)
16 38 R = 2 (2)
MSD LSD
LSD MSD
2(4096) + 6(256) + 10(16) + 16(1) = 9903
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 83
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
VREF
FSR PGA ADC Digital
0 to 2.5V x2 12 bits I/O
ADC in
0 to 5V
FSR 2.5V
1LSB = = = 610.35µV
2n 212
ti.com/adcs
84 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
VREF
FSR PGA ADC Digital
0 to ±1.25V x2 12 bits I/O
ADC in
0 to ± 2.5V
FSR
1LSB =
2n
FSR 2.5V
1LSB = = = 610.35µV
2n 212
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 85
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
84 ti.com/adcs
86 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
84
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale Range)
voltage
1.024V 1.25V 2.048V 2.5V
8 4 mV 4.88 mV 8 mV 9.76 mV
10 1 mV 1.22 mV 2 mV 2.44 mV
12 250 µV 305 µV 500 µV 610 µV
14 52.5 µV 76.3 µV 125 µV 152.5 µV
Resolution
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale Range)
voltage
3V 3.3V 4.096V 5V
8 11.7 mV 12.9 mV 16 mV 19.5 mV
10 2.93 mV 3.222 mV 4 mV 4.882 mV
12 732 µV 806 µV 1 mV 1.221 mV
14 183 µV 201 µV 250 µV 305 µV
Resolution
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 87
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
DAC definitions
DAC definitions
Resolution = n The number of bits used to quantify the output
Resolution
Codes == 2n
n
The The number
number of bits used
of input codetocombinations
quantify the output
Number of Codes = 2n The number of input code combinations
Reference voltage = V Sets the LSB voltage or current size and
Full-Scale Range output = FSRREF Sets the converter output range and the LSB voltage
LSB = FSR / 2 n converter rangestep size of each LSB
The voltage
n
LSB = V
Full-scale REF / voltage
output 2 = (2n – 1) • 1LSB The output voltage
Full-scale or current
output voltage of thestep
DAC size of each
Full-scale input code = 2n – 1 code Largest code that can be written
n n
Transfer Function:
Full-scale code Vout==2Number
– 1 of Codes • (FSR/2
The ) largest
Relationship
code between output
that can bevoltage
writtenand input code
Full-scale voltage = VREF – 1LSB Full-scale output voltage of the DAC
n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
FSR = 5V
Full-scale
voltage = 4.98V
Output voltage (V)
Resolution
1LSB = 19mV Full-scale
code = 255
Resolution
= 8bits
Number of codes = 2n
Figure
Figure 51: DAC transfer 53: DAC transfer function
function
ti.com/adcs
88 86
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
ADC definitions
Resolution = n The number of bits used to quantify the output
ADC
Codesdefinitions
=2
n
The number of input code combinations
Reference
Resolution = nvoltage = VREF Sets theTheLSB voltage
number of bitsorused
current sizethe
to quantify and
input
Number of Codes = 2n converterTherange
number of output code combinations
n
Full-Scale
LSB = VRange input
REF / (2 = FSR
– 1) Sets the
The voltage converter
step size of input rangecode.
each and the LSB voltage
Note that
n
LSB = FSR / 2 The voltage step
some topologies maysize use of 2 n
eachasLSB
opposed to
Full-scale input voltage = (2n – 1) • 1LSB 2n – 1 inFull-scale input voltage of the ADC
the denominator.
n
Full-scale output code = n 2 –1 Largest code that can be read
Full-scale code = 2 – 1 The largest code that can be written.
Transfer Function: Number of Codes = Vin / (FSR/2n) Relationship between input voltage and output code
Full-scale voltage = VREF Full-scale output voltage of the DAC. Note that
the full-scale voltage will differ if the alternative
definition for resolution is used.
