Formulas and Conversions: First Edition - Volume 5

First Edition – Volume 5
Formulas and Conversions

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WESTERN AUSTRALIA Steve Mackay
Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
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Other books in this series

Volume 1 – INSTRUMENTATION
Automation using PLCs, SCADA and Telemetry, Process Control and
Data Acquisition
Volume 2 – COMMUNICATIONS
Data Communications, Industrial Networking, TCP/IP and Fiber Optics
Volume 3 – ELECTRICAL
Power Quality, Power Systems Protection and Substation Automation
Volume 4 – ELECTRONICS
Personal Computers, Digital Signal Processing and Analog/Digital Conversions
5.3.7 Conditions of Equilibrium .........................................................65
Table of Contents 5.3.8 Gravity .....................................................................................66
5.3.9 Vibrations & Waves .................................................................66
Chapter 1 5.3.10 Standing Waves.......................................................................66
5.3.11 Beats........................................................................................66
Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities ...........1 5.3.12 Temperature and Heat.............................................................67
5.3.13 Ideal Gases..............................................................................67
5.3.14 Elastic Deformation..................................................................68
5.3.15 Temperature Scales ................................................................68
Chapter 2 5.3.16 Sensible Heat Equation ...........................................................68
Units of Physical Quantities .................................................3 5.3.17 Latent Heat ..............................................................................68
5.3.18 Gas Laws.................................................................................68
5.3.19 Specific Heats Of Gases..........................................................69
5.3.20 Efficiency of Heat Engines .......................................................70
Chapter 3 5.3.21 Heat Transfer by Conduction ...................................................71
5.3.22 Thermal Expansion of Solids ...................................................72
System of Units ..................................................................23 5.3.23 Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel ...........................................72
5.4 Fluid Mechanics ................................................................... 77
5.4.1 Discharge from an Orifice ........................................................77
Chapter 4 5.4.2 Bernoulli’s Theory ....................................................................78
5.4.3 Actual pipe dimensions ............................................................78
General Mathematical Formulae........................................27
4.1 Algebra................................................................................. 27 Chapter 6
4.2 Geometry ............................................................................. 29 References.........................................................................80
4.3 Trigonometry ........................................................................ 39 6.1 Periodic Table of Elements .................................................. 80
4.4 Logarithm ............................................................................. 40 6.2 Resistor Color Coding .......................................................... 81
4.5 Exponents ............................................................................ 42
4.6 Complex Numbers ............................................................... 42
Chapter 5
Engineering Concepts and Formulae ................................44
5.1 Electricity.............................................................................. 44
5.2 Applied Mechanics ............................................................... 57
5.2.1 Newton's laws of motion ..........................................................57
5.2.2 Linear Velocity And Acceleration .............................................60
5.2.3 Force........................................................................................61
5.2.4 Centripetal (Centrifugal) Force.................................................62
5.2.5 Stress, Strain And Modulus Of Elasticity..................................64
5.3 Thermodynamics.................................................................. 64
5.3.1 Laws of Thermodynamics ........................................................64
5.3.2 Momentum...............................................................................65
5.3.3 Impulse ....................................................................................65
5.3.4 Elastic and Inelastic collision ...................................................65
5.3.5 Center of Mass ........................................................................65
5.3.6 Angular Motion.........................................................................65
Formulas and Conversions Formulas and Conversions
Symbol Prefix Factor by which unit is

Chapter 1 multiplied
k Kilo 103
Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities h Hecto 102
da Deca 10
Symbol Unit Quantity d Deci 10-1
m meter Length c Centi 10-2
kg kilogram Mass m Milli 10-3
s second Time µ Micro 10-6
A ampere Electric current n Nano 10-9
K kelvin Thermodynamic temp p Pico 10-12
cd candela Luminous intensity
Quantity Unit Symbol Equivalent Quantity Electrical Symbol Derived

unit unit
Plane angle radian rad -
Potential Volt V W/A
Force newton N kg · m/s2
Resistance Ohm Ώ V/A
Work, energy heat joule J·N·m
Charge Coulomb C A·s
Power watt W J/s
Capacitance Farad F A·s/V
Frequency hertz Hz s-1
Electric field - V/m -
Viscosity: - m2/s 10 c St strength
kinematic (Centistoke)
Electric flux - C/m2 -
Viscosity: - Ns/m2 103 cP density
Dynamic (Centipoise)
Pressure - Pa or N/m2 pascal, Pa Quantity Magnetic Symbol Derived unit

unit
Symbol Prefix Factor by which unit is Magnetic flux Weber Wb V·s = N·m/A
multiplied Inductance Henry H V·s/A = N·m/A2
T Tera 1012 Magnetic field - A/m -
G Giga 109 strength
M Mega 106 Magnetic flux density Tesla T Wb/m2 =

(N)/(Am)
-1- -2-
Chapter 2 Multiply
Name To convert from To Divide by
by
Density lb·s2/in4 kg/m3 1.069E+07 9.357E-08

Units of Physical Quantities Density slug/ft 3
kg/m 3
515.40 1.940E-03
Energy BTU J 1055 9.478E-04

Conversion Factors (general):
Energy cal J 4.1859 0.2389
1 acre = 43,560 square feet
Energy erg J 1.000E-07 1.000E+07
1 cubic foot = 7.5 gallons
Energy eV J 1.602E-19 6.242E+18
1 foot = 0.305 meters
Energy Ft·lbf J 1.3557 0.7376
1 gallon = 3.79 liters
Energy kiloton TNT J 4.187E+12 2.388E-13
1 gallon = 8.34 pounds
Energy KW·hr J 3.600E+06 2.778E-07
1 grain per gallon = 17.1 mg/L
Energy Megaton TNT J 4.187E+15 2.388E-16
1 horsepower = 0.746 kilowatts
Force Dyne N 1.000E-05 1.000E+05
1 million gallons per day = 694 gallons per minute
Force Lbf N 4.4484 0.2248
1 pound = 0.454 kilograms
Force Ozf N 0.2780 3.5968
1 pound per square inch = 2.31 feet of water
Heat capacity BTU/lbm · °F J/kg·°C 4188 2.388E-04
Degrees Celsius = (Degrees Fahrenheit - 32) (5/9)
Heat transfer coefficient BTU/hr·ft2·°F W/m2·°C 5.6786 0.1761
Degrees Fahrenheit = (Degrees Celsius) (9/5) + 32
Length AU m 1.496E+11 6.685E-12
1% = 10,000 mg/L
Length ft m 0.3048 3.2810
Length in m 2.540E-02 39.3700

Multiply
Name To convert from To Divide by
by Length mile m 1609 6.214E-04
2 2
Acceleration ft/sec m/s 0.3048 3.2810 Length Nautical mile m 1853 5.397E-04
Area acre m2 4047 2.471E-04 Length parsec m 3.085E+16 3.241E-17
Area ft2 m2 9.294E-02 10.7600 Mass amu kg 1.661E-27 6.022E+26
Area hectare m2 1.000E+04 1.000E-04 Mass lbm kg 0.4535 2.2050
Area in2 m2 6.452E-04 1550 Mass lb·s2/in kg 1200.00 5.711E-03
Density g/cm3 kg/m3 1000 1.000E-03 Mass slug kg 14.59 6.853E-02
Density lbm/ft3 kg/m3 16.02 6.243E-02 Mass flow rate lbm/hr kg/s 1.260E-04 7937
Density lbm/in3 kg/m3 2.767E+04 3.614E-05
-3- -4-
Multiply Multiply
Name To convert from To Divide by Name To convert from To Divide by
by by
Mass flow rate lbm/sec kg/s 0.4535 2.2050 Time sidereal year S 3.156E+07 3.169E-08
2 2
Moment of inertia ft·lb·s kg·m 1.3557 0.7376 Torque ft·lbf N·m 1.3557 0.7376
Moment of inertia in·lb·s2 kg·m2 0.1130 8.8510 Torque in·lbf N·m 0.1130 8.8504
Moment of inertia oz·in·s2 kg·m2 7.062E-03 141.60 Torque In·ozf N·m 7.062E-03 141.61
Power BTU/hr W 0.2931 3.4120 Velocity ft/min m/s 5.079E-03 196.90
Power hp W 745.71 1.341E-03 Velocity ft/s m/s 0.3048 3.2810
Power tons of refrigeration W 3516 2.844E-04 Velocity Km/hr m/s 0.2778 3.6000
Pressure bar Pa 1.000E+05 1.000E-05 Velocity miles/hr m/s 0.4470 2.2370

2 2
Pressure dyne/cm Pa 0.1000 10.0000 Viscosity – absolute centipose N·s/m 1.000E-03 1000
Pressure in. mercury Pa 3377 2.961E-04 Viscosity – absolute g/cm·s N·s/m2 0.1000 10
2 2
Pressure in. water Pa 248.82 4.019E-03 Viscosity – absolute lbf/ft ·s N·s/m 47.87 2.089E-02
2 2
Pressure kgf/cm Pa 9.807E+04 1.020E-05 Viscosity – absolute lbm/ft·s N·s/m 1.4881 0.6720
Pressure lbf/ft2 Pa 47.89 2.088E-02 Viscosity – kinematic centistoke m2/s 1.000E-06 1.000E+06
2 2 2
Pressure lbf/in Pa 6897 1.450E-04 Viscosity – kinematic ft /sec m /s 9.294E-02 10.7600
Pressure mbar Pa 100.00 1.000E-02 Volume ft3 m3 2.831E-02 35.3200
Pressure microns mercury Pa 0.1333 7.501 Volume in3 m3 1.639E-05 6.102E+04
Pressure mm mercury Pa 133.3 7.501E-03 Volume Liters m3 1.000E-03 1000
Pressure std atm Pa 1.013E+05 9.869E-06 Volume U.S. gallons m3 3.785E-03 264.20
Specific heat BTU/lbm·°F J/kg·°C 4186 2.389E-04 Volume flow rate ft3/min m3/s 4.719E-04 2119
Specific heat cal/g·°C J/kg·°C 4186 2.389E-04 Volume flow rate U.S. gallons/min m3/s 6.309E-05 1.585E+04
Temperature °F °C 0.5556 1.8000

