Higher Level Mathematics Exploration

Exploring the techniques of integrating trigonometric functions, with strong

focus on applying Euler’s formula.
Candidate number: glt079
The version I have submitted to the school is the correct and final version, it is my own
work, and I have correctly acknowledged the work of others. I understand that failure to
do this will be investigated as a breach of IB regulations.

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Contents
Rationale ......................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 3
Context of the exploration ......................................................................................... 3
Definitions of key terms ............................................................................................ 4
Main body........................................................................................................................ 4
Integrating trigonometric functions with conventional methods ................................. 4
Proving Euler’s formula ............................................................................................. 7
Integrating trigonometric functions using Euler’s formula ......................................... 9
Trigonometric identities ........................................................................................... 13
Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 14
Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 15

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Rationale
In the Higher-Level Mathematics syllabus, we are required to know how to integrate
trigonometric functions. However, we do this without considering other more difficult
situations in which more than one method may not only be used, but is sometimes
imperative and a more productive approach.
As such, after doing research on integrating trigonometric functions, I discovered that
using Euler’s formula is a pivotal aspect in this area of mathematics. I have briefly
glanced the formula before and wanted to find out more about its relation to
trigonometric functions.
This was an unfamiliar experience because I had never been introduced to the concept
that bridges natural exponents and trigonometry, nor had I been introduced to imaginary
numbers.
Since this captured my personal interest and heightened my awareness in more areas
of mathematics, I decided to use this as my choice of topic for this exploration.
This exploration aims to find out the techniques of integrating trigonometric functions
and explain each of these techniques. The main question is, which method works best
in each situation? I will conclude with an evaluation of these methods in each different
situation.

Introduction

Context of the exploration

In the first year of the IB Diploma, my Grade 11 mathematics teacher showed me a

mathematical truth on the board for myself and my classmates to do some self-reading
on. Upon seeing it, I was stunned by its apparent simplicity and mathematical beauty.
The mathematical truth was: 𝒆𝒊𝝅 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
I was so shocked that 3 very important mathematical units would be so easily united
under a single, non-complex or irrational answer in such an arrangement. After doing
some research, I’ve discovered that this truth is derived from Euler’s formula, which is
written as such: 𝒆𝒊𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 (Tsumura, 2004).
This allowed me to go further into the imaginary unit, which has yet to be covered in the
HL Mathematics syllabus, making this is for my own personal interest into the
exploration of unfamiliar mathematics, amongst other things covered in this exploration,
which is mostly outside of the IB HL Mathematics syllabus. It is also worth noting that
trigonometry and integral calculus are essential syllabus components, even though the
mathematics used in here often requires an alternative approach.

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Therefore, I chose it to be the subject of my exploration: not only to seek an experience
out of passion, but also to do further research on existing coursework and to develop
what I had learned from teachers by myself, effectively killing two birds with one stone.

Definitions of key terms

𝑖 – Known as the imaginary unit, used to define imaginary numbers which arises from
answers with imaginary solutions, like the square of a negative number or the non-real
root of quadratic functions. Its quantifiable value is √−1.
𝑒 – Known as Euler’s number, it is the asymptote of the converging function
1 𝑛
(1 + ) - it is the base of the natural exponential function, represented as 𝑒 𝑥 . Its
𝑛
quantifiable value, to 3 decimal places, is 2.718.
𝜋 – The ratio between a circle’s diameter and circumference, also used in radian
trigonometry and other circular-based theorems, such as spirals and spheres. Its
quantifiable value is, to 3 decimal places, 3.142.
Taylor series – A Taylor series is a series expansion of a function about a point. A one-
dimensional Taylor series is an expansion of a real function 𝑓(𝑥) about a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 is
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) 𝑓 (3) (𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
given by 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑎) 3 + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ⋯
2! 3! 𝑛!
which expands infinitely (Weisstein, 2004). When 𝑎 = 0, it becomes known as a
Maclaurin series.

Main body

Integrating trigonometric functions with conventional methods

I will solve two functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ sin6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 with various
techniques.
Solving the first function using integration by parts
Finding the solution using the integration by parts formula will separate the whole
function into something that is easier to work with, even though this is a longer and
more tedious method since the integration is cumbersome and repetitive.

𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫(−𝑒 −𝑥 ) (sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Since this presents another integral that cannot be worked on directly, integration by
parts must once again be used.