n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
Full-scale
code=255
87
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 89
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
Quantization error
Figure 53: Quantization error of an A/D converter
Figure 55: Quantization error of an A/D converter
Quantization error
The error introduced as a result of the quantization process. The amount of this error
is a function of the resolution of the converter. The quantization error of an A/D
Quantization error
converter is ½ LSB. The quantization error signal the difference between the actual
The error introduced
voltage applied andastheaADC
result of the
output quantization
(Figure 53). The rmsprocess. The amount
of the quantization signal of
is
this error is
1LSB⁄√12 a function of the resolution of the converter. The quantization
error of an A/D converter is ½ LSB. The quantization error signal is the
difference between the actual voltage applied and the ADC output
(Figure 55). The rms of the quantization signal is 1LSB ⁄√12
88
ti.com/adcs
90 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
(SNR) from quantization
from quantization noise only noise only
√6
SNR�dB� � 2�log�SNR� � �2� log�2��N � 2�log � � (110)
(105)
2
Where
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D converter
Where n
1LSB = the voltage of 1LSB, VREF/2
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D converter
N = the resolution of the A/D converter
MaxRMSSignal
1LSB = the voltage= the rms equivalent
of 1LSB, VREF/2n of the ADC’s full-scale input
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
NSNR
= the= resolution
the ratio ofofrms
thesignal
A/D converter
to rms noise
MaxRMSSignal = the rms equivalent of the ADC’s full-scale input
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
Example
SNR = the ratio of rms signal to rms noise
What is the SNR for an 8-bit A/D converter with 5V reference, assuming only
quantization noise?
Answer
Example
SNR �is2���
What the√6 � 2� ��
SNR for√6an�8-bit
314 A/D converter with 5V reference,
assuming only quantization noise?
SNR�dB� � 2�log�314� � 4��� dB
Answer
SNR = 2N-1
SNR�dB� √6 = 28-1
� 6��2�8� � 1��6
√6 =�314
4��� dB
SNR(dB) = 20log(314) = 49.9 dB
SNR(dB) = 6.02(8) + 1.76 = 49.9 dB
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 91
89
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
RMSDistortion V V V V (112)
% • 100 • 100 (107)
MaxRMSSignal V
RMSDistortion (113)
THD dB (108)
MaxRMSSignal
Total harmonic distortion (Vrms)
Where RMSDistortion V V V V
THD = total harmonic
% distortion, the• 100 • 100rms(107)
ratio of the rmsVdistortion to the signal
Where MaxRMSSignal
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
THD = total harmonic
MaxRMSSignal = thedistortion,
rms value the ratio
of the
RMSDistortion of the
input rms distortion to the rms signal
signal
THD dB (108)
V1 = the fundamental,
RMSDistortion = the rmsgenerally
sum of the
MaxRMSSignalinput signal
all harmonic components
V2, V3, V4, …Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
MaxRMSSignal = the rms value of the input signal
Where
THD = total harmonic distortion, the ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
V1 = the fundamental, generally
RMSDistortion = the rmsthe
suminput signal components
of all harmonic
MaxRMSSignal = the rms value of the input signal
V2, V3, V4, …V = harmonics of the fundamental
V n= the fundamental, generally the input signal
1
V2, V3, V4, …Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
Figure 56:and
Figure 54: Fundamental Fundamental
harmonicsand harmonics in Vrms
in Vrms
Figure 54: Fundamental and harmonics in Vrms
ti.com/adcs
90
92 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
90
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
Example
Example
Determine THDTHD
Determine for the example
for the above.
example above.
Example
Answer
Answer
Determine THD for the example above.
ିଽଶ ିଽଶ ିହ ିହ ିଽହିଽହ ିଵଵ
ିଵଵ
ቀ ቁ ቀ ቀ ቁ ቀ ቁ ቀ ଵ
ቁ ቁ
ൌ ͳͲ ͳͲቀͳͲ
ൌ ͳͲ ଵ ቁ ଵ
ͳͲ ଵ ቁଵ
ͳͲ ͳͲ ቀͳͲ
ଵ ቁଵ ڮ
Ͳͳ ڮ ቀ ଵ
ͳͲ ൨ ൨
Answer
) -75
) -95
) -110
)
-92
) ) ) )
10 10
ൌ=
THD(dBc) ൌ െͶǤ10
െͶǤ
10 log 10 +10
10
+10 + ... +10
THD(dBc) = -74.76 dB
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 91 93
91
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
Ac signals
Ac signals
MaxRMSSignal
SINAD�dB� � 20 log � � (110)
(115)
√RMSNoise� � RMSDis�or�ion�
�������� �������
SINAD�dB� � �20log ��10 (116)
� � � �
�� � 10 �� � (111)
Where
MaxRMSSignal = the rms equivalent of the ADC’s full-scale input
Where
RMSNoise = the=rms
MaxRMSSignal the noise integratedofacross
rms equivalent the A/D
the ADC’s converters
full-scale input
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
RMSNoise = the
SINAD = the ratiorms noise
of the integrated
full-scale across the A/D
signal-to-noise ratioconverters
and distortion
THD = total harmonic
RMSDistortion = the rms distortion.