A. DISTANCE (Length)
Thermal conductivity BTU/hr·ft·°F W/m·°C 1.7307 0.5778 Conversions
Thermal conductivity BTU·in/hr·ft2·°F W/m·°C 0.1442 6.9340
Multiply By To obtain
Thermal conductivity cal/cm·s·°C W/m·°C 418.60 2.389E-03
LENGTH
Thermal conductivity cal/ft·hr·°F W/m·°C 6.867E-03 145.62
Centimeter 0.03280840 foot
Time day S 8.640E+04 1.157E-05
Centimeter 0.3937008 inch
-5- -6-
Multiply By To obtain To Convert To Multiply By
Fathom 1.8288* meter(m) Centimeters Meters 0.01
Foot 0.3048* meter(m) Centimeters Yards 0.01093613
Foot 30.48* centimeter(cm) Centimeters Feet 0.0328084

*
Foot 304.8 millimeter(mm) Centimeters Inches 0.3937008
Inch 0.0254* meter(m) Chains, (Surveyor's) Rods 4

*
Inch 2.54 centimeter(cm) Chains, (Surveyor's) Meters 20.1168
*
Inch 25.4 millimeter(mm) Chains, (Surveyor's) Feet 66
Kilometer 0.6213712 mile(USstatute) Fathoms Meters 1.8288
Meter 39.37008 Inch Fathoms Feet 6
Meter 0.54680066 Fathom Feet Statute Miles 0.00018939
Meter 3.280840 Foot Feet Kilometers 0.0003048
Meter 0.1988388 Rod Feet Meters 0.3048
Meter 1.093613 Yard Feet Yards 0.3333333
Meter 0.0006213712 mile(USstatute) Feet Inches 12
Microinch 0.0254* micrometer(micron)(µm) Feet Centimeters 30.48
micrometer(micron) 39.37008 Microinch Furlongs Statute Miles 0.125
mile(USstatute) 1,609.344* meter(m) Furlongs Meters 201.168

*
mile(USstatute) 1.609344 kilometer(km) Furlongs Yards 220
millimeter 0.003280840 Foot Furlongs Feet 660
millimeter 0.0397008 Inch Furlongs Inches 7920

*
Rod 5.0292 meter(m) Hands (Height Of Horse) Inches 4
Yard 0.9144* meter(m) Hands (Height Of Horse) Centimeters 10.16
Inches Meters 0.0254

To Convert To Multiply By
Inches Yards 0.02777778
Cables Fathoms 120
Inches Feet 0.08333333
Cables Meters 219.456
Inches Centimeters 2.54
Cables Yards 240
Inches Millimeters 25.4
-7- -8-
To Convert To Multiply By To Convert To Multiply By
Kilometers Statute Miles 0.621371192 Miles, Statute Centimeters 160934.4
Kilometers Meters 1000 Millimeters Inches 0.039370079
Leagues, Nautical Nautical Miles 3 Mils Inches 0.001
Leagues, Nautical Kilometers 5.556 Mils Millimeters 0.0254
Leagues, Statute Statute Miles 3 Paces (US) Inches 30
Leagues, Statute Kilometers 4.828032 Paces (US) Centimeters 76.2
Links, (Surveyor's) Chains 0.01 Points (Typographical) Inches 0.013837
Links, (Surveyor's) Inches 7.92 Points (Typographical) Millimeters 0.3514598
Links, (Surveyor's) Centimeters 20.1168 Rods Meters 5.0292
Meters Statute Miles 0.000621371 Rods Yards 5.5
Meters Kilometers 0.001 Rods Feet 16.5
Meters Yards 1.093613298 Spans Inches 9
Meters Feet 3.280839895 Spans Centimeters 22.86
Meters Inches 39.370079 Yards Miles 0.00056818
Meters Centimeters 100 Yards Meters 0.9144
Meters Millimeters 1000 Yards Feet 3
Microns Meters 0.000001 Yards Inches 36
Microns Inches 0.0000394 Yards Centimeters 91.44
Miles, Nautical Statute Miles 1.1507794
Miles, Nautical Kilometers 1.852

Conversion
Miles, Statute Kilometers 1.609344
Length
Miles, Statute Furlongs 8
1 ft = 12 in 1 yd = 3 ft
Miles, Statute Rods 320
1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 in = 2.5400 cm
Miles, Statute Meters 1609.344
1 m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m
Miles, Statute Yards 1760
1 m = 1.0936 yd 1 yd = 0.9144 m
Miles, Statute Feet 5280
1 km = 0.6214 mile 1 mile = 1.6093 km
Miles, Statute Inches 63360
1 furlong = 40 rods 1 fathom = 6 ft
-9- - 10 -
Conversion Conversion
1 statute mile = 8 furlongs 1 rod = 5.5 yd Dry Volume
1 statute mile = 5280 ft 1 in = 100 mils 1 quart = 2 pints 1 quart = 67.2 in3
1 nautical mile = 6076 ft 1 light year = 9.461 x 1015 m 1 peck = 8 quarts 1 peck = 537.6 in3
-5
1 league = 3 miles 1 mil = 2.540 x 10 m 1 bushel = 4 pecks 1 bushel = 2150.5 in3
Area
B. Area
1 ft2 = 144 in2 1 acre = 160 rod2 Conversions
1 yd2 = 9 ft2 1 acre = 43,560 ft2
2 2
Multiply By To obtain
1 rod = 30.25 yd 1 mile2 = 640 acres
AREA
1 cm2 = 0.1550 in2 1 in2 = 6.4516 cm2
2 2
acre 4,046.856 meter2 (m2)
1 m = 10.764 ft 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
acre 0.4046856 hectare
1 km2 = 0.3861 mile2 1 mile2 = 2.590 km2
2
centimeter 0.1550003 inch2
Volume
centimeter2 0.001076391 foot2
1 cm3 = 0.06102 in3 1 in3 = 16.387 cm3
2 *
foot 0.09290304 meter2 (m2)
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3
foot2 929.03042 centimeter2 (cm2)
1 Litre = 61.024 in3 1 in3 = 0.0164 litre
2
foot 92,903.04 millimeter2 (mm2)
1 Litre = 0.0353 ft3 1 ft3 = 28.32 litres
hectare 2.471054 acre
1 Litre = 0.2642 gal. (U.S.) 1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3
inch2 645.16* millimeter2 (mm2)
1 Litre = 0.0284 bu (U.S.) 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 litres
inch2 6.4516 centimeter2 (cm2)
1 Litre = 1000.000 cm3 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 x 10-3 m3
inch2 0.00064516 meter2 (m2)
1 Litre = 1.0567 qt. (liquid) or
1 bushel (US) = 35.24 litres 2
0.9081 qt. (dry) meter 1,550.003 inch2
1 oz (US fluid) = 2.957 x 10-5 m3 1 stere = 1 m3 meter2 10.763910 foot2

2
Liquid Volume meter 1.195990 yard2
1 gill = 4 fluid ounces 1 barrel = 31.5 gallons meter2 0.0002471054 acre
1 pint = 4 gills 1 hogshead = 2 bbl (63 gal) millimeter2 0.00001076391 foot2

2
1 quart = 2 pints 1 tun = 252 gallons millimeter 0.001550003 inch2
1 gallon = 4 quarts 1 barrel (petrolum) = 42 gallons yard2 0.8361274 meter2 (m2)
- 11 - - 12 -
C. Volume
Conversions To Convert To Multiply By
Metric Conversion Factors: Volume (including Capacity)
Carat Milligrams 200
Multiply By To obtain Drams, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Ounces 0.06255
VOLUME (including CAPACITY) Drams, Avoirdupois Grams 1.7718452
centimeter3 0.06102376 inch3 Drams, Avoirdupois Grains 27.344
foot3 0.028311685 meter3 (m3) Drams, Troy Troy Ounces 0.125
foot3 28.31685 liter Drams, Troy Scruples 3
gallon (UK liquid) 0.004546092 meter3 (m3) Drams, Troy Grams 3.8879346
gallon (UK liquid) 4.546092 litre Drams, Troy Grains 60
gallon (US liquid) 0.003785412 meter3 (m3) Grains Kilograms 6.47989E-05
gallon (US liquid) 3.785412 liter Grains Avoirdupois Pounds 0.00014286
inch3 16,387.06 millimeter3 (mm3) Grains Troy Pounds 0.00017361
inch3 16.38706 centimeter3 (cm3) Grains Troy Ounces 0.00208333
inch3 0.00001638706 meter3 (m3) Grains Avoirdupois Ounces 0.00228571
Liter 0.001* meter3 (m3) Grains Troy Drams 0.0166
Liter 0.2199692 gallon (UK liquid) Grains Avoirdupois Drams 0.03657143
Liter 0.2641720 gallon (US liquid) Grains Pennyweights 0.042
Liter 0.03531466 foot3 Grains Scruples 0.05
meter3 219.9692 gallon (UK liquid) Grains Grams 0.06479891
3
meter 264.1720 gallon (US liquid) Grains Milligrams 64.79891
meter3 35.31466 foot3 Grams Kilograms 0.001
meter3 1.307951 yard3 Grams Avoirdupois Pounds 0.002204623
meter3 1000.* liter Grams Troy Pounds 0.00267923
meter3 61,023.76 inch3 Grams Troy Ounces 0.032150747
millimeter3 0.00006102376 inch3 Grams Avoirdupois Ounces 0.035273961
Yard3 0.7645549 meter3 (m3) Grams Avoirdupois Drams 0.56438339
Grams Grains 15.432361

