Network Protocols/

4/9/2018
Mobile IP
 Motivation
 Data transfer
 Encapsulation
 Security
 IPv6
 Problems
 Micro mobility support
 DHCP
 Ad-hoc networks
8.1
 Routing protocols
Traditional Routing
A routing protocol sets up a routing table in
routers

 Routingprotocol is typically based on Distance-

Vector or Link-State algorithms
Routing and Mobility
 Finding a path from a source to a destination
 Issues
 Frequent route changes
 amount of data transferred between route changes
may be much smaller than traditional networks
 Route changes may be related to host
movement
 Low bandwidth links

 Goal of routing protocols

 Decrease routing-related overhead
 Find short routes
 Find “stable” routes (despite mobility)
Mobile IP Motivation (RFC 3220):
 Traditional routing
 based on IP address; network prefix determines the
subnet
 change of physical subnet implies
 change of IP address (conform to new subnet), or
 special routing table entries to forward packets to new
subnet
 Changing of IP address
 DNS updates take to long time
 TCP connections break
 security problems
 Changing entries in routing tables
 does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and
frequent changes in the location
 security problems
 Solution requirements
 retain same IP address, use same layer 2 protocols
 authentication of registration messages, …
 8.5 4/9/2018

Requirements to Mobile IP (RFC

3344, was: 3220, was: 2002)
Transparency
 mobile end-systems keep IP address
 Continuous service after link interruption
 point of connection to the fixed network can be changed

Compatibility
 No changes to current hosts, OS, routers
 mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems

Security
 authentication of all registration messages
Efficiency and scalability
 only few additional messages to mobile system (low bandwidth)
 Global support for large number of mobile systems
Mobile IP: Basic Idea

MN Router
S
3

Home
agent

Router Router
1 2
Mobile IP: Basic Idea
move

Router
S MN
3

Foreign agent

Home agent

Router Router Packets are tunneled

using IP in IP
1 2
Question
 Howdoes MN get access in the new network? (Foreign
network)
 How does MN know about Foreign Agent?
 (Advertisement)
 How does MN ‘talk’ to the Foreign agent?

 How does MN inform the old network (home) of its

new location?
 Registration with home agent through the foreign agent
 How do the network and MN forward packets? (In
each direction)
 Tunneling
 8.9 4/9/2018

Terminology
Mobile Node (MN)
 Laptop, PDA, etc.. that may move about
Home Agent (HA)
 Router in home network of the MN, helps in forwarding
 registers current MN location, tunnels IP datagrams to COA
Foreign Agent (FA)
 Router in current foreign network of MN
 forwards tunneled datagrams to the MN

Care-of Address (COA)

 address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
 can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP

Correspondent Node (CN)

 Node that wants to communicate with MN
 8.10 4/9/2018

Example network
HA
MN

router

home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network
for the MN) FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN

end-system router
Data transfer to the mobile system
HA
2
MN

home network 3 receiver

Internet

FA foreign
network

1 1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

CN HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
by encapsulation
sender 3. FA forwards the packetIITto the MN
Bombay
Data transfer from the mobile system
HA
1
MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

CN of the receiver as usual,
FA works as default router
receiver

Source: Schiller
Example
There are two mobile hosts -> MH1 & MH2
And their Home Agents -> HA1 & HA2
MH1 is in its Home Network
MH2 is in a Foreign Networks
Suppose:
 MH1 initiates data transfer with MH2.
What is the path of the packets?
 MH1 now moves to a Foreign network
Example (continued)

Encapsulation Decapsulation
10.100.5.2 10.8.13.5 10.100.5.2 10.8.13.5
 8.16 4/9/2018

Example (continued)
 8.19 4/9/2018

Network integration
Agent Advertisement
 HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their
subnets
 MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
Registration (always limited lifetime!)
 MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges
 Messeges need to be secured by authentication
Advertisement
 HA advertises the MN IP address (as for fixed systems)
 routers adjust their entries, (HA responsible for a long time)
 All packets to MN are sent to HA
 8.20 4/9/2018

