238 6.6 Series and limits which converges for all values of x. If we differentiate term by term, the series becomes Which is the series expansion of cos x, as we expect.?" EXERCISES 6.5 1. Write the relationships between the following pairs of functions, p(x) and q(x), in O, o and ~ notation, (a) as x — 0, and (b) as x — 00. PO) a) Baad Bete des, 3sinx 1 2. Find the ranges of convergence of the following real power series, determining whether or not the end-points are included: G@) xe 2x8 3x pa po, Ode at 1-44 © 1x20 2x4 Ixet 3. Determine the radius of convergence of the complex power series 2 of sg sto THF At which point(s) on the citcle of convergence does the series diverge? 4, Ilustrate the caveat stated in point (ii) of Section 6.5.2 by taking, for real x, P(x) and Q(x) = In(1 +x) and finding the ranges in which the two series P(Q(x)) and Q(P(3)) ate convergent. What are the corresponding regions if x is replaced by the complex variable 2? 5. By integrating the power series expansion of 1/V7 + ¥?, show that the power series for sinh" » is given by So ED" nytt sas = 2 Deo Taylor series Taylor's theorem provides a way of expressing a function as a power series in x, known as a Taylor series, but it can be applied only to those functions that are continuous and Aifferentiable within the x-range of interest. 131 What modiieation a thi salement i needed if we atgrate the power ese for sn term by term?239 6.6.1 6.6 Taylor series So) a ath Figure 6.1. The first-order Taylor series approximation to a function /(x). The slope ‘of the function at P, ic. tand, equals f'(a). Thus the value of the function at Q, ‘f(a +h), is approximated by the ordinate of R, f(a) + hf" (a). Taylor's theorem Suppose that we have a function f(x) that we wish to express as a power series in x —a about the point x =a, We shall assume that, in a given x-range, f(x) is a continuous, single-valued function of x having continuous derivatives with respect to x, denoted by £'@), f"¢e) and so on, up (0 and including f"°—"(x), We shall also assume that f(x) ‘exists in this range. From the equation following (4.12) we may write f S'@dx = fath)— fla), where a, a +h are neighbouring values of x. Rearranging this equation, we may express the value of the function at x = a+ h in terms of its value at a by rasw= sar f'" porate 6.16) A first approximation for f(a +h) may be obtained by substituting f"(a) for #"(x) in (6.16), to obtain flat) fla) +hf'Ca). ‘This approximation is shown graphically in Figure 6.1. We may write this fist approxi- ‘mation in terms of x and a as PO fla) + =a) fa), and, ina similar way, SOX LO+O-as"@, LOX A+ -af"a)240 Series and limits and soon. Substituting for’) in (6.16), we obtain the second approximation sh farm~ far f K@+ro-oF"@nd ta atiy © fla thy@+ ZF". We may repeat this procedure as often as we like (so long as the derivatives of (x) exist) to obtain higher order approximations to f(a +h); we find the (n — 1)th-order approximation’? to be Nea). GA malo ® F@+h*® Fat hf'@)+ FS" @ ++ [As might have been anticipated, the error associated with approximating (a +h) by this (n— Dth-order power series is of the order of the next term in the series, This error ‘or remainder can be shown to be given by Hp Rath) = FE), for some & that lies inthe range (a, « + h]. Taylors theorem then states that we may write the equality 2 1 The theorem may also be written in a form suitable for finding f(x) given the value of the function and its relevant derivatives at x = a, by substituting x = a + h in the above expression, It then reads fathy=fa+hf@+ Tf @teo+ —M(a) + Ral). (6.18) a aa pa) 4 op BAO pe-D(Q) 4 Ry, ke -a)f' SO) = fla) + - asa) + ot (6.19) where the remainder now takes the form & <2" 7), Ral) and & lies in the range [a, x]. Each of the formulae (6.18) and (6.19) gives us the Taylor ‘expansion of the function about the point x = a. A special case occurs when a = 0, Such ‘Taylor expansions, about x = 0, are called Maclaurin series. Taylor's theorem is also valid without significant modification for functions of a com- plex variable, The extension of Taylor's theorem to functions of two real variables is given in Chapter 7. For a function to be expressible as an infinite power series we require it to be infinitely ifferentiable and the remainder term R, to tend (0 zero as nm tends to infinity, ic. 432 The orderof th approximations simply th ighest power af hinthe series. Not, hough atthe (n~ Dyas spprotination cof tout.