D. Mass and Weight
Conversions
- 13 - - 14 -
Grams Milligrams 1000 Ounces, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Drams 16
Hundredweights, Long Long Tons 0.05 Ounces, Avoirdupois Grams 28.34952313
Hundredweights, Long Metric Tons 0.050802345 Ounces, Avoirdupois Grains 437.5
Hundredweights, Long Short Tons 0.056 Ounces, Troy Avoirdupois Pounds 0.06857143
Hundredweights, Long Kilograms 50.802345 Ounces, Troy Troy Pounds 0.0833333
Hundredweights, Long Avoirdupois Pounds 112 Ounces, Troy Avoirdupois Ounces 1.097143
Hundredweights, Short Long Tons 0.04464286 Ounces, Troy Troy Drams 8
Hundredweights, Short Metric Tons 0.045359237 Ounces, Troy Avoirdupois Drams 17.55429
Hundredweights, Short Short Tons 0.05 Ounces, Troy Pennyweights 20
Hundredweights, Short Kilograms 45.359237 Ounces, Troy Grams 31.1034768
Hundredweights, Short Avoirdupois Pounds 100 Ounces, Troy Grains 480
Kilograms Long Tons 0.0009842 Pennyweights Troy Ounces 0.05
Kilograms Metric Tons 0.001 Pennyweights Grams 1.55517384
Kilograms Short Tons 0.00110231 Pennyweights Grains 24
Kilograms Short Hundredweights 0.02204623 Pounds, Avoirdupois Long Tons 0.000446429
Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds 2.204622622 Pounds, Avoirdupois Metric Tons 0.000453592
Kilograms Troy Pounds 2.679229 Pounds, Avoirdupois Short Tons 0.0005
Kilograms Troy Ounces 32.15075 Pounds, Avoirdupois Quintals 0.00453592
Kilograms Avoirdupois Ounces 35.273962 Pounds, Avoirdupois Kilograms 0.45359237
Kilograms Avoirdupois Drams 564.3834 Pounds, Avoirdupois Troy Pounds 1.215278
Kilograms Grams 1000 Pounds, Avoirdupois Troy Ounces 14.58333
Kilograms Grains 15432.36 Pounds, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Ounces 16
Milligrams Grains 0.015432358 Pounds, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Drams 256
Ounces, Avoirdupois Kilograms 0.028349523 Pounds, Avoirdupois Grams 453.59237
Ounces, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Pounds 0.0625 Pounds, Avoirdupois Grains 7000
Ounces, Avoirdupois Troy Pounds 0.07595486 Pounds, Troy Kilograms 0.373241722
Ounces, Avoirdupois Troy Ounces 0.9114583 Pounds, Troy Avoirdupois Pounds 0.8228571
- 15 - - 16 -
Pounds, Troy Troy Ounces 12 Tons, Short Long Tons 0.8928571
Pounds, Troy Avoirdupois Ounces 13.16571 Tons, Short Metric Tons 0.90718474
Pounds, Troy Avoirdupois Drams 210.6514 Tons, Short Long Hundredweights 17.85714
Pounds, Troy Pennyweights 240 Tons, Short Short Hundredweights 20
Pounds, Troy Grams 373.2417216 Tons, Short Kilograms 907.18474
Pounds, Troy Grains 5760 Tons, Short Avoirdupois Pounds 2000
Quintals Metric Tons 0.1

E. Density
Quintals Kilograms 100 Conversions
Quintals Avoirdupois Pounds 220.46226
To Convert To Multiply By
Scruples Troy Drams 0.333
Grains/imp. Gallon Parts/million 14.286
Scruples Grams 1.2959782
Grains/US gallon Parts/million 17.118
Scruples Grains 20
Grains/US gallon Pounds/million gal 142.86
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Metric Tons 1.016046909
Grams/cu. Cm Pounds/mil-foot 3.405E-07
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Short Tons 1.12
Grams/cu. Cm Pounds/cu. in 0.03613
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Long Hundredweights 20
Grams/cu. Cm Pounds/cu. ft 62.43
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Short Hundredweights 22.4
Grams/liter Pounds/cu. ft 0.062427
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Kilograms 1016.04691
Grams/liter Pounds/1000 gal 8.345
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Avoirdupois Pounds 2240
Grams/liter Grains/gal 58.417
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Avoirdupois Ounces 35840
Grams/liter Parts/million 1000
Tons, Metric Long Tons 0.9842065
Kilograms/cu meter Pounds/mil-foot 3.405E-10
Tons, Metric Short Tons 1.1023113
Kilograms/cu meter Pounds/cu in 0.00003613
Tons, Metric Quintals 10
Kilograms/cu meter Grams/cu cm 0.001
Tons, Metric Long Hundredweights 19.68413072
Kilograms/cu meter Pound/cu ft 0.06243
Tons, Metric Short Hundredweights 22.04623
Milligrams/liter Parts/million 1
Tons, Metric Kilograms 1000
Pounds/cu ft Pounds/mil-foot 5.456E-09
Tons, Metric Avoirdupois Pounds 2204.623
Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu in 0.0005787
Tons, Metric Troy Ounces 32150.75
- 17 - - 18 -
To Convert To Multiply By Substance Relative

Density
Pounds/cu ft Grams/cu cm 0.01602
Sand (dry) 1.42
Pounds/cu ft Kgs/cu meter 16.02
Carbon (graphite) 2.3
Pounds/cu in Pounds/mil-foot 0.000009425
Silicon 2.6
Pounds/cu in Gms/cu cm 27.68
Carbon (charcoal) 1.8
Pounds/cu in Pounds/cu ft 1728
Silver 10.57
Pounds/cu in Kgs/cu meter 27680
Chromium 6.5
F. Relative Density (Specific Gravity) Of Various Substances Slate 2.1-2.8
Clay 1.9
Substance Relative
Density Sodium 0.97
Water (fresh) 1.00 Coal 1.36-1.4
Mica 2.9 Steel (mild) 7.87
Water (sea average) 1.03 Cobalt 8.6
Nickel 8.6 Sulphur 2.07
Aluminum 2.56 Copper 8.77
Oil (linseed) 0.94 Tin 7.3
Antimony 6.70 Cork 0.24
Oil (olive) 0.92 Tungsten 19.1
Bismuth 9.80 Glass (crown) 2.5
Oil (petroleum) 0.76-0.86 Wood (ash) 0.75
Brass 8.40 Glass (flint) 3.5
Oil (turpentine) 0.87 Wood (beech) 0.7-0.8
Brick 2.1 Gold 19.3
Paraffin 0.86 Wood (ebony) 1.1-1.2
Calcium 1.58 Iron (cast) 7.21
Platinum 21.5 Wood (elm) 0.66
Carbon (diamond) 3.4 Iron (wrought) 7.78
- 19 - - 20 -
Substance Relative Lower Upper

Name
Density Case Case
Wood (lignum-vitae) 1.3 Eta η Η
Lead 11.4 Theta θ Θ
Magnesium 1.74 Iota ι Ι
Manganese 8.0 Kappa κ Κ
Mercury 13.6 Lambda λ Λ
Lead 11.4 Mu µ Μ
Magnesium 1.74 Nu ν Ν
Manganese 8.0 Xi ξ Ξ
Wood (oak) 0.7-1.0 Omicron ο Ο
Wood (pine) 0.56 Pi π Π
Wood (teak) 0.8 Rho ρ Ρ
Zinc 7.0 Sigma σ and ς Σ
Wood (oak) 0.7-1.0 Tau τ Τ
Wood (pine) 0.56 Upsilon υ Υ
Wood (teak) 0.8 Phi φ Φ
Zinc 7.0 Chi χ Χ
Mercury 13.6 Psi ψ Ψ
Omega ω Ω
G. Greek Alphabet
Lower Upper
Name
Case Case
Alpha α Α
Beta β Β
Gamma γ Γ
Delta δ ∆
Epsilon ε Ε
Zeta ζ Ζ
- 21 - - 22 -
Multiply Into Into Into Into Into Into Into

Chapter 3 by Milli Centi Deci MGL* Deca Hecto Kilo
To
convert 105 104 103 102 101 1 10-1
System of Units Hecto
The two most commonly used systems of units are as follows: To
• SI convert 104 103 102 101 1 10-1 10-2
• Imperial Deca
To
SI: The International System of Units (abbreviated "SI") is a scientific method of expressing convert 103 102 101 1 10-1 10-2 10-3
the magnitudes of physical quantities. This system was formerly called the meter-kilogram- MGL*
second (MKS) system. To
convert 102 101 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4
Imperial: A unit of measure for capacity officially adopted in the British Imperial System; Deci
British units are both dry and wet To
convert 101 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5
Metric System Centi
To
Exponent Numerical convert 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6
Representation Example
value equivalent Milli
Thz (Tera MGL = meter, gram, liter
Tera 1012 1000000000000 T
hertz)
Ghz (Giga Example:
Giga 109 1000000000 G
hertz) To convert Kilogram Into Milligram → (1 Kilo X 106 ) Milligrams
Mhz (Mega
Mega 106 1000000 M
hertz) Physical constants
Unit hz (hertz)
1 1
quantity F (Farads) Symbolic
Name Numerical Equivalent
µF (Micro Representation
Micro 10-6 0.001 µ
farads)
Avogadro's number N 6.023 x 1026 /(kg mol)
nF (Nano
Nano 10-9 0.000001 n
farads) Bohr magneton B 9.27 x 10-24 Am 252
-12 pF (Pico
Pico 10 0.000000000001 p
farads) Boltzmann's constant k 1.380 x 10-23 J/k
Conversion Chart Stefan-Boltzmann constant d 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4)
Multiply Into Into Into Into Into Into Into Characteristic impedance of free
Zo (µo/Eo)1/2=120ΠΩ
by Milli Centi Deci MGL* Deca Hecto Kilo space
To
convert 106 105 104 103 102 101 1 Electron volt eV 1.602 x 10-19 J
Kilo
Electron charge e 1.602 x 10-19 C
- 23 - - 24 -
Symbolic Symbolic
Name Numerical Equivalent Name Numerical Equivalent
Representation Representation
Acceleration due to gravity on
Electronic rest mass me 9.109 x 10-31 kg g 9.80 m s-2
Earth
Electronic charge to mass ratio e/me 1.759 x 1011 C/kg Acceleration due to gravity on the
gM 1.62 m s-2
Moon
Faraday constant F 9.65 x 107 C/(kg mol) Radius of the Earth RE 6.37 x 106 m
Permeability of free space µ0 4Π x 10-7 H/m Mass of the Earth ME 5.98 x 1024 kg
Radius of the Sun RS 6.96 x 108 m