Agent advertisement packet (RFC 1256 +

mobility extension)

 B- busy
set to zero Reverse
 H- home ignored tunneling
registration
 F- foreign
 M- minimal
 G- generic
 8.21 4/9/2018

Registration
MN FA HA MN HA

t MN has Co-located COA

MN has COA
 8.22 4/9/2018

Registration request
 S-HA to retain prior
mobility bindings
 B- MN to receive
the broadcast
packets from HA
 D-decapsulation
at tunnel endpoint
 M-minimal
 G- Generic
 r- set to zero
 T- reverse
tunneling
 x- set to zero
 8.23 4/9/2018

Registration reply
 8.24 4/9/2018

Tunneling and encapsulation

A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data
packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel
endpoint.
 Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet through a
tunnel, is achieved by using encapsulation.
 Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a
packet consisting of packet header and data
and putting it into the data part of a new
packet.
 The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the
data part of another packet, is called
decapsulation.
 8.25 4/9/2018

Encapsulation

original IP header original data

new IP header new data

outer header inner header original data

Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload

 e.g. IP-in-IP-encapsulation (mandatory, RFC 2003)
 tunnel between HA and COA
 8.26 4/9/2018

IP-in-IP encapsulation
Internet header
Inner header complete encapsulated
length
packet

Version

Type of
protocol
 8.27 4/9/2018

Minimal encapsulation
 With IP-in-IP encapsulation, several fields are
redundant (Not necessary).

 An optional encapsulation method for mobile

IP (Perkins, 1996c).

 The tunnel entry point and endpoint are

specified.
 8.28 4/9/2018

Minimal encapsulation
Internet header
Inner header complete encapsulated
length
packet

Version

Type of
protocol

Original
sender
address of
CN
 4/9/2018

Generic routing encapsulation

 Encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite
into the payload portion of a packet of another
protocol suite (Hanks, 1994).
 Packet of one protocol suite with the original
packet header and data is taken and a new
GRE header is prepended.
 8.30 4/9/2018

Generic routing encapsulation

Strict source
routing

Sequence
no

checksum

Routing
fields

key

 Rec- recursion control

 Rsv- reserved set to zero
 Ver- version set to zero generic
 8.31 4/9/2018

Optimization of packet
forwarding
Triangular Routing
 For eg: Japanese and a German meet at a conference on
Hawaii.
 sender sends all packets via HA to MN
 Triangular routes longer, higher latency and network load
“Solutions”
 HA informs a sender about the location of MN
 sender learns current location of MN
 direct tunneling to this location
 big security problems!
Change of FA
 packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
 new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss
 old FA forwards remaining packets to new FA
 Update also enables old FA to release resources for MN 8.10
 8.32 4/9/2018

Optimized mobile IP protocol

 Binding request: Node that wants to know the
current location of an MN can send a binding
request to the HA.
 Binding update: This message sent by the HA to
CNs reveals the current location of an MN (fixed
IP and COA).
 Binding acknowledgement: If requested, a node
returns this acknowledgement after receiving a
binding update message.
 Binding warning: Node decapsulates a packet
for an MN, but it is not the current FA for this MN,
this node sends a binding warning.
 8.33 4/9/2018

Request
 8.34 4/9/2018

Reverse tunneling
 MN can directly send its packets to the CN.
Problems
 Firewalls:
 intranet must pass through the firewall.
 Home firewalls rejects packet from MN (unless reverse tunneling)
 MN can no longer send packets back to home network
 Multi-cast:
 MN in a foreign network cannot transmit multi-cast packets in a
way that they emanate from its home network without a
reverse tunnel.
 TTL:
 Mobile IP is no longer transparent if a user has to adjust the TTL
while moving.
 8.35 4/9/2018