sum of The ratio of the
all harmonic rms distortion to the rms signal.
components
SNR = the ratio of rms signal to rms noise
SINAD = the ratio of the full-scale signal-to-noise ratio and distortion
THD = total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal.
SNR = the ratio of rms signal to rms noise
Example
Calculate the SNR, THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following information:
MaxRMSSignal = 1.76 Vrms
Example
RMSDistortion
Calculate the = 50 µVrms
SNR, THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following
RMSNoise = 100 µVrms
information:
MaxRMSSignal = 1.76 Vrms
Answer
RMSDistortion = 50 μVrms
RMSNoise = 100 1.76 Vrms
μVrms
SNR�dB� � 20 log � � � ��.� dB
100 μVrms
Answer
50 μVrms
1.76 Vrms
THD�dB�
SNR dB � 20 log � � � � �0.� dB
1.76 Vrms
1.76V rms
SINAD�dB�
THD dB � 20 log � � � ��.� dB
��100 μVrms� � � �50 μVrms��
1.76 Vrms
���.�1.76V
� rms� �� �
�� ���.� ��
SINAD dB � �20 log ��10�
SINAD�dB� �� � 10 � � ��.� dB
��.�dB � 1.76dB
�N�B
SINAD�dB � 1�.65
10
6.02
6.02
ti.com/adcs
94 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
92
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
Dcsignals
Dc signals
Noise free resolution and effective resolution
2�
Noise�ree�eso��tion � �o� � � � (118)(113)
PeaktoPeakNoiseinLSB
2�
���e�ti�e�eso��tion � �o� � �
rmsNoiseinLSB
� (119)(114)
Note: The maximum effective resolution is never greater than the ADC resolution.
For example,
Note: a 24-biteffective
The maximum converter cannot have
resolution an effective
is never resolution
greater than greater
the ADC than
resolution.
Forbits.
24 example, a 24-bit converter cannot have an effective resolution greater
than 24 bits.
Example
Example
What is the noise-free resolution and effective resolution for a 24-bit converter
What is the
assuming the noise-free
peak-to-peakresolution
noise is 7and effective resolution for a
LSBs?
24-bit converter assuming the peak-to-peak noise is 7 LSBs?
Answer
��
Answer 2
Noise�ree�eso��tion � �o� � � � � 2�.2
72
7
2��
���e�ti�e�eso��tion � �o� � � � � 2�.�
7
2
6.6
7
6.6
���e�ti�e�eso��tion � 2�.2 � 2.7 � 2�.�
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
93 95
A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
Time Constant
R VIN A/D
VIN C
Where
Where
N = the number of bits of accuracy the RC circuit has settled to after NTC number of
N = the number of bits of accuracy the RC circuit has settled to after NTC number of
time constants.
time constants.
NTC = the number of RC time constants
NTC = the number of RC time constants
Note: For a FSR step. For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
ti.com/adcs
96 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
94
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
Where
NTC = the number of time constants required to achieve N bits of settling
Where
N the
NTC = = the number
number ofof bitsconstants
time of accuracy
required to achieve N bits of settling
N = the number of bits of accuracy
Note: For a FSR step. For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 97
95
ti.com/precisionlabs
Notes
6
98 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
IMPORTANT NOTICE
Texas Instruments Incorporated and its subsidiaries (TI) reserve the right to make corrections, enhancements, improvements
and other changes to its semiconductor products and services per JESD46, latest issue, and to discontinue any product or
service per JESD48, latest issue. Buyers should obtain the latest relevant information before placing orders and should verify
that such information is current and complete. All semiconductor products (also referred to herein as “components”) are sold
subject to TI’s terms and conditions of sale supplied at the time of order acknowledgment.