Permittivity of free space Eo 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
Mass of the Sun MS 1.99 x 1030 kg
Planck's constant h 6.626 x 10-34 J s
Radius of the Moon RM 1.74 x 106 m
Proton mass mp 1.672 x 10-27 kg
Mass of the Moon MM 7.35 x 1022 kg
Proton to electron mass ratio mp/me 1835.6
Earth-Moon distance - 3.84 x 108 m
Standard gravitational Earth-Sun distance - 1.50 x 1011 m

g 9.80665 m/s2, 9.80665 N/kg
acceleration
Speed of light in air c 3.00 x 108 m s-1
Universal constant of gravitation G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2
Electron charge e -1.60 x 10-19 C
Universal gas constant Ro 8.314 kJ/(kg mol K)
Mass of electron me 9.11 x 10-31 kg
8
Velocity of light in vacuum C 2.9979 x 10 m/s Planck's constant h 6.63 x 10-34 J s
Temperature 0
C 5/9(0F - 32) Universal gravitational constant G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
5/9(0F + 459.67), 5/90R, 0C + Electron volt 1 eV 1.60 x 10-19 J

Temperature K
273.15
Mass of proton mp 1.67 x 10-27 kg
Speed of light in air c 3.00 x 108 m s-1 Acceleration due to gravity on
g 9.80 m s-2
Earth
Electron charge e -1.60 x 10-19 C
Acceleration due to gravity on the
gM 1.62 m s-2
Moon
Mass of electron me 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Ton 1 ton 1.00 x 103 kg
Planck's constant h 6.63 x 10-34 J s
Universal gravitational constant G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
Electron volt 1 eV 1.60 x 10-19 J
Mass of proton mp 1.67 x 10-27 kg
- 25 - - 26 -
Chapter 4 Identity a+0 = 0+a = a
Inverse a + (-a) = 0, a(1/a) = 1
General Mathematical Formulae Cancellation If a+x=a+y, then x=y

4.1 Algebra
A. Expansion Formulae Zero-factor a0 = 0a = 0
Square of summation
• (x + y) 2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 Negation -(-a) = a, (-a)b= a(-b) = -(ab), (-a)(-b) = ab
Square of difference
• (x – y) 2 = x2 – 2xy + y2 Algebraic Combinations
Difference of squares Factors with a common denominator can be expanded:

• x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y) a+b a b
= +
c c c
Cube of summation
• (x + y) 3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 Fractions can be added by finding a common denominator:
a b ad + bc
Summation of two cubes + =
c d cd
• x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2)
Cube of difference Products of fractions can be carried out directly:

• (x – y) 3 = x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3 a b ab
× =
c d cd
Difference of two cubes
• x3 – y3 = (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) Quotients of fractions can be evaluated by inverting and multiplying:
a
B. Quadratic Equation b = a × d = ad
• If ax2 + bx + c = 0, c b c bc
d
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
Then x = Radical Combinations
2a
The basic algebraic properties of real numbers a, b and c are: n
ab = n a n b
Property Description
n
a = a1/ n
Closure a + b and ab are real numbers
n
a a
Commutative a + b = b + a, ab = ba n = n
b b
Associative (a+b) + c = a + (b+c), (ab)c = a(bc) m
n
am = a n
Distributive (a+b)c = ac+bc
n m
a = mn a
- 27 - - 28 -
4.2 Geometry
Circumference
Item Area Surface Area Volume Figure
/ Perimeter
2
Square 4s s NA NA
(Length)(Breadth)
Rectangle 2 (L + B) NA NA
= L·B
- 29 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
s1 + s2 + s3
where s1, s2, s3 1
Triangle × B× H NA NA
are the 3 sides 2
of the triangle
Right s1 + s2 + s3 1
× B× H NA NA
triangle 2
- 30 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
s ( s − a)( s − b)( s − c)
where
Generic s1 + s2 + s3 a+b+c
s= NA NA
triangle 2
3s
Equilateral where s is the 1
A= bh NA NA
triangle length of each 2
side
- 31 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
⎛a +b⎞
Trapezoid A=⎜ ⎟h NA NA
where Ө and Φ are ⎝ 2 ⎠
the 2 base angles
C = 2πr A = πr2
C = πd
Circle NA NA
- 32 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
arc × r
A=
2
θ°
A= × πr 2
Circle 2r + (arc 360 NA NA
Sector length)
2
θ °r
A=
2
π
(1/4)·D·d·∏ A= Dd
4
Ellipse D is the larger NA NA
where D and d
are the two axis radius and d is the
smaller radius
- 33 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
1
Trapezoid Sum of all sides A= (b1 + b2 )h NA NA
2
Hexagon 6s A = 2.6s2 NA NA
Where s is the
length of 1 side
- 34 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
A = 4.83 s2
Octagon 8s NA NA
Where s is the
length of 1 side
2
Cube NA NA 6s s3
- 35 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
Rectangular 2 l h + 2wh + 2
NA NA l ×w ×h
solid
S = 2πrh +
2πr2 V = πr2h
Right
NA NA
cylinder
- 36 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
S = 4πr2 4 3
Sphere NA NA πr
3
1
base area·
½.perimeter· 3
Pyramid NA NA slant height + perpendicular
B height
- 37 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
Rectangular
NA NA 2lh+2lw+2wh V = lwh
prism
1 2
πr h
Cone NA NA pi·r(r+sh) 3
- 38 -
4.3 Trigonometry Tangent, Secant and Co-Secant
A. Pythagoras' Law sin θ

tan θ =
cosθ
c2 = a2 + b2 1
secθ =
B. Basic Ratios cosθ
c 1
• Sin θ = a/c a cscθ =
• Cos θ = b/c sin θ
• Tan θ = a/b θ
• Cosec θ = c/a C. Trigonometric Function Values
b
• Sec θ = c/b
• Cot θ = b/a Euler’s Representation
e jθ = cos(θ ) + j sin(θ )
Degrees versus Radians
• A circle in degree contains 360 degrees
• A circle in radians contains 2π radians
e− jθ = cos(θ ) − j sin(θ )
e jnθ = cos(nθ ) + j sin(nθ )

hypotenuse
e jθ + e − jθ
opposite cosθ =
2
e jθ − e − jθ
θ sin θ =
2j
adjacent
Sine, Cosine and Tangent 4.4 Logarithm
opposite adjacent opposite Definition

sin θ = cosθ = tan θ = The logarithm of a number to a particular base is the power (or index) to which that
hypotenus hypotenus adjacent base must be raised to obtain the number.
The number 8 written in index form as 8 = 23

Sine, Cosine and the Pythagorean Triangle
The equation can be rewritten in logarithm form as log 2 8 = 3
[sin θ ] + [cosθ ]
2 2
= sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
Logarithm laws
The logarithm laws are obtained from the index laws and are:
• loga x + loga y = loga xy
- 39 - - 40 -
• loga x – loga y = loga (x/y) 4.5 Exponents

Summary of the Laws of Exponents
• loga xy = y loga x Let c, d, r, and s be any real numbers.
• loga (1/x) = -loga x

c r ⋅ c s = c r+s (c ⋅ d ) r = c r ⋅ d r
• loga 1 = 0 cr ⎛c⎞
r
cr
= c r−s , c ≠ 0 ⎜ ⎟ = r , d ≠0
cs ⎝ ⎠
d d
• loga a = 1
( c r ) s = c r ⋅s c −r =
1
• a (log a x )
=x cr
Basic Combinations
Note: It is not possible to have the logarithm of a negative number. All logarithms must Since the raising of a number n to a power p may be defined as multiplying
have the same base. n times itself p times, it follows that
Euler Relationship n p1 + p 2 = n p1 n p 2
The trigonometric functions are related to a complex exponential by the Euler
relationship: The rule for raising a power to a power can also be deduced
e jx = cos x + j sin x
− jx
e = cos x − j sin x (na)b = nab
From these relationships the trig functions can be expressed in terms of the complex
exponential: (ab)n = anbn
am/an = am-n
e jx + e − jx
cos x = where a not equal to zero
2
e jx − e − jx
sin x =
2 4.6 Complex Numbers
A complex number is a number with a real and an imaginary part, usually
Hyperbolic Functions expressed in Cartesian form
The hyperbolic functions can be defined in terms of exponentials. a + jb where j = √-1 and j · j = -1
e x − e− x Complex numbers can also be expressed in polar form

Hyperbolic sine = sinh x =
2 Aejθ where A = √a2 +b2 and θ = tan-1 (b/a)
e x + e− x The polar form can also be expressed in terms of trigonometric functions using the Euler
Hyperbolic cosine = cosh x =
2 relationship
ejθ = cos θ + j sin θ
sinh x e x − e − x
Hyperbolic tangent = tanh x = = Euler Relationship
cosh x e x + e x
The trigonometric functions are related to a complex exponential by the
Euler relationship
ejx = cos x + j sin x
- 41 - - 42 -
Chapter 5
e-jθ = cos x - j sin x
From these relationships the trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of the
Engineering Concepts and Formulae
complex exponential:
5.1 Electricity
e jx + e − jx
cos x =
2 Ohm's Law
e jx − e − jx
sin x = V
2 I=
R
This relationship is useful for expressing complex numbers in polar form, as
well as many other applications. Or
Polar Form, Complex Numbers V = IR