Reverse tunneling
 Reverse tunneling now creates a triangular
routing problem in the reverse direction.
 All packets from an MN to a CN go through the
HA.
 Reverse tunneling also raises several security
issues
 For eg: tunnels starting in the private network of a
company and reaching out into the internet could
be hijacked and abused for sending packets through
a firewall.
 8.36 4/9/2018

Mobile IP and IPv6

Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols
 security is integrated, not add-on, authentication of registration included
 COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate)
 every node has address autoconfiguration
 no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement
 MN can signal a sender directly the COA, without HA
 „soft“ hand-over, i.e. without packet loss supported
 MN sends the new COA to its old router
 old router encapsulates all packets for MN, forwards them to new COA
 authentication is always granted
 8.37 4/9/2018

IP Micro-mobility support
Micro-mobility support:
 Efficient local handover inside foreign domain without involving a home
agent
 Reduces control traffic on backbone
 Especially needed for route optimization

Example approaches:
 Cellular IP
 HAWAII
 Hierarchical Mobile IP (HMIP)
 8.38 4/9/2018

Cellular IP
 Operation:
 „CIP Nodes“ maintain
Internet
routing entries (soft
state) for MNs
Mobile IP
 Multiple entries possible
 Routing entries updated CIP Gateway
based on update data/control
packets sent by MN packets
from MN 1
 CIP Gateway:
 Mobile IP tunnel endpoint
 Initial registration BS BS BS
packets from
processing
MN2 to MN 1
 Other micromobility
MN1 MN2
protocols
 HAWAII
 Hierarchical Mobile
IPv6 (HMIPv6)
 8.39 4/9/2018

Cellular IP
 Advantages:
 Manageability: Cellular IP is mostly self-configuring,
and integration of the CIPGW into a firewall would
facilitate administration of mobility-related
functionality.
 Disadvantages:
 Efficiency: Additional network load is induced by
forwarding packets on multiple paths.
 Transparency: Changes to MNs are required.
 Security: Routing tables are changed based on
messages sent by mobile nodes.
 8.40 4/9/2018

Hawaii
 Handoff-Aware Wireless Access
Internet Infrastructure
1. A mobile node obtains a co-
located COA
2. Registers with the HA
3. when moving to another cell
inside the foreign domain, the
MN sends a registration
request to the new base
station as to a foreign agent
4. Base station intercepts the
registration request and sends
out a handoff update
message, which reconfigures
all routers on the paths from
the old and new base station
to the so-called crossover
router
 8.41 4/9/2018

Hawaii
 Advantages
 Security: Challenge-response extensions are
mandatory. In contrast to Cellular IP, routing
changes are always initiated by the foreign
domain’s infrastructure.
 Transparency: HAWAII is mostly transparent to mobile
nodes.
 Disadvantages
 Security: There are no provisions regarding the setup
of IPSec tunnels.
 Implementation: No private address support is
possible because of colocated COAs.
 8.42 4/9/2018

Hierarchical mobile IPv6 (HMIPv6)

 Mobility anchor point (MAP),
which is responsible for a certain
domain and acts as a local HA.
 MAP receives all packets on
behalf of the MN, encapsulates
and forwards to MN (link COA).
 MN stays within MAP, globally
visible COA (regional COA, RCOA)
does not change.
 MAP domain’s boundaries are
defined by the access routers (AR)
 8.43 4/9/2018

 MAP assists with local handovers and maps RCOA

to LCOA.
 MNs register their RCOA with the HA using a
binding update.
 When a MN moves locally it must only register its
new LCOA with its MAP. RCOA stays unchanged.
 For smooth handovers: MN can send a binding
update to its former MAP
 8.44 4/9/2018

Hierarchical mobile IPv6 (HMIPv6)