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𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫(−𝑒 −𝑥 ) (sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫(−𝑒 −𝑥 ) (−cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫(𝑒 −𝑥 ) (cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Since this has led back to the function to be solved itself appearing in the expansion, I
can substitute it in and solve it from there.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)
2𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥
2𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 (sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)
sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 ( )
2
This method is limiting since the integration by parts not only needs to be carried out
twice, but also because as someone solving the issue, I would not be able to
instinctively carry out something out that did not break down into solvable parts the first
time. Hence, another method of solving this is imperative.
Solving the second function using trigonometric identities
Due to the fact that function has such a large exponent, this needs to broke down into a
smaller exponential to utilise trigonometric identities for the further simplification and
derivation. However, the Pythagorean identities cannot be used since those still use
exponents on both sides of the formula, hence necessitating the use of one the double
angle identities, where the square is only present on one side of the identity.

𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ sin6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(sin2 𝑥)3 𝑑𝑥

From here, I have observe that sin2 𝑥 is present in the identity cos 2𝑥 = cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥.
Since cos 2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥 (from Pythagorean identities), cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2sin2 𝑥. Thus,
1−cos 2𝑥
sin2 𝑥 can alternatively be represented as .
2

2 3
1 − cos 2𝑥 3
∫(sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2
From here, the numerator inside the brackets can be expanded using the binomial
theorem.

1 − cos 2𝑥 3 1 − 3 cos 2𝑥 + 3 cos2 2𝑥 − cos 3 2𝑥

∫( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 8

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Since integrals are summations of a function’s heights given a certain range on the axis,
they may be treated as summations and split up accordingly. On top of that, any
constants may be put outside of the integral sign, since they don’t need to be summed.
1 3 3 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cos2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8 8 8 8
The biggest problem now is the cos2 2𝑥 and cos 3 2𝑥 parts of the function, which are
impossible to integrate in their current form. To solve for ∫ cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥, use the double
cos 4𝑥+1
angle identity again, equate to ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
2

To solve for ∫ cos 3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥, substitution is required, not just to reduce the value of the
exponential, but also make the integration avoid the trigonometric element, which would
result in it being easier to solve for.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Take 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = 2cos 2𝑥, 2cos 2𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥. Substitute 𝑑𝑥 into original function.

𝑑𝑦 1
∫ cos3 2𝑥 = ∫ cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2cos 2𝑥 2
Using the Pythagorean identities, cos2 2𝑥 = 1 − sin2 2𝑥 = 1 − 𝑦 2 . Thus,
1 1 1
∫ cos2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 1 − sin2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 1 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
2 2 2
This integral can now be worked on as a normal algebraic integration, due to the new
substitution of 𝑦 and integration with respect to 𝑦, then converted back into 𝑥 values.
1 1 𝑦3 1 sin3 2𝑥
∫ 1 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑦 − ) = (sin 2𝑥 − )
2 2 3 2 3

From here, solve for the rest of the function.

1 3 3 cos 4𝑥 + 1 1 1 sin3 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − × (sin 2𝑥 − )
8 8 8 2 8 2 3

1 3 sin 2𝑥 3 sin 4𝑥 1 1 sin3 2𝑥

= 𝑥 − ×( )+ ×( + 𝑥) − (sin 2𝑥 − )
8 8 2 8 8 2 16 3

𝑥 3 sin 2𝑥 3 sin 4𝑥 3𝑥 sin 2𝑥 sin3 2𝑥

= − + + − +
8 16 64 16 16 48
5𝑥 sin 2𝑥 3 sin 4𝑥 sin3 2𝑥
= − + +
16 4 64 48
Here, I have noted that this method required multiple integrals to be split and
substituted, which is a time-consuming method of solving for these integrals since they

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have such large exponents. Thus, a proof where this would not be a problem is
important, hence demanding the need for Euler’s formula.

Proving Euler’s formula

As stated before, certain functions in mathematics, including trigonometric functions,

may be expanded using the Taylor series or Maclaurin series. How they work is by
taking the same 𝑥-value on the graph (Maclaurin series takes 0), and then taking the
sum of all the differentials of that point, with each entity divided by the factorial of the
number of differentials, which will equate to the function itself, which leads to easily re-
representing the function as a series.
When 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 are expanded using the Maclaurin series, they yield a series of
whole numbers tied to 𝑥. The reason this is necessary is because it is used to compare
to other Maclaurin series to find any similarities to correlate them.
Keep in mind that while 𝑥 = 𝑎 = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0, I still needed to stretch it out with respect to
𝑥 to make sense out of the expansion and thereby derive the formula.
When 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is expanded infinitely using the Maclaurin series, it is derived like
this:

′ (0)(𝑥
𝑓 ′′ (0) 2
𝑓 (3) (0) 3
𝑓 (4) (0)
sin 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 − 0) + (𝑥 − 0) + (𝑥 − 0) + + (𝑥 − 0)4 ⋯
2! 3! 4!
(− sin 0) 2 (− cos 0) 3 sin 0 4
= sin 0 + cos 0 ×𝑥 + ×𝑥 + ×𝑥 + ×𝑥 …
2! 3! 4!
(0) 2 (−1) 3 0
= 0 + 1×𝑥 + ×𝑥 + ×𝑥 + ×𝑥 4 …
2! 3! 4!
Thus, can be written as:
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
What I noticed is that the differential follows an alternating pattern of
sin 𝑎 , cos 𝑎 , − sin 𝑎 , − cos 𝑎 , sin 𝑎 … and since 𝑎 = 0, the pattern is 0,1,0, −1,0 …, while
still leaving the 𝑥 𝑛 values behind.
Since cos 𝑥 also follows trigonometric differentiation, it will follow a pattern of its own too,
which would be cos 𝑎 , − sin 𝑎 , − cos 𝑎 , sin 𝑎 , cos 𝑎 …, and when 𝑎 = 0, the pattern is
1,0, −1,0,1 …
Likewise, when cos 𝑥 is expanded it is written like this:
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!

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The numbers present in these expansions are not just the odd and even integers from
0, they are also present in the same manner of the next expansion, the natural
exponential function.
The natural exponential function is the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 , where 𝑎 is any real number.
Since the derivative is worked out for the above function is 𝑓’(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 log 𝑒 𝑏, it means
that if 𝑏 = 𝑒, then it would become 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓’(𝑥).
Since differentiating this function would cause it to yield itself, the Maclaurin series,
which revolves upon differentiation, for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 would be:
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) (1 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯ ), since 𝑓(0) = 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑓 (𝑛) (0)
2! 3!

Because 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 = 1, I simply get:

𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
Since the similarity to another Maclaurin series has been found, the intuitive approach
from here would be to take sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 and sum them up to get 𝑒 𝑥 , but since there
are negatives in the trigonometric expansions (unlike 𝑒 𝑥 ), a way must be found to
equate these negative terms.
sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 ≠ 𝑒 𝑥 , but must be something along these lines.
Hence, this calls for the introduction of the role of the 𝑖 when attempting to sum these
trigonometric expansions attempt to get an answer in terms of 𝑒 𝑥 . Since 𝑖 = √−1, using
powers on it causes a repeating pattern, similarly to 1 or -1. It also helps that the pattern
involves alternating operations (+ and −). The pattern is:

𝑖 = √−1, 𝑖 2 = −1, 𝑖 3 = −𝑖, 𝑖 4 = 1, 𝑖 5 = 𝑖 and vice versa.

Firstly, I observed that in this pattern that if 𝑖 has an even exponent, the final result
leaves no 𝑖 behind. Hence, if I substitute the 𝑥 values in 𝑒 𝑥 with 𝑖𝑥, then the result would
be that the terms with even exponents having no 𝑖’s. Since all the even-exponent terms
are simply extracted from cos 𝑥, I know that that part of the sum is left untouched.
Since the Maclaurin series is based on a function, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , substituting the 𝑥 values
with 𝑖𝑥 would be 𝑓(𝑖𝑥), which is 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 . This technically works out, since the MacLaurin
series requires it to be represented as a function first before being expanded.
𝑥2 𝑥3
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯, substitute 𝑥 for 𝑖𝑥 to obtain 𝑓(𝑖𝑥).
2! 3!

(𝑖𝑥)2 (𝑖𝑥)3
𝑓(𝑖𝑥) = 1 + 𝑖𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!

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This can therefore be simplified into:
𝑥 2 𝑖𝑥 3
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 1 + 𝑖𝑥 − + +⋯
2! 3!
From here, I can remove the cos 𝑥 entities to leave behind the sin 𝑥 entities.