The standard form of a complex number is
Where
a + jb where j = √-1 I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)
But this can be shown to be equivalent to the form R = resistance (ohms)
Aejθ where A = √a2 +b2 and θ = tan-1 (b/a) Temperature correction
which is called the polar form of a complex number. The equivalence can be shown by Rt = Ro (1 + αt)
using the Euler relationship for complex exponentials.
Where
⎡ b⎤ ⎡ b⎤ Ro = resistance at 0ºC (.)
jθ
Ae = a + b (cos ⎢ tan −1 ⎥ + j sin ⎢ tan −1 ⎥ )
2 2
Rt = resistance at tºC (.)
⎣ a⎦ ⎣ a⎦ α = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004
28 (Ω/Ω ºC)
Ae jθ = a 2 + b 2 (
a
+ j
b
) = a + jb (1 + αt2 )
R2 = R1
a2 + b2 a2 + b2 (1 + αt1 )
Where R1 = resistance at t1
R2 = resistance at t2
Values of Ω/Ω ºC
alpha
Copper 0.00428
Platinum 0.00358
Nickel 0.00672
Tungsten 0.00450
- 43 - - 44 -
Aluminum 0.0040
Where EG = generated e.m.f.
EB = generated back e.m.f.
nqvtA Ia = armature current
Current, I = = nqvA Ra = armature resistance
t
Conductor Resistivity Alternating Current

ρL
R= RMS value of sine curve = 0.707 of maximum value
a Mean Value of Sine wave = 0.637 of maximum value
Form factor = RMS value / Mean Value = 1.11
Where
pN
ρ = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm meters, Ωm) Frequency of Alternator = cycles per second
L = length (meters) 60
a = area of cross-section (square meters) Where p is number of pairs of poles
N is the rotational speed in r/min
Quantity Equation
Slip of Induction Motor
Resistance R of a uniform L
conductor R=ρ [(Slip speed of the field – Speed of the rotor) / Speed of the Field] × 100
A
Inductors and Inductive Reactance
Resistors in series, Rs Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in parallel, R p 1 1 1 1 Physical Quantity Equation

= + +
R p R1 R2 R3 Inductors and Inductance di
VL = L
dt
Power dissipated in resistor: V2
P = VI = I 2 R = Inductors in Series: LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . .
R
Inductor in Parallel: 1 1 1 1
Potential drop across R V=IR = + + + .....
L T L1 L 2 L 3
Dynamo Formulae Current build up -

t
2ϕNpZ (switch initially closed after having At v L ( t) = E e τ

Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor = been opened) t
60c −
v R ( t) = E(1 - e τ )
t
Where E -
Z = total number of armature conductors i(t) = (1 − e τ

)
R
c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes
L
Where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding) τ=
Φ = useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature R
p = number of pairs of poles Current decay t
-
N = speed (revolutions per minute) (switch moved to a new position) i(t) = I o e τ ′
vR(t) = R i(t)
Generator Terminal volts = EG – IaRa vL(t) = − RT i(t)
Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa
- 45 - - 46 -
Physical Quantity Equation Quantity Equation
L Current Divider Rule ZT

τ' = I x = IT
RT Zx
Alternating Current f = 1/T Two impedance values in Z1 Z 2

ϖ=2πf parallel ZT =
Z1 + Z 2
Complex Numbers: C=a+jb
C = M cos θ + j M sin θ Capacitance
M = a 2 + b2
⎛b⎞ Capacitors
θ = tan -1 ⎜ ⎟ C=
Q
[F] (Farads)
⎝a⎠ V
Polar form: C=M∠θ Capacitor in Series 1 1 1 1
= + + + .....
Inductive Reactance |XL| = ω L C T C1 C 2 C 3
Capacitive Reactance |XC| = 1 / (ω C) Capacitors in Parallel C T = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + .....

Resistance R Charging a Capacitor t
E - RC
i(t) = e
Impedance Resistance: ZR = R ∠0° R
Inductance: ZL = XL ∠90° = ω L ∠90° -
t
Capacitance: ZC = XC ∠-90° = 1 / (ωC) v R ( t) = E e RC
∠-90° -
t
v C ( t) = E(1 - e RC
)
τ = RC
Discharging a Vo - τ ′
t
Quantity Equation Capacitor i(t) = − e
R
Ohm’s Law for AC V=IZ -
t
v R ( t) = − Vo e τ′
t
Time Domain v(t) = Vm sin (ω t ± φ) -
v C ( t) = Vo e τ ′
i(t) = Im sin (ω t ± φ)
τ' = RTC
Phasor Notation V = Vrms ∠ φ
V = Vm ∠ φ
Components in Series ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + . Quantity Equation

.
Voltage Divider Rule Zx

Vx = VT Capacitance Q
ZT C=
V
Components in Parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
Z T Z1 Z 2 Z 3
- 47 - - 48 -
Quantity Equation Current in AC Circuit

RMS Current
In Cartesian ⎡ 1 ⎞⎤
Capacitance of a εA I=
V ⎛
⋅ ⎢ R − j ⎜ ωL − ⎟
Parallel-plate Capacitor C= form
⎡ 2 ⎛ ωC ⎠⎥⎦
1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎣ ⎝
2
d
⎢ R + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ⎥
V ⎣⎢ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎦⎥
E =
d Amperes
Isolated Sphere C = 4πεr In polar form V

I= ∠ − φ s Amperes
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
[ R + ⎜ ωL −
2
⎟ ]
⎝ ωC ⎠
Capacitors in parallel C = C1 + C2 + C3
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ωL − ωC ⎥
where φ s = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥
Capacitors in series 1 1 1 1 ⎢ R ⎥
= + + ⎣ ⎦
C C1 C 2 C 3
Modulus V
Energy stored in a 2 I = Amperes
Q1 1 2
charged capacitor W = = CV 2 = QV ⎛ 1 ⎞
2C 2 2 R + ⎜ ωL −
2
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
If the capacitor is Q
2
isolated W = Complex Impedance

2C
If the capacitor is 1 In Cartesian
W = CV 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
connected to a battery 2 form Z = R + j ⎜ ωL − ⎟ Ohms
⎝ ωC ⎠
For R C circuits Q = Qo (1 - e-t/RC); In polar form 2
⎛ 1 ⎞
V = Vo Z = R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ∠φ s Ohms
Charging a capacitor (1 - e-t/RC) ⎝ ωC ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤
Discharging a capacitor Q = Qo e- t/RC ωL −
−1 ⎢ ω C⎥
V = Vo e-t/RC Where φ s = tan ⎢ ⎥
⎢ R ⎥
⎣ ⎦
• If the capacitor is isolated, the presence of the dielectric decreases the potential Modulus 2
difference between the plates ⎛ 1 ⎞
Z = [ R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ] Ohms
• If the capacitor is connected to a battery, the presence of the dielectric increases the ⎝ ωC ⎠
charge stored in the capacitor.
• The introduction of the dielectric increases the capacitance of the capacitor
- 49 - - 50 -
Power dissipation Three Phase Alternators
Star connected
Average power, P = VI cos φ Watts
Line voltage = 3 · phase voltage
Power dissipation in a Line current = phase current
P = I R Watts
2
resistor Delta connected

Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 · phase current
Rectification Three phase power
P = 3 EL IL cos Φ
Controlled half wave EL = line voltage
rectifier Average DC voltage =
Vm
(1 + cos α )
2π IL = line current
Volts cos Φ = power factor
Controlled full wave

rectifier Average DC voltage =
Vm
(1 + cos α )
π Electrostatics
Volts
Quantity Equation
Power Factor
Instantaneous current, dq dv
I= =C Amperes
dt dt
DC V2
Power Pdc = VI = I 2 R = Permittivity of free space 10 −9

R ε0 = = 8.85 × 10 −12 Farads
36π
AC Pac = Re(V .I ) = VI cos φ (meters)-1
Power
Energy stored in a 1
capacitor = CV 2 Joules
Power in ac circuits 2
Quantity Equation
Quantity Equation
Resistance The mean power = P = Irms Vrms = Irms2 R
Inductance The instantaneous power = (Io sin wt) (Vo sin (wt + Coulomb’s law Q1Q2
π) F =k
r2
The mean power P =0
Electric fields F
E=
Capacitance The instantaneous power = (Io sin (wt + π/2)) (Vo sin q
wt )
Due to a point charge Q
The mean power P =0 E=
4πε o r 2
Formula for a.c. The mean power = P = Irms Vrms cos φ Due to a conducting sphere carrying charge E=0
power
Q Inside the sphere
- 51 - - 52 -
Quantity Equation Quantity Equation
Outside the sphere Q Relation between E and V dV

E= E=−
4πε o r 2 dx
Just outside a uniformly charged conducting σ For uniform electric field V

E = E =
sphere or plate εo d
• An electric field E is a vector Magnetostatics

• The electric field strength is directly proportional to the number of electric field lines
per unit cross-sectional area,
Physical Quantity Equation
• The electric field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to the surface.
• The electric field is zero inside a conductor. Magnetic flux density (also called the B- F
field) is defined as the force acting per unit B=
current length.
Il
Quantity Equation Force on a current-carrying conductor in a F = I l BF = I l · B
magnetic field
And Magnitude of F = F = I l B
Suppose a point charge Q is at A. The work done in Qq sin θ
bringing a charge q from infinity to some point a distance W =
4πε o r Force on a moving charged particle in a F=q v · B
r from A is magnetic field
Electric potential W Circulating Charges
V = mv 2
q qvB =
r
Due to a point charge Q
V =
4πε o r Calculation of magnetic flux density
Due to a conducting sphere, of radius a, carrying charge Q Physical Quantity Equation