 Advantages
 Security: MNs can have (limited) location privacy
because LCOAs can be hidden.
 Efficiency: Direct routing between CNs sharing the
same link is possible
 Disadvantages
 Transparency: Additional infrastructure component
(MAP).
 Security: Routing tables are changed based on
messages sent by mobile nodes. This requires strong
authentication and protection against denial of
service attacks. Additional security functions might
be necessary in MAPs
 8.45 4/9/2018

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol
Main idea: E.g WPI has pool of IP addresses it can “lease” to hosts for
short term use, claim back when done
Application
 simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers
 supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS
server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.
 enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet,
can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP
Client/Server-Model
 the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP serve r (might
be via a DHCP relay) DHCPDISCOVER

DHCPDISCOVER
server client

client relay
 8.46 4/9/2018

DHCP - protocol mechanisms

server
(selected)
server client
(not selected) initialization

DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER
determine the determine the
configuration configuration
DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFER

collection of replies
time

selection of configuration
DHCPREQUEST DHCPREQUEST
(reject) (options) confirmation of
configuration
DHCPACK
initialization completed

release
DHCPRELEASE delete context
 8.47 4/9/2018

DHCP characteristics
Server
 several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet
standardized (i.e., manual configuration)
Renewal of configurations
 IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol
Big security problems!
 no authentication of DHCP information specified
 8.48 4/9/2018

Mobile ad hoc networks

Standard Mobile IP needs an infrastructure
 Home Agent/Foreign Agent in the fixed network
 DNS, routing etc. not designed for mobility
Sometimes there is no infrastructure!
 remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas
 cost can also be argument against infrastructure!
Main topic: routing
 no default router available
 every node should be able to forward

A B C
 8.49 4/9/2018

Solution: Wireless ad-hoc networks

Network without infrastructure
 Use components of participants for networking

Examples
 Single-hop: All partners max. one hop apart
 Bluetooth piconet, PDAs in a room,
gaming devices…

 Multi-hop: Cover larger distances,

circumvent obstacles
 Bluetooth scatternet, TETRA police network,
car-to-car networks…

Internet: MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc Networking) group

 8.50 4/9/2018

Mobile ad hoc networks

 Instant infrastructure: Unplanned meetings,
spontaneous interpersonal communications
 Disaster relief: Infrastructures typically break down
in disaster areas. Hurricanes cut phone and power
lines, floods destroy base stations, fires burn servers.
 Remote areas: sometimes too expensive to set up
an infrastructure in sparsely populated areas. ad-
hoc networks or satellite infrastructures can be a
solution.
 Effectiveness: cellular networks exist, but an
application sends only a small status information
every other minute, a cheaper ad-hoc packet-
oriented network might be a better solution.
 8.51 4/9/2018

Manet: Mobile Ad-hoc Networking

Mobile
Router

Manet

Mobile
Devices

Mobile IP,
DHCP

Fixed
Network

Router End system

8.20
 8.52 4/9/2018

Problem No. 1: Routing

 Device mobility and varying channel quality
 Asymmetric connections possible
 Redundant links
 Interference
 Highly dynamic network topology
N7 N6
N6
N7
N1 N1
N2 N3
N3 N2

N4 N4
N5 N5

time = t1 time = t2
good link
weak link
 8.53 4/9/2018

Traditional routing algorithms

Distance Vector
 periodic exchange of cost to everyone else, with neighbors
 selection of shortest path if several paths available

Link State
 periodic notification of all routers about the current cost to
neighbors
 routers get a complete picture of the network, run Djikstra’s
algorithm
Example
 ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing
 every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality
 Receive packets, update tables
 8.54 4/9/2018

Problems of traditional
routing algorithms
Dynamic of the topology
 frequent changes of connections, connection
quality, participants

Limited performance of mobile systems

 Periodic routing table updates need energy, sleep
modes difficult
 limited bandwidth further reduced due to routing
info exchange
 links can be asymmetric, directional transmission
quality
 8.55 4/9/2018

Routing in ad-hoc networks

THE big topic in many research projects
 Far > 50 different proposals exist
 The most simplest one: Flooding!