𝑖𝑥
𝑖𝑥 3 𝑖𝑥 5 𝑖𝑥 7
𝑒 − cos 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
With 𝑖 being a common multiple, I noted that:
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − cos 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
= 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ = sin 𝑥
𝑖 3! 5! 7!
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − cos 𝑥
= sin 𝑥
𝑖
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − cos 𝑥 = 𝑖 sin 𝑥
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥
Hence obtaining 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒊𝒙 .
In the unique case where 𝑥 = 𝜋, cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 . As mentioned before, 𝜋 is used in
trigonometry, and is the value of sin 𝑥 where it completes precisely half of its full period,
since trigonometric functions are periodic.
Because cos 𝜋 = −1 and 𝑖 sin 𝜋 = 0𝑖, the function above reduces to −1 + 0𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 ,
−1 + 0 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋
−1 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋
0 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 + 1
Obtaining 𝒆𝒊𝝅 + 𝟏 = 𝟎. This is known as Euler’s identity, which is largely considered
“The most beautiful function in mathematics” (Coolman, 2015).

Integrating trigonometric functions using Euler’s formula

Once again, I will solve 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ sin6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
The methods used to solve these functions with Euler’s formula are not present in the IB
mathematics syllabus or formula booklet for integration, so I had to personally work
these proofs out using the formula and my current understanding, adding to the
originality of this exploration.

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Solving the first function
Instead of using integration by parts, I will use Euler’s formula to substitute values into
the function instead, thus I will find identities for cos 𝑥 and sin 𝑥 in terms of natural
exponents.
𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 , and likewise 𝑔(−𝑥) = cos −𝑥 + 𝑖 sin −𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
𝑔(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 .
To cancel out the 𝑖 sin 𝑥 to isolate cos 𝑥, add 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑔(−𝑥) to get
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 =
2
The same can be done for sin 𝑥 by subtracting 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑔(−𝑥) to get

𝑖𝑥 −𝑖𝑥
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
𝑒 −𝑒 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑥 , sin 𝑥 =
2𝑖
After that, simply substitute the identities into 𝑓(𝑥) to solve.

−𝑥 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 1
𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2

Since I have arrived at 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 , I may once again utilise Euler’s formula into this
function to convert it back into trigonometry.
1 1
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥+𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥−𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
The integral part can be simply converted since it involves single entities involving
purely natural exponents and no trigonometry added to it.

1 1 𝑒 𝑥(𝑖−1) 𝑒 𝑥(−𝑖−1)
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥+𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥−𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( + )
2 2 𝑖−1 −𝑖 − 1

Hence, this method only involves a single integration, which even so does not contain a
multiple conversions or repetitions that the integrations by parts method does, since the
integration involved in this method is a straightforward one involving just a slightly
different presentation of the natural exponential function (which, as discussed earlier,
will yield a differential or integral equal to the function).
From here, all I need to do is convert the denominators into the same thing to add up
the entities and then solve the function.

1 𝑒 𝑥(𝑖−1) 𝑒 𝑥(−𝑖−1) 𝑒 𝑥(𝑖−1) (−𝑖 − 1) + 𝑒 𝑥(−𝑖−1) (𝑖 − 1)

( + )=
2 𝑖−1 −𝑖 − 1 2(𝑖 − 1)(−𝑖 − 1)

10

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 −𝑖𝑒 𝑥(𝑖−1) − 𝑒 𝑥(𝑖−1) + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥(−𝑖−1) − 𝑒 𝑥(−𝑖−1)
=
2(−𝑖 2 − 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 1)
−𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑖𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= 𝑒 −𝑥
4

−𝑥
𝑖(−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 ) − 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
=𝑒
4
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑖(−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= ( − )
2 2 2

𝑒 −𝑥 𝑖 2 (−𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥

= ( − )= ( − )
2 2𝑖 2 2 2𝑖 2
sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
= 𝑒 −𝑥 ( )
2
Not only has this method allowed the solution to be found using a single integration, it
has also helped to generate more trigonometric identities in terms of 𝑒 and 𝑖, due to
their derivation via Euler’s formula.
However, this method might also be perceived as a limitation, because although the
mathematics used was far more straightforward and basic, it also became more time
consuming to do so thus.
Solving the second function
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
As proven earlier, sin 𝑥 = . Substitute into the second function.
2𝑖
6
6
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
6
𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝑖

From here, use the binomial theorem again to expand the numerator. To make the
expansion easier to work with, substitute 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑦.
6
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 (𝑦 − 𝑦 −1 )6
∫( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑖 64𝑖 6
1
=− ∫ 𝑦 6 − 6𝑦 5 𝑦 −1 + 15𝑦 4 𝑦 −2 − 20𝑦 3 𝑦 −3 + 15𝑦 2 𝑦 −4 − 6𝑦1 𝑦 −5 + 𝑦 −6 𝑑𝑥
64
1
=− ∫ 𝑦 6 − 6𝑦 4 + 15𝑦 2 − 20 + 15𝑦 −2 − 6𝑦 −4 + 𝑦 −6 𝑑𝑥
64