Q: V =
4πε o a
Inside the sphere Magnetic fields around a long straight wire µo I
carrying current I B=
Outside the sphere Q 2πa
V =
4πε o r where a = perp. distance from a
very long straight wire.
If the potential at a point is V, then the potential energy U = qV
Magnetic fields inside a long solenoid, I: B = µo n I, where n = number of
of a charge q at that point is
carrying current turns per unit length.
Work done in bringing charge q from A of potential VA to W = q (VB – VA) Hall effect VH
point B of potential VB At equilibrium Q = QvB and VH = B v d
d
The current in a material is given by I = nQAv
- 53 - - 54 -
Physical Quantity Equation Quantity Equation
The forces between two current-carrying µ II l Energy stored in an inductor: 1 2

conductors F21 = o 1 2 U= LI
2πa 2
Transformers: VS N S
=
VP N P
The L R (d.c.) circuit: E
The torque on a rectangular coil in a magnetic T = F b sin θ I= (1 − e − Rt / L )
field = N I l B b sinθ
R
= N I A B sinθ When a great load (or smaller VP − ε p
resistance) is connected to Vp -εp = I R; I =
If the coil is in a radial field and the plane of the T = N I A B sin θ R
the secondary coil, the flux in
coil is always parallel to the field, then = N I A B sin 90o
the core decreases. The
=NIAB
e.m.f., εp, in the primary coil
Magnetic flux φ φ = B A cos θ falls.
and
Flux-linkage = Nφ Kirchoff’s laws
Current Sensitivity θ NAB Kirchoff's first law (Junction Theorem)
SI = =
I c At a junction, the total current entering the junction is equal to the total
current leaving the junction.
Lenz's law d Kirchoff's second law (Loop Theorem)

The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to ε = −N φ The net e.m.f. round a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s round the loop.
oppose the flux-change causing it, and does oppose it if dt
induced current flows.
EMF Equations
Power W
P= = VI
t
E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor ε =BLv
Electric current q
E.m.f. induced between the center and the rim of a spinning ε = B πr2f I=
disc t
E.m.f. induced in a rotating coil Ε = N A B w sin Work W = qV

wt
Ohm’s Law V = IR
Resistances in Series R T = R1 + R 2 K
Quantity Equation
Resistances in Parallel 1 1 1
Self-induction ε = + K
L=− R T R1 R 2
dI / dt
N φ =LI
Magnetic flux Φ = BA
- 55 - - 56 -
Electromagnetic (Φ 2 − Φ 1 ) Impulse = force · time = change of momentum

induction Emf = − N Ft=mv–mu
t
emf = l v B Newton's third law of motion
When two objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on one another.
Magnetic force F=I l B "Third-law pair" of forces act on two different bodies.
Universal Law
Transformer turns ratio Vs Ns
= F = Gmsmp/d2
Vp Np ms is the mass of the sun.
mp is the mass of the planet.
The Universal law and the second law must be consistent

Electromagnetic spectrum
Newton’s Laws of Motion and Their Applications
Wavelength
λ (m) 102 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11
Physical Quantity Equations
s v+u
radio frequencies Average velocity v av = =
X-rays t 2
v-u
Area of Acceleration a=
Spectrum
microwaves t
visible
ultraviolet
radiation
Momentum p = mv
infrared radiation
gamma rays Force F = ma
Weight weight = mg
f(Hz) 10 6
10 7
10 8 9
10 10 10
10 11 12
10 10 10 13 14
10 15
10 16
10 17
1018 19
10 10 20
Work done W = Fs
Frequency
Kinetic energy E k = 21 mv 2
Note: 1. Shaded areas represent regions of overlap.
2. Gamma rays and X-rays occupy a common region. Gravitational potential energy E p = mgh
5.2 Applied Mechanics v−u

Equations of motion a= ; s = ut + 21 at 2 ; v 2 = u 2 + 2as
t
5.2.1 Newton's laws of motion
v2
Centripetal acceleration a=
Newton' first law of motion r
The inertia of a body is the reluctance of the body to change its state of rest or motion.
Mass is a measure of inertia. mv 2
Centripetal force F = ma =
r
Newton's second law of motion
mv-mu Newton’s Law of Universal m1m2
F= ; F=G
∆t Gravitation r2
F=ma
- 57 - - 58 -
Conversion:
m ft
1 = 3.28 2
Gravitational field strength M s2 s
g=G
r2
Acceleration due to gravity, g is 9.81 m/s2
5.2.2 Linear Velocity and Acceleration

Moment of a force M = rF Quantity Equations
Principle of ∑M = 0
If u initial velocity and v final velocity, ⎛v+u⎞
moments s=⎜ ⎟
then displacement s,
⎝ 2 ⎠
Stress F
Stress =
A If t is the elapsed time 1 2
s = ut + at
2
Strain ∆l
Strain =
l If a is the acceleration v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Young’s Modulus F/A

Y= Angular Velocity and Acceleration
∆ l/ l
Quantity Equations
Scalar: a property described by a magnitude only
θ angular displacement ω1 + ω 2
(radians) θ= ×t
Vector: a property described by a magnitude and a direction 2
• ω angular velocity (radians/s);
ω1 = initial, ω2 = final 1
Velocity: vector property equal to displacement / time θ = ω 1t + αt 2
2
The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed
α angular acceleration ω 2 2 = ω 1 2 + 2αθ
In SI the basic unit is m/s, in Imperial ft/s
(radians/s2)
Other common units are km/h, mi/h
Conversions: Linear displacement s=rθ
1m/s = 3.28 ft/s
1km/h = 0.621 mi/h Linear velocity v=rω
Linear, or tangential aT = r α
Speed of sound in dry air is 331 m/s at 0°C and increases by about 0.61 m/s for each °C
acceleration
rise.
Speed of light in vaccum equals 3 x 108m/s Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration
Acceleration: vector property equal to change in velocity time. Quantity Equations
In SI the basic unit is m/s2 Tangential acceleration aT is due to angular acceleration aT = rα

In Imperial ft/s2 α
- 59 - - 60 -
Kinetic Energy
Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration ac is due to change ac = v2/r = r ω2
in direction only
1
ER = mk 2ω 2
2
Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing a = aT + ac Where k is radius of gyration, ω is angular velocity in rad/s
angular acceleration is the vector sum of aT and ac
Kinetic Energy of Rotation
1
5.2.3 Force Er = Iω 2
2
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object
Where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia
In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a kg m
In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb
Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb 5.2.4 Centripetal (Centrifugal) Force
Weight mv 2
The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth Fc =
r
In SI weight can be calculated from Weight = F = mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2 Where r is the radius
In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the Where ω is angular velocity in rad/s
known weight in pounds
weight Potential Energy
m=
g
ft Quantity Equation
g = 32.2 2
s Energy due to position in a force Ep = m g h
field, such as gravity
Torque Equation In Imperial this is usually expressed Ep = w h
T = I α where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2 and Where w is weight, and h is height
α is the angular acceleration in radians/s2 above some specified datum
Momentum
Thermal Energy
Vector quantity, symbol p, In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific
p = mv [Imperial p = (w/g)v, where w is weight] quantities)
in SI unit is kgm / s
In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Work
Conversions
Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an 1 Btu = 1055 J
object. In simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance 1 Btu = 778 ft-lb
W=Fs
In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ Electrical Energy
1 J = 1 Nm In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit
In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb of electrical energy is the kWh
Energy Conversions
Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb 1 kWh = 3600 kJ
1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 2.66 x 106 ft-lb
Power
- 61 - - 62 -
A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work • 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW)
J Simple Harmonic Motion
1W = 1 m
s Velocity of P = ω R 2 − x 2
s
In Imperial, the units are:
Mechanical Power – (ft – lb) / s, horsepower h.p. 5.2.5 Stress, Strain And Modulus Of Elasticity
Thermal Power – Btu / s
Electrical Power - W, kW, or h.p. Young’s modulus and the breaking stress for selected materials
Conversions
Young modulus Breaking stress
746W = 1h. p. Material
x 1011 Pa x 108 Pa
ft − lb Aluminium 0.70 2.4

1h. p. = 550
s Copper 1.16 4.9
Btu Brass 0.90 4.7

1kW = 0.948
s Iron (wrought) 1.93 3.0
Pressure Mild steel 2.10 11.0
A vector quantity, force per unit area
In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa Glass 0.55 10
Tungsten 4.10 20
N
1Pa = 1
m2 Bone 0.17 1.8
In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
5.3 Thermodynamics
Atmospheric Pressure 5.3.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi
• W = P∆V
Pressure Conversions • ∆U = Q – W
1 psi = 6.895 kPa • W= nRT lnVf/Vi
Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI • Q = Cn∆T
and Imperial systems • Cv= 3/2R
Common equivalencies are: • Cp= 5/2R
• 1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury • Cp/Cv = γ= 5/3
• 1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water • e = 1 – Qc/Qh = W/Qh
• 1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury • ec = 1 – Tc/Th
• 1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water • COP = Qc/W (refrigerators)
• 1 m H2O = 9.81 kPa • COP = Qh /W (heat pumps)
• Wmax= (1-Tc/Th)Qh
Other pressure unit conversions:
• ∆S = Q/T
• 1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa
• 1 kg/cm2 = 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar
- 63 - - 64 -
5.3.2 Momentum • ∑ Fy = 0
• p = mv • ∑τ = 0 (any axis)
• ∑F = ∆p/∆t
5.3.8 Gravity
5.3.3 Impulse • F = Gm1m2/r2
I = Fav∆ t = mvf – mvi • T = 2π / √r3 /GMs
• G = 6.67 x 10-11N-m2/kg2
5.3.4 Elastic and Inelastic collision • g = GME / R2E
• miv1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f • PE = - Gm1m2 / r
• (½) miv1i2 + (½) m2v2i2 = ½ m1v1f2 + ½ m2v2f2 • ve = √2GME / RE
• miv1i + m2v2i = (m1 + m2)vf • vs = √GME / r
• ME = 5.97 x 1024 kg
5.3.5 Center of Mass • RE = 6.37 x 106 m
• xcm = ∑mx/M
• Vcm = ∑mv/M 5.3.9 Vibrations & Waves
• Acm = ∑ma/M • F = -kx
• MAcm = Fnet • PEs = ½kx2
• x = Acosθ = Acos(ωt)
5.3.6 Angular Motion • v = -Aωsin(ωt)
• s = rθ • a = -Aω2cos(ωt)
• vt = rω • ω = √k / m
• at = rα •f = 1 / T
• ac = vt2/r = rω2 • T = 2π√m / k
• ω = 2π/T • E = ½kA2
• 1 rev = 2π rad = 360o • T = 2π√L / g
• vmax = Aω
For constant α • amax = Aω2
• ω = ωo + αt •v = λ f v = √FT/µ
• ω2 = ωo2 +2αθ • µ = m/L
• θ = ωot + ½αt2 • I = P/A
• θ = (ωo + ω)·t/2 • β = 10log(I/Io)
• I = ∑mr2 • Io = 1 x 10-12 W/m2
• KER = ½Iω2 • f’ = f[(1 ± v0/v)/(1 m vs/v)]
• τ = rF • Surface area of the sphere = 4πr2
• ∑τ = Iα • Speed of sound waves = 343 m/s
• WR = τθ
• L = Iω 5.3.10 Standing Waves
• ∑τ = Iα • fn = nf1
• WR = τθ • fn = nv/2L (air column, string fixed both ends) n = 1,2,3,4…….
• L = Iω • fn = nv/4L (open at one end) n = 1,3,5,7………
• Li = Lf
5.3.11 Beats
5.3.7 Conditions of Equilibrium • fbeats = | f1 – f2 |
• ∑ Fx = 0 • Fluids
- 65 - - 66 -
• ρ = m/V 5.3.14 Elastic Deformation