Reasons
 Classical approaches from fixed networks fail
 Fast link quality changes, slow convergence, large overhead
 Highly dynamic, low bandwidth, low computing power

Metrics for routing

 Minimize
 Number of hops, loss rate, delay, congestion, interference …
 Maximal
 Stability of logical network, battery run-time, time of connectivity …
DSDV Protocol

 DSDV is Proactive (Table Driven)

 Each node maintains routing information
for all known destinations
 Routing information must be updated
periodically
 Traffic overhead even if there is no
change in network topology
 Maintains routes which are never used
DSDV Protocol
 Keep the simplicity of Distance Vector
 Guarantee Loop Freeness
 New Table Entry for Destination Sequence Number
 Allow fast reaction to topology changes
 Make immediate route advertisement on significant
changes in routing table
 but wait with advertising of unstable routes
(damping fluctuations)
DSDV (Table Entries)

Destination Next Metric Seq. Nr Install Time Stable Data

A A 0 A-550 001000 Ptr_A
B B 1 B-102 001200 Ptr_B
C B 3 C-588 001200 Ptr_C
D B 4 D-312 001200 Ptr_D

 Sequence number originated from destination.

Ensures
loop freeness.

 Install Time when entry was made (used to delete

stale entries from table)

 Stable Data Pointer to a table holding information on

how stable a route is. Used to damp fluctuations in
network.
DSDV (Route Advertisements)
 Advertiseto each neighbor own routing
information
 Destination Address
 Metric = Number of Hops to Destination
 Destination Sequence Number
 Rules to set sequence number information
 On each advertisement increase own destination
sequence number (use only even numbers)
 If a node is no more reachable (timeout) increase
sequence number of this node by 1 (odd sequence
number) and set metric = 
DSDV (Route Selection)
 Update information is compared to own
routing table
 1. Select route with higher destination sequence
number (This ensure to use always newest
information from destination)
 2. Select the route with better metric when
sequence numbers are equal.
 DSDV (Tables)

A 1 B 2 C
Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 1 A-550
B B 1 B-100 B B 0 B-100 B B 2 B-100
C B 3 C-586 C C 2 C-588 C C 0 C-588
 DSDV (Route Advertisement)
B increases Seq.Nr from 100 ->
102
B broadcasts routing information
to Neighbors A, C including
destination sequence numbers

(A, 1, A-500) (A, 1, A-500)

(B, 0, B-102) (B, 0, B-102)
(C, 1, C-588) (C, 1, C-588)

A 1 B 1 C
Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-102 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-588 C C 1 C-588 C C 0 C-588
 DSDV (New Node)
2. Insert entry for D with
sequence number D-000
Then immediately broadcast
own table 1. D broadcast for first time
Send Sequence number D-
000

(D, 0, D-000)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-104 B B 0 B-104 B B 1 B-104
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-590 C C 0 C-590
D D 1 D-000
 DSDV (New Node cont.)
4. B gets this new information
and updates its table…….
3. C increases its sequence
number to C-592 then
broadcasts its new table.

(A, 2, A-550) (A, 2, A-550)