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Now, I may either resubstitute the value of 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑦, or integrate the whole function with
respect to 𝑦 instead by substituting for 𝑑𝑥. Either way is equally effective, but here I will
demonstrate the latter.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = . With this information, the function becomes:
𝑖𝑦

1 𝑑𝑦
− ∫ 𝑦 6 − 6𝑦 4 + 15𝑦 2 − 20 + 15𝑦 −2 − 6𝑦 −4 + 𝑦 −6
64 𝑖𝑦
1
=− ∫ 𝑦 5 − 6𝑦 3 + 15𝑦 − 20𝑦 −1 + 15𝑦 −3 − 6𝑦 −5 + 𝑦 −7 𝑑𝑦
64𝑖
1 𝑦6 𝑦4 𝑦2 𝑦 −2 𝑦 −4 𝑦 −6
=− ( − 6× + 15× − 20 ln 𝑦 + 15× − 6× + )
64𝑖 6 4 2 −2 −4 −6

𝑦6 3𝑦 4 15𝑦 2 5 ln 𝑦 15𝑦 −2 3𝑦 −4 𝑦 −6
=− + − + + − +
384𝑖 128𝑖 128𝑖 16𝑖 128𝑖 128𝑖 384𝑖
𝑦6 𝑦 −6 3𝑦 4 3𝑦 −4 15𝑦 2 15𝑦 −2 5 ln 𝑦
= −( − )+( − )−( − )+
384𝑖 384𝑖 128𝑖 128𝑖 128𝑖 128𝑖 16𝑖

(𝑦 2 − 𝑦 −2 )3 + 3𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 −2 3 𝑦 4 − 𝑦 −4 15 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 −2 5 ln 𝑦
= −( )+ ( )− ( )+
384𝑖 64 2𝑖 64 2𝑖 16𝑖

1 (𝑦 2 − 𝑦 −2 )3 3 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 −2 3 𝑦 4 − 𝑦 −4 15 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 −2 5 ln 𝑦
=− ( ) − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) +
48 23 𝑖 192 2𝑖 64 2𝑖 64 2𝑖 16𝑖

Now, I may convert the function back into terms of 𝑥. It works out into trigonometry
because of the following proof. Referencing the page containing proof of sin 𝑥 in the
natural exponential form:
𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑔(−𝑥) 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= sin 𝑥 =
2𝑖 2𝑖
This therefore means:
𝑛 𝑛
𝑔(𝑛𝑥) − 𝑔(−𝑛𝑥) (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) − (𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 )
= = sin 𝑛𝑥
2𝑖 2𝑖
Using this proof, I can finish solving the function when I resubstitute 𝑦 as 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 .
3
1 ((𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )2 − (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )−2 ) 3 (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )2 − (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )−2 3 (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )4 − (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )−4
= ( )− ( )+ ( )
48 (2𝑖)3 192 2𝑖 56 2𝑖
15 (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )2 − (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )−2 5 ln(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )
− ( )+
56 2𝑖 16𝑖

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 1 3 3 15 5𝑥
= sin3 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 +
48 192 64 64 16
5𝑥 sin 2𝑥 3 sin 4𝑥 sin3 2𝑥
= − + +
16 4 64 48
Solving for the second function using Euler’s formula has not only been more hassle-
free in terms of the integration, since it only needs one integration to arrive at a final
answer. The last part was conducted simply to prove that the two methods of integration
are both mathematically valid and yield the same result.

Trigonometric identities

Beyond just integration, it is also worth noting that the trigonometric identities used to
solve the previous functions are also derivable using Euler’s formula, which I only
discovered this after some additional research and mathematics. This further amplifies
the importance and recognition Euler’s formula has in the field of integrating
trigonometric functions, because before solving the functions I must first know these
formulae.
Compound angle identities are the conversions or alternative representations of
sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵, cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵 and tan 𝐴 ± 𝐵. As such, to create identities for these, I substitute
these values in Euler’s formula.

cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵 + 𝑖 sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = 𝑒 𝑖(𝐴±𝐵)

The properties of the natural exponentials can be exploited through this conversion,
hence making it possible to further break this down into identities.