• P = F/A • P = F/A
• P2 = P1 + ρgh • Y = FLo/A∆L
• Patm = 1.01 x 105Pa = 14.7 lb/in2 • S = Fh/A∆x
• FB = ρfVg = Wf (weight of the displaced fluid) • B = –Vo∆F / A∆V
• ρo/ρf = Vf /Vo (floating object) • Volume of the sphere = 4πr3/3
• ρwater = 1000 kg/m
3
• 1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa
• Wa=W-FB
5.3.15 Temperature Scales
Equation of Continuity: Av = constant
• °C = 5/9 (°F – 32)
Bernoulli’s equation: P + ½ ρv2 + ρgy = 0
• °F = 5/9 (°C + 32)
• °R = °F + 460 (R Rankine)
5.3.12 Temperature and Heat
• K = °C + 273 (K Kelvin)
• TF= 9/5TC+32
• TC= 5/9(TF-32)
• ∆TF = 9/5∆TC
5.3.16 Sensible Heat Equation
• Q=mc∆T
• T= TC+273.15
• M=mass
• ρ= m/v
• C=specific heat
• ∆L = αLo∆T
• ∆T=temperature chance
• ∆A = γAo∆T
• ∆V = βVo∆T β=3α
• Q = mc∆T
5.3.17 Latent Heat
• Q = mL • Latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg
• 1 kcal = 4186 J • Latent heat of steam from and at 100°C = 2257 kJ/kg
• Heat Loss = Heat Gain • 1 tonne of refrigeration = 335 000 kJ/day = 233 kJ/min
• Q = (kA∆T)t/L,
• H = Q/t =(kA∆T)/L
5.3.18 Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law
• Q = eσT4At When gas temperature is constant
• P = Q/t PV = constant or
• P = σAeT4 P1V1 = P2V2
• P net= σAe(T4-TS4) Where P is absolute pressure and V is volume
• σ = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m 2K4
Charles’ Law
5.3.13 Ideal Gases When gas pressure is constant,
• PV = nRT V
= const.
• R = 8.31 J/mol K T
• PV = NkT or
• NA = 6.02 × 1023 molecules/mol
• k = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K V1 V2
=
• M=NAm T1 T2
• (KE)av=(1/2mv2 )av= 3/2kT
• U= 3/2NkT = 3/2nRT where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
- 67 - - 68 -
Gay-Lussac's Law
Specific Heat Specific Heat
at Constant at Constant Ratio of
When gas volume is constant,
GAS Pressure Volume Specific
P
= const. kJ/kgK or kJ/kgK or γ= cp / cv
T kJ/kg oC kJ/kg oC
or Helium 5.234 3.153 1.66

P1 P2 Hydrogen 14.235 10.096 1.41
=
T1 T2
Hydrogen
1.105 0.85 1.30
Sulphide
where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
Methane 2.177 1.675 1.30
General Gas Law
Nitrogen 1.043 0.745 1.40
P1V1 P2V 2
= = const. Oxygen 0.913 0.652 1.40
T1 T2
P V = m R T where P = absolute pressure (kPa) Sulphur Dioxide 0.632 0.451 1.40
V = volume (m3)
T = absolute temp (K) 5.3.20 Efficiency of Heat Engines
m = mass (kg)
R = characteristic constant (kJ/kgK) Carnot Cycle
Also T1 − T2
PV = nRoT where P = absolute pressure (kPa) η=
T1
V = volume (m3)
T = absolute temperature K where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and sink
N = the number of kmoles of gas
Ro = the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K Air Standard Efficiencies
Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle)
1
5.3.19 Specific Heats Of Gases η = 1 − (γ −1)
rv
rv= compression ratio
Specific Heat Specific Heat
at Constant at Constant Ratio of
γ = specific heat (constant pressure) / Specific heat (constant volume)
GAS Pressure Volume Specific
Diesel Cycle
kJ/kgK or kJ/kgK or γ= cp / cv
kJ/kg oC kJ/kg oC
Rγ − 1)
η =1− γ −1
rv γ ( R − 1)
Air 1.005 0.718 1.40
Where r = ratio of compression
Ammonia 2.060 1.561 1.32 R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume
Carbon Dioxide 0.825 0.630 1.31 High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle
Carbon
1.051 0.751 1.40 kβ γ − 1
Monoxide η =1
rv
γ −1
[(k − 1) + γk ( β − 1)]
- 69 - - 70 -
Where rv= cylinder volume / clearance volume 5.3.22 Thermal Expansion of Solids
k = absolute pressure at the end of constant V heating (combustion) / absolute pressure at Increase in length = L α (T2 – T1)
the beginning of constant V combustion Where L = original length
β = volume at the end of constant P heating (combustion) / clearance α = coefficient of linear expansion
volume (T2 – T1) = rise in temperature
Increase in volume = V β (T2 – T1)
Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle) Where V = original volume
1 β = coefficient of volumetric expansion
η =1− ⎛ γ −1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟ (T2 – T1) = rise in temperature
r p⎝
γ ⎠⎟
Coefficient of volumetric expansion = Coefficient of linear expansion × 3
where rp = pressure ratio = compressor discharge pressure / compressor intake pressure β = 3α
5.3.21 Heat Transfer by Conduction 5.3.23 Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel

O2
Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel = 33.7C + 144( H 2 − ) + 9.3S
Material Coefficient of Thermal 8
Conductivity C is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel
W/m °C H2 is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel
O2 is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel
Air 0.025
S is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel
Brass 104
Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel
Concrete 0.85 ⎡8 ⎤ 100
Air (kg per kg of fuel) = ⎢ C + 8( H 2 − O2 ) + S ⎥
Cork 0.043 ⎣3 ⎦ 23
Glass 1.0 Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases

Iron, cast 70
N2
Air in kg per kg of fuel = ×C
33(CO2 + CO)
Steel 60 Boiler Formulae
Wallboard, 0.076 m s (h1 − h2 )
Equivalent evaporation =
paper 2257 kj / kg
Aluminum 206 (h1 − h2 )
Factor of evaporation =
2257 kj / kg
Brick 0.6
Copper 380 Boiler Efficiency
Felt 0.038 m s (h1 − h2 )

Glass, fibre 0.04 mf × (calorificvalue)
Plastic, cellular 0.04 Where

ms = mass flow rate of steam
Wood 0.15
h1 = enthalpy of steam produced in boiler
h2 = enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
mf = mass flow rate of fuel
- 71 - - 72 -
P-V-T Relationships
Change in
Name of Value Change in Change in
Heat added Work done Internal
process of n Enthalpy Entropy
Energy
P-V T-P T-V
Constant T1 P1 ⎛T ⎞
Volume ∞ -- = -- mc v (T2 − T1 ) 0 mc v (T2 − T1 ) mc p (T2 − T1 ) mc v log e ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
V=Constant T2 P2 ⎝ T1 ⎠
Constant T1 V1 ⎛T ⎞
pressure 0 -- -- = mc p (T2 − T1 ) P(V2-V1) mc v (T2 − T1 ) mc p (T2 − T1 ) mc n log e ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
P=Pressure T2 V2 ⎝ T1 ⎠
Isothermal P1 V2 ⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞ ⎛P⎞

1 = -- -- mRT log e ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ mRT log e ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ 0 0 mR log e ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
T=Constant P2 V1 ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠
γ γ −l γ −1
Isentropic P1 ⎡V2 ⎤ T1 ⎡ P1 ⎤ γ T1 ⎡V2 ⎤
γ =⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ 0 mc v (T1 − T2 ) mc v (T2 − T1 ) mc p (T2 − T1 ) 0
S=Constant =⎢ ⎥
P2 ⎣ V1 ⎦ T2 ⎣ P2 ⎦ T2 ⎣ V1 ⎦
n n −l n −1
Polytropic P1 ⎡V2 ⎤ n T1 ⎡V2 ⎤ mR ⎛T ⎞
PVn = n =⎢ ⎥ T1 ⎡ P1 ⎤ =⎢ ⎥ mc n (T2 − T1 ) (T1 − T2 ) mc v (T2 − T1 ) mc p (T2 − T1 ) mc n log e ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
=⎢ ⎥
Constant P2 ⎣ V1 ⎦ T2 ⎣ P2 ⎦ T2 ⎣ V1 ⎦ n −1 ⎝ T1 ⎠
Thermodynamic Equations for perfect gases