(B, 1, B-102) (B, 1, B-102)
……… (C, 0, C-592) (C, 0, C-592)
……… (D, 1, D-000) (D, 1, D-000)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-104 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-592 C C 0 C-592
D C 2 D-000 D D 1 D-000
 DSDV (no loops, no count to infinity)
2. B does its broadcast
-> no affect on C (C knows
that B has stale information
because C has higher seq. number
for destination D) 1. Node C detects broken
-> no loop -> no count to Link:
infinity -> Increase Seq. Nr. by 1
(only case where not the
destination sets the sequence
(D, 2, D-100) (D, 2, D-100) number -> odd number)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest.c Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
… … … … … … … … …
D B 3 D-100 D C 2 D-100 D D  D-101
 DSDV (Immediate Advertisement)
3. Immediate 2. Immediate
propagation propagation
B to A: C to B:
(update information has (update information has
higher Seq. Nr. -> replace higher Seq. Nr. -> replace 1. Node C detects broken
table entry) table entry) Link:
-> Increase Seq. Nr. by 1
(only case where not the
destination sets the sequence
(D, , D-101) (D, , D-101) number -> odd number)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest.c Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
… … … ... … … … ... … … …
D B 4
3 D-100 D C 3
2 D-100 D B
D 1 D-100
D B  D-101 D C  D-101 D D  D-101
 DSDV (Problem of Fluctuations)
What are Fluctuations
A  Entry for D in A: [D, Q, 14, D-100]
P Q  D makes Broadcast with Seq. Nr. D-102
 A receives from P Update (D, 15, D-102)
-> Entry for D in A: [D, P, 15, D-102]
A must propagate this route immediately.
 A receives from Q Update (D, 14, D-102)
11 Hops 10 Hops -> Entry for D in A: [D, Q, 14, D-102]
A must propagate this route immediately.

This can happen every time D or any other node

does its broadcast and lead to unnecessary route
advertisements in the network, so called
(D,0,D-102) fluctuations.
D
 DSDV (Damping Fluctuations)
How to damp fluctuations
 Record last and avg. Settling Time of every
A
Route in a separate table. (Stable Data)
P Q Settling Time = Time between arrival of first
route and the best route with a given seq. nr.

 A still must update his routing table on the first

arrival of a route with a newer seq. nr., but he
11 Hops 10 Hops can wait to advertising it. Time to wait is
proposed to be 2*(avg. Settling Time).

 Like this fluctuations in larger networks can be

damped to avoid unececarry adverdisment,
thus saving bandwith.
D
Summary
Advantages
 Simple (almost like Distance Vector)
 Loop free through destination seq.
numbers
 No latency caused by route discovery

Disadvantages
 No sleeping nodes
 Overhead: most routing information never
used
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
[Johnson+ 1996]

 When node S wants to send a packet to

node D, but does not know a route to D,
node S initiates a route discovery

 Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)

 Each node appends own identifier when

forwarding RREQ

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR
Broadcast transmission Y

[S] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR Y

Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N

• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:

potential for collision

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N

• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D

• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions may collide

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR Y

Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the route discovery

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Discovery in DSR
 Destination D on receiving the first RREQ,
sends a Route Reply (RREP)

 RREP is sent on a route obtained by

reversing the route appended to received
RREQ

 RREP includes the route from S to D on which

RREQ was received by node D

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Reply in DSR Y

Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents RREP control message

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Route Reply in DSR
 Route Reply can be sent by reversing the route in Route Request
(RREQ) only if links are guaranteed to be bi-directional
 To ensure this, RREQ should be forwarded only if it
received on a link that is known to be bi-
directional

 If unidirectional (asymmetric) links are allowed, then RREP may

need a route discovery for S from node D
 Unless node D already knows a route to node S
 If a route discovery is initiated by D for a route to
S, then the Route Reply is piggybacked on the
Route Request from D.

 If IEEE 802.11 MAC is used to send data, then links have to be bi-
directional (since Ack is used)

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

 Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route

included in the RREP

 When node S sends a data packet to D, the

entire route is included in the packet header
 hence the name source routing

 Intermediate nodes use the source route

included in a packet to determine to whom
a packet should be forwarded

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Data Delivery in DSR Y

DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Packet header size grows with route length

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

When to Perform a Route
Discovery

 Whennode S wants to send data to

node D, but does not know a valid route
node D

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

DSR Optimization: Route
Caching
 Each node caches a new route it learns by any means
 When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also
learns route [S,E,F] to node F
 When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for
node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S
 When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F
learns route [F,J,D] to node D
 When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route
[E,F,J,D] to node D
 A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data
packets