TI warrants performance of its components to the specifications applicable at the time of sale, in accordance with the
warranty in TI’s terms and conditions of sale of semiconductor products. Testing and other quality control techniques are used
to the extent TI deems necessary to support this warranty. Except where mandated by applicable law, testing of all parameters
of each component is not necessarily performed.
TI assumes no liability for applications assistance or the design of Buyers’ products. Buyers are responsible for their products
and applications using TI components. To minimize the risks associated with Buyers’ products and applications, Buyers should
provide adequate design and operating safeguards.
TI does not warrant or represent that any license, either express or implied, is granted under any patent right, copyright, mask
work right, or other intellectual property right relating to any combination, machine, or process in which TI components or
services are used. Information published by TI regarding third-party products or services does not constitute a license to use
such products or services or a warranty or endorsement thereof. Use of such information may require a license from a third
party under the patents or other intellectual property of the third party, or a license from TI under the patents or other
intellectual property of TI.
Reproduction of significant portions of TI information in TI data books or data sheets is permissible only if reproduction is
without alteration and is accompanied by all associated warranties, conditions, limitations, and notices. TI is not responsible or
liable for such altered documentation. Information of third parties may be subject to additional restrictions.
Resale of TI components or services with statements different from or beyond the parameters stated by TI for that component
or service voids all express and any implied warranties for the associated TI component or service and is an unfair and
deceptive business practice. TI is not responsible or liable for any such statements.
Buyer acknowledges and agrees that it is solely responsible for compliance with all legal, regulatory and safety-related
requirements concerning its products, and any use of TI components in its applications, notwithstanding any applications-
related information or support that may be provided by TI. Buyer represents and agrees that it has all the necessary expertise
to create and implement safeguards which anticipate dangerous consequences of failures, monitor failures and their
consequences, lessen the likelihood of failures that might cause harm and take appropriate remedial actions. Buyer will fully
indemnify TI and its representatives against any damages arising out of the use of any TI components in safety-critical
applications.
In some cases, TI components may be promoted specifically to facilitate safety-related applications. With such components,
TI’s goal is to help enable customers to design and create their own end-product solutions that meet applicable functional
safety standards and requirements. Nonetheless, such components are subject to these terms.
No TI components are authorized for use in FDA Class III (or similar life-critical medical equipment) unless authorized officers
of the parties have executed a special agreement specifically governing such use.
Only those TI components which TI has specifically designated as military grade or “enhanced plastic” are designed and
intended for use in military/aerospace applications or environments. Buyer acknowledges and agrees that any military or
aerospace use of TI components which have not been so designated is solely at the Buyer’s risk, and that Buyer is solely
responsible for compliance with all legal and regulatory requirements in connection with such use.
TI has specifically designated certain components as meeting ISO/TS16949 requirements, mainly for automotive use. In any
case of use of non-designated products, TI will not be responsible for any failure to meet ISO/TS16949.
Products Applications
Audio www.ti.com/audio Automotive and
Amplifiers amplifier.ti.com Transportation www.ti.com/automotive
Data Converters dataconverter.ti.com Communications
DLP® Products www.dlp.com and Telecom www.ti.com/communications
DSP dsp.ti.com Computers and
Peripherals www.ti.com/computers
Clocks and Timers www.ti.com/clocks
Consumer Electronics www.ti.com/consumer-apps
Interface interface.ti.com
Energy and Lighting www.ti.com/energy
Logic logic.ti.com
Industrial www.ti.com/industrial
Power Management power.ti.com
Medical www.ti.com/medical
Microcontrollers microcontroller.ti.com
Security www.ti.com/security
RFID www.ti-rfid.com
Space, Avionics and
OMAP™ Applications Defense www.ti.com/space-avionics-defense
Processors www.ti.com/omap
Video and Imaging www.ti.com/video
Wireless Connectivity www.ti.com/wirelessconnectivity
SSZZ022H
TI E2E™ Community e2e.ti.com
Mailing Address: Texas Instruments, Post Office Box 655303, Dallas, Texas 75265
Texas Instruments Incorporated and its subsidiaries (TI) reserve the right to make corrections, enhancements, improvements and other
changes to its semiconductor products and services per JESD46, latest issue, and to discontinue any product or service per JESD48, latest
issue. Buyers should obtain the latest relevant information before placing orders and should verify that such information is current and
complete. All semiconductor products (also referred to herein as “components”) are sold subject to TI’s terms and conditions of sale
supplied at the time of order acknowledgment.