*Can be used for reversible adiabatic processes
cv = Specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kgK
cp = Specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kgK
- 73 -
⎛γ − n⎞
cm = Specific heat for polytropic process = cv ⎜ ⎟kJ / kgK
⎝ 1− n ⎠
H = Enthalpy, kJ
γ = Isentropic Exponent, cp/cv
n = polytropic exponent
P = Pressure, kPa
R = Gas content, kJ/kgK
S = Entropy, kJ/K
T = Absolute Temperature, K = 273+˚C
U = Internal Energy, kJ
V = Volume, m3
m = Mass of gas, kg
- 74 -
Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Specific Heat and Linear Mean Specific Heat between 0 o C
between 0 o C and 100 o C
Expansion of Solids and 100 o C kJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C
(multiply by 10-6)
Aluminum 0.909 23.8
Antimony 0.209 17.5
Bismuth 0.125 12.4
Brass 0.383 18.4
Carbon 0.795 7.9
Cobalt 0.402 12.3
Copper 0.388 16.5
Glass 0.896 9.0
Gold 0.130 14.2

o o
Ice (between -20 C & 0 C ) 2.135 50.4
Iron (cast) 0.544 10.4
Iron (wrought) 0.465 12.0
Lead 0.131 29.0
Nickel 0.452 13.0
Platinum 0.134 8.6
Silicon 0.741 7.8
Silver 0.235 19.5
Steel (mild) 0.494 12.0
Tin 0.230 26.7
Zinc 0.389 16.5

- 75 -
Specific Heat and Volume Expansion for Liquids
Specific Heat
Coefficient of Volume Expansion
Liquid (at 20 o C )
(Multiply by 10-4)
KJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C
Alcohal 2.470 11.0
Ammonia 0.473
Benzine 1.138 12.4
Carbon Dioxide 3.643 1.82
Mercury 0.139 1.80
Olive oil 1.633
Petroleum 2.135
Gasoline 2.093 12.0
Turpentine 1.800 9.4
Water 4.183 3.7
- 76 -
5.4 Fluid Mechanics

5.4.1 Discharge from an Orifice Where B = breadth (m)
H = head (m above sill)
Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H5/2
Let A = cross-sectional area of the orifice = π Where H = head (m above sill)
d2
4
5.4.2 Bernoulli’s Theory
And Ac = cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena π 2
conrtacta dc
4 P v2
H =h+ +
Then Ac = CcA Ac ⎛ d c ⎞
2 w 2g
Or C c = =⎜ ⎟
A ⎝ d ⎠
H = total head (meters)
w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N)
Where Cc is the coefficient of contraction h = height above datum level (meters)
v = velocity of water (meters per second)
P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)
Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction
L v2
Loss of head in meters = f
d 2g
L = length in meters
v = velocity of flow in meters per second
d = diameter in meters
f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small pipes
5.4.3 Actual pipe dimensions
Nominal Outside Inside Wall

Flow area
pipe size diameter diameter thickness
(m2)
(in) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1/8 10.3 6.8 1.73 3.660 × 10-5
1/4 13.7 9.2 2.24 6717 × 10-5
3/8 17.1 12.5 2.31 1.236 × 10-4
1/2 21.3 15.8 2.77 1.960 × 10-4
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by 3/4 26.7 20.9 2.87 3.437 × 10-4
• Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta · actual velocity = AcV
1 33.4 26.6 3.38 5.574 × 10-4
• Or Q = C c AC v 2 gh
1¼ 42.2 35.1 3.56 9.653 × 10-4
• Typically, values for Cd vary between 0.6 and 0.65
• Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A √2gh 1½ 48.3 40.9 3.68 1.314 ×10-3
• Where Q = flow (m /s) A = area (m ) h = head (m)
3 2
2 60.3 52.5 3.91 2.168 × 10-3
• Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B · H) 2/3 √2gh
- 77 - - 78 -
Nominal Outside Inside Wall

Flow area
pipe size diameter diameter thickness
(m2)
(in) (mm) (mm) (mm) Chapter 6
2½ 73.0 62.7 5.16 3.090 × 10-3
3 88.9 77.9 5.49 4.768 × 10-3

References
3½ 101.6 90.1 5.74 6.381 × 10-3
6.1 Periodic Table of Elements
4 114.3 102.3 6.02 8.213 × 10-3
A 8A
5 141.3 128.2 6.55 1.291 × 10-2 1 18
1 2
6 168.3 154.1 7.11 1.864 × 10-2 H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
1.00 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.00
8 3
8 219.1 202.7 8.18 3.226 × 10-2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 273.1 254.5 9.27 5.090 × 10-2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.1
1 2 1 1 1 0 0 8
12 323.9 303.2 10.31 7.219 × 10-2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 8B 8B 1B 2B Al Si P S Cl Ar
14 355.6 333.4 11.10 8.729 × 10-2 22.9 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.9 28.0 30.9 32.0 35.4 39.9
9 1 8 9 7 7 5 5
16 406.4 381.0 12.70 0.1140 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
18 457.2 428.7 14.27 0.1443 39.1 40.0 44.9 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.3 69.7 72.5 74.9 78.9 79.9 83.8
0 8 6 0 4 0 4 5 3 0 5 8 2 9 2 6 0 0
20 508.0 477.9 15.06 0.1794 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
24 609.6 574.7 17.45 0.2594 85.4 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 97.9 101. 102. 106. 107. 112. 114. 118. 121. 127. 126. 131.
7 2 1 2 1 4 1 9 4 9 4 8 7 8 6 9 3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132. 137. 138. 178. 180. 183. 186. 190. 192. 195. 197. 200. 204. 207. 209. (209) (210) (222)
9 3 9 5 9 8 2 2 2 1 0 6 4 2 0
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
(223) 226. 227. (261) (262) (266) (264) (265) (268)
0 0
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140. 140. 144. (145) 150. 152. 157. 158. 162. 164. 167. 168. 173. 175.
1 9 2 4 0 3 9 5 9 3 9 0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232. 231. 238. 237. (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
0 0 0 0
- 79 - - 80 -
6.2 Resistor Color Coding
Color Value
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet / Purple 7
Grey 8
White 9
Courtesy: Dick Smith Electronics, Australia
- 81 -
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Formulas and Conversions: First Edition - Volume 5

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Formulas and Conversions: First Edition - Volume 5

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First Edition – Volume 5

Formulas and Conversions

Finally, thank you for being such tremendously supportive clients.

(C P Eng, BSEE, B.Sc(Hons), MBA)

Other books in this series

Symbol Prefix Factor by which unit is

Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities h Hecto 102

Quantity Unit Symbol Equivalent Quantity Electrical Symbol Derived

Pressure - Pa or N/m2 pascal, Pa Quantity Magnetic Symbol Derived unit

M Mega 106 Magnetic flux density Tesla T Wb/m2 =

Density lb·s2/in4 kg/m3 1.069E+07 9.357E-08

Energy BTU J 1055 9.478E-04

Length in m 2.540E-02 39.3700

Power BTU/hr W 0.2931 3.4120 Velocity ft/min m/s 5.079E-03 196.90

Power hp W 745.71 1.341E-03 Velocity ft/s m/s 0.3048 3.2810

Pressure bar Pa 1.000E+05 1.000E-05 Velocity miles/hr m/s 0.4470 2.2370

Pressure mbar Pa 100.00 1.000E-02 Volume ft3 m3 2.831E-02 35.3200

Pressure microns mercury Pa 0.1333 7.501 Volume in3 m3 1.639E-05 6.102E+04

Pressure mm mercury Pa 133.3 7.501E-03 Volume Liters m3 1.000E-03 1000

Temperature °F °C 0.5556 1.8000

Multiply By To obtain To Convert To Multiply By

Fathom 1.8288* meter(m) Centimeters Meters 0.01

Foot 0.3048* meter(m) Centimeters Yards 0.01093613

Foot 30.48* centimeter(cm) Centimeters Feet 0.0328084

Inch 0.0254* meter(m) Chains, (Surveyor's) Rods 4

Kilometer 0.6213712 mile(USstatute) Fathoms Meters 1.8288

Meter 39.37008 Inch Fathoms Feet 6

Meter 0.54680066 Fathom Feet Statute Miles 0.00018939

Meter 3.280840 Foot Feet Kilometers 0.0003048

Meter 0.1988388 Rod Feet Meters 0.3048

Meter 1.093613 Yard Feet Yards 0.3333333

Meter 0.0006213712 mile(USstatute) Feet Inches 12

Microinch 0.0254* micrometer(micron)(µm) Feet Centimeters 30.48

micrometer(micron) 39.37008 Microinch Furlongs Statute Miles 0.125

mile(USstatute) 1,609.344* meter(m) Furlongs Meters 201.168

millimeter 0.003280840 Foot Furlongs Feet 660

millimeter 0.0397008 Inch Furlongs Inches 7920

Yard 0.9144* meter(m) Hands (Height Of Horse) Centimeters 10.16

Inches Meters 0.0254

To Convert To Multiply By To Convert To Multiply By

Kilometers Statute Miles 0.621371192 Miles, Statute Centimeters 160934.4

Kilometers Meters 1000 Millimeters Inches 0.039370079

Leagues, Nautical Nautical Miles 3 Mils Inches 0.001

Leagues, Nautical Kilometers 5.556 Mils Millimeters 0.0254

Leagues, Statute Statute Miles 3 Paces (US) Inches 30

Leagues, Statute Kilometers 4.828032 Paces (US) Centimeters 76.2

Links, (Surveyor's) Chains 0.01 Points (Typographical) Inches 0.013837

Links, (Surveyor's) Inches 7.92 Points (Typographical) Millimeters 0.3514598

Links, (Surveyor's) Centimeters 20.1168 Rods Meters 5.0292

Meters Statute Miles 0.000621371 Rods Yards 5.5

Meters Kilometers 0.001 Rods Feet 16.5

Meters Yards 1.093613298 Spans Inches 9

Meters Feet 3.280839895 Spans Centimeters 22.86

Meters Inches 39.370079 Yards Miles 0.00056818

Meters Centimeters 100 Yards Meters 0.9144

Meters Millimeters 1000 Yards Feet 3

Microns Meters 0.000001 Yards Inches 36

Microns Inches 0.0000394 Yards Centimeters 91.44

Miles, Nautical Statute Miles 1.1507794

Miles, Nautical Kilometers 1.852

1 statute mile = 8 furlongs 1 rod = 5.5 yd Dry Volume

1 oz (US fluid) = 2.957 x 10-5 m3 1 stere = 1 m3 meter2 10.763910 foot2

1 gill = 4 fluid ounces 1 barrel = 31.5 gallons meter2 0.0002471054 acre