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Use of Route Caching

 When node S learns that a route to node D is

broken, it uses another route from its local
cache, if such a route to D exists in its cache.
Otherwise, node S initiates route discovery by
sending a route request

 Node X on receiving a Route Request for some

node D can send a Route Reply if node X knows
a route to node D

 Use of route cache

 can speed up route discovery
 can reduce propagation of route requests

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Use of Route Caching
[S,E,F,J,D]
[E,F,J,D]
S E [F,J,D],[F,E,S]
F [J,F,E,S]
B
C M L
J
A [C,S] G
H [G,C,S] D
K
I N

[P,Q,R] Represents cached route at a node

(DSR maintains the cached routes in a tree format)

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Dynamic Source Routing:
Advantages
 Routes maintained only between nodes who
need to communicate
 reduces overhead of route maintenance

 Route caching can further reduce route

discovery overhead

 A single route discovery may yield many routes

to the destination, due to intermediate nodes
replying from local caches

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Dynamic Source Routing:
Disadvantages
 Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing

 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the

network

 Care must be taken to avoid collisions between route requests

propagated by neighboring nodes
 insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ

 Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to

nodes replying using their local cache
 Route Reply Storm problem
 Reply storm may be eased by preventing a node
from sending RREP if it hears another RREP with a
shorter route

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Dynamic Source Routing:
Disadvantages
 An intermediate node may send Route Reply
using a stale cached route, thus polluting other
caches

 This problem can be eased if some mechanism

to purge (potentially) invalid cached routes is
incorporated.

 For some proposals for cache invalidation, see

[Hu+ 2000]
 Static timeouts
 Adaptive timeouts based on link stability

© 2001 Nitin Vaidya

Cluster Gateway Switch Routing
(CGSR)
– Nodes are grouped into clusters with one clusterhead in charge of
nodes in a cluster
– Distributed clusterhead selection algorithm is used to elect clusterheads
– This algorithm needs to be invoked when a clusterhead moves away
– Least Cluster Change (LCC) algorithm is introduced to avoid re-invoking
election algorithm when the cluster membership update occurs
– LCC algorithm allows the invocation of election algorithm when two
clusterhead come into contact or when a node no longer be able to
attach to any clusterheads
– Uses DSDV as an underlying routing scheme
– The route traffic follows:
Source  Clusterhead  Gateway  Clusterhead  …….. Destination
Cluster Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)

Cluster

Clusterhead

Gateway

Ordinary node
Cluster Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)

– Each node keeps a cluster member table which stores the destination
clusterhead for each node in the network
– Every node periodically broadcasts these cluster member tables using
DSDV protocol
– Nodes update their cluster member tables upon receiving these
broadcasts
– Each node also maintains a routing table that is used to determine the
next hop towards the destination
– When a packet is received, the node checks both cluster member and
routing tables to determine the nearest clusterhead in the route to the
destination
– The node checks its routing table to determine the next hop node to
reach clusterhead
– Both cluster member and routing tables need to be updated
 8.100 4/9/2018

Examples for interference

based routing
Routing based on assumptions about interference between signals
Examples
 Least Interference Routing (LIR)
 Max-Min Residual Capacity Routing (MMRCR)
 Least Resistance Routing (LRR)
 8.101 4/9/2018

A plethora of ad hoc
routing protocols
Flat
 proactive
 FSLS – Fuzzy Sighted Link State
 FSR – Fisheye State Routing
 OLSR – Optimised Link State Routing Protocol
 TBRPF – Topology Broadcast Based on Reverse Path Forwarding

 reactive
 AODV – Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector
 DSR – Dynamic Source Routing
Hierarchical
 CGSR – Clusterhead-Gateway Switch Routing
 HSR – Hierarchical State Routing
 LANMAR – Landmark Ad Hoc Routing
 ZRP – Zone Routing Protocol
Geographic position assisted
 DREAM – Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
 GeoCast – Geographic Addressing and Routing
 GPSR – Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
 LAR – Location-Aided Routing 8.30