TI warrants performance of its components to the specifications applicable at the time of sale, in accordance with the warranty in TI’s terms
and conditions of sale of semiconductor products. Testing and other quality control techniques are used to the extent TI deems necessary
to support this warranty. Except where mandated by applicable law, testing of all parameters of each component is not necessarily
performed.
TI assumes no liability for applications assistance or the design of Buyers’ products. Buyers are responsible for their products and
applications using TI components. To minimize the risks associated with Buyers’ products and applications, Buyers should provide
adequate design and operating safeguards.
TI does not warrant or represent that any license, either express or implied, is granted under any patent right, copyright, mask work right, or
other intellectual property right relating to any combination, machine, or process in which TI components or services are used. Information
published by TI regarding third-party products or services does not constitute a license to use such products or services or a warranty or
endorsement thereof. Use of such information may require a license from a third party under the patents or other intellectual property of the
third party, or a license from TI under the patents or other intellectual property of TI.
Reproduction of significant portions of TI information in TI data books or data sheets is permissible only if reproduction is without alteration
and is accompanied by all associated warranties, conditions, limitations, and notices. TI is not responsible or liable for such altered
documentation. Information of third parties may be subject to additional restrictions.
Resale of TI components or services with statements different from or beyond the parameters stated by TI for that component or service
voids all express and any implied warranties for the associated TI component or service and is an unfair and deceptive business practice.
TI is not responsible or liable for any such statements.
Buyer acknowledges and agrees that it is solely responsible for compliance with all legal, regulatory and safety-related requirements
concerning its products, and any use of TI components in its applications, notwithstanding any applications-related information or support
that may be provided by TI. Buyer represents and agrees that it has all the necessary expertise to create and implement safeguards which
anticipate dangerous consequences of failures, monitor failures and their consequences, lessen the likelihood of failures that might cause
harm and take appropriate remedial actions. Buyer will fully indemnify TI and its representatives against any damages arising out of the use
of any TI components in safety-critical applications.
In some cases, TI components may be promoted specifically to facilitate safety-related applications. With such components, TI’s goal is to
help enable customers to design and create their own end-product solutions that meet applicable functional safety standards and
requirements. Nonetheless, such components are subject to these terms.
No TI components are authorized for use in FDA Class III (or similar life-critical medical equipment) unless authorized officers of the parties
have executed a special agreement specifically governing such use.
Only those TI components which TI has specifically designated as military grade or “enhanced plastic” are designed and intended for use in
military/aerospace applications or environments. Buyer acknowledges and agrees that any military or aerospace use of TI components
which have not been so designated is solely at the Buyer's risk, and that Buyer is solely responsible for compliance with all legal and
regulatory requirements in connection with such use.
TI has specifically designated certain components as meeting ISO/TS16949 requirements, mainly for automotive use. In any case of use of
non-designated products, TI will not be responsible for any failure to meet ISO/TS16949.
Products Applications
Audio www.ti.com/audio Automotive and Transportation www.ti.com/automotive
Amplifiers amplifier.ti.com Communications and Telecom www.ti.com/communications
Data Converters dataconverter.ti.com Computers and Peripherals www.ti.com/computers
DLP® Products www.dlp.com Consumer Electronics www.ti.com/consumer-apps
DSP dsp.ti.com Energy and Lighting www.ti.com/energy
Clocks and Timers www.ti.com/clocks Industrial www.ti.com/industrial
Interface interface.ti.com Medical www.ti.com/medical
Logic logic.ti.com Security www.ti.com/security
Power Mgmt power.ti.com Space, Avionics and Defense www.ti.com/space-avionics-defense
Microcontrollers microcontroller.ti.com Video and Imaging www.ti.com/video
RFID www.ti-rfid.com
OMAP Applications Processors www.ti.com/omap TI E2E Community e2e.ti.com
Wireless Connectivity www.ti.com/wirelessconnectivity
Mailing Address: Texas Instruments, Post Office Box 655303, Dallas, Texas 75265
Copyright © 2016, Texas Instruments Incorporated