= 𝑒 𝑖(𝐴±𝐵) = 𝑒 𝑖𝐴 ×𝑒 ±𝑖𝐵
This can once again be converted back into trigonometry using Euler’s formula.
(cos 𝐴 + 𝑖 sin 𝐴)(cos ±𝐵 + 𝑖 sin ±𝐵) = (cos 𝐴 + 𝑖 sin 𝐴)(± cos 𝐵 ± 𝑖 sin 𝐵)
This can be expanded and then separated into real and imaginary parts:
= ± cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± 𝑖 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 ± 𝑖 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± 𝑖 2 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
= ± cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± 𝑖 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 ± 𝑖 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
= ± cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 ± 𝑖(cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵)
From here, I can equate the real and imaginary segments to the real and imaginary
segments of the original function.
cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = ± cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 and sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵
(International Baccalaureate Organisation, 2012).
Thus, I have acquired the compound angle identities for sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵 and cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵.

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 sin 𝐴±𝐵
To find the compound angle identity for tan 𝐴 ± 𝐵, simply convert it into cos 𝐴±𝐵 and apply
tan 𝐴±tan 𝐵
the previously found compound angle identities to eventually acquire .
1∓tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵

Next are the double angle identities, the other ways of expressing sin 2𝑥 , cos 2𝑥 and
tan 2𝑥. In a similar fashion to the deriving of the compound angle identities, I simply
substitute the trigonometric expressions into Euler’s formula.
cos 2𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑖(2𝑥) = (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )2
Since 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥, the above formula may be rewritten as (cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)2,
which can then be expanded and once again separated into real and imaginary parts to
be compared to the original formula.
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)2 = cos2 𝑥 + 2𝑖 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 2 sin2 𝑥
= cos2 𝑥 + 2𝑖 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
= cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 + 𝑖(2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥)
Thus, cos 2𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 and sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 (International Baccalaureate
Organisation, 2012). Once again, to find the double angle identity for tan 2𝑥, convert it
sin 2𝑥 2 tan 𝑥
into cos 2𝑥 and utilise the previously found double angle formulas to arrive at .
1−tan2 𝑥

Another takeaway from this is that Euler’s formula acts as an effective bridge of natural
exponents and trigonometry, thus being able to convert and exploit properties from each
of these fields to come up with even more proofs, which would have been otherwise
impossible to do if Euler’s formula was not present, which emphasises the significance
of Euler’s formula in this exploration in relation to solving mathematics involving
trigonometry.

Conclusion
This exploration shown and explained the multiple techniques of integrating
trigonometric functions, with Euler’s formula playing a major role. To answer the
question proposed in the rationale, the solutions involving Euler’s formula for the
integrals were the most effective; while they did possess their limitations, the pros
outweigh the cons in terms of ease of integration, finding new identities with Euler’s
formula, and values for substitution were not as transparent as those used for the other
techniques.
However, this has not explored the full extent of the ability that can be provided by the
imaginary numbers, an important factor in both Euler’s formula and mathematics in
general, thus another exploration could be conducted with focus on said topic.
Euler’s formula has clear been shown as a breakthrough in mathematics as it allows
mathematicians to discover even more conversions. In this case, not only does it
involve imaginary numbers, it also combines trigonometry and natural exponentials.

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However, there were various limitations with the exploration. For instance, there could
only be two functions used as examples of integrating trigonometric functions. Another
thing was that the answer was often kept in mind or known beforehand, especially for
the identities. For the identities, while the result did not need to be “known” as such, it
would not seem intuitively obvious to substitute the values into Euler’s formula to exploit
the exponential properties and converting them back into trigonometry. As for the extra
research done on this exploration, possible future investigations might include the
derivation, explanation and applications of Taylor and MacLaurin series, with proving
Euler’s formula being one such application.
This exploration has been an educational and insightful experience, not only have I
learnt a lot more about trigonometry and integration techniques, but I have also further
improved the immense knowledge of fundamentals that the IB HL Mathematics syllabus
demands, with rigorous proofs of more identities and creative approaches to substituting
values or new identities.

Bibliography
Coolman, R. (2015) Euler’s Identity: ‘The Most Beautiful Function’. Available at:
http://www.livescience.com/51399-eulers-identity.html (Accessed: 12 February 2017).
International Baccalaureate Organisation, (2012). Mathematics HL and further
mathematics HL formula booklet. 1st ed. Geneva: International Baccalaureate
Organisation, p.4.
Tsumura, H. (2004) ‘An elementary proof of Euler’s formula for z(2m)’, The American
Mathematical Monthly, 111(5), pp. 430–431. doi: 10.2307/4145270.
Weisstein, E.W. (2004) Taylor Series. Available at:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TaylorSeries.html (Accessed: 5 January 2017).

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