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Plasma Assisted Milling of Heat-Resistant Superalloys

Article  in  Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering · May 2004

DOI: 10.1115/1.1644548

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López de Lacalle et al. 1

PLASMA ASSISTED MILLING OF HEAT-RESISTANT

SUPERALLOYS
López de Lacalle, L.N., Sánchez, J.A, Lamikiz, A., Celaya, A.
Department of Mechanical Engineering – University of the Basque Country
Faculty of Engineering of Bilbao
Alameda de Urquijo s/n. 48013 Bilbao
Fx: +34 94 6014216
Tf: +34 94 6014215
Email: implomal@bi.ehu.es

Keywords: Thermal Enhanced Machining, Plasma, Heat-resistant alloys, Nickel alloys,

Cobalt alloys

ABSTRACT

The term Thermal Enhanced Machining refers to a conventional cutting process in

which an external energy source is used to enhance the chip-generation mechanism. The
work presented here analyzes the basic aspects and the experimental results obtained
when applying an assisting plasma jet to the milling process. This process, known as
PAM (Plasma Assisted Milling) has been applied to the machining of three very low
machinability materials: a Ni-base alloy (Inconel 718), a Co-base alloy (Haynes 25),
(both belonging to the group of the heat-resistant alloys) and the Ti-base alloy Ti6Al4V.

The study focuses on two major topics. Firstly, the efficiency of the milling operation in
terms of cutting speed, feed, axial and radial depths of cut and the plasma operating
parameters has been addressed. Secondly, a study on the alterations of the metallurgical
structure and the properties of materials after the PAM has also been performed.

The process conditions for the above-mentioned Ni-base and Co-base alloys are
detailed. The study under these conditions has shown an excellent performance of the
whisker reinforced ceramic tools . In fact, cutting speeds as high as 970 m/min and large
radial and axial depths of cuts are possible, driving to a cost–effective machining
process. The absence of changes in the metallurgical structure of the alloys after
applying the PAM process is also addressed. Therefore, it can be stated that this is a
feasible approach to the optimization of the machining process of heat-resistant alloys.
López de Lacalle et al. 2

Finally, the results obtained in the PAM of Ti6Al4V are detailed. In this
experimentation, certain level of degradation was observed in the microstructure of the
alloy when undergoing the PAM process, therefore the use of this technique is not
recommended for this material.

NOMENCLATURE

ae: radial depth of cut

ap: axial depth of cut
Vc: cutting speed
fz: feed per tooth
fr: feed per revolution
F: machine linear feed, similar to the translational velocity of the plasma
torch
Fv: thrust force
Ft: tangential force
Fx, Fy: components of the cutting force on the dynamometer
S: rotary speed of the spindle
D: tool diameter
I: plasma intensity
Vb: mean flank wear
Vbmax: maximum flank wear
z: number of teeth of the milling tool
López de Lacalle et al. 3

1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of the assisted machining techniques is to improve the cutting process by
acting on the chip removal mechanism. Nowadays, there are two most expanded
techniques due to their feasibility and industrial expectations: Jet Assisted Machining
(JAM) and Thermal Enhanced Machining (TEM),which is addressed in this work.

The local application of heat to the cutting zone during the machining of aeronautical
alloys has been addressed in several publications[1,2,3,4,5]. In this technique,
commonly known as Thermal Enhanced Machining (TEM) the cutting process takes
place at temperatures ranging from 400º to 700ºC, and therefore the shear strength of
the material is significantly lower than the room temperature strength, resulting in
considerably lower cutting forces.

The technique is economically feasible only when the machinability of the material
being processed is limited and therefore the cutting parameters (depth of cut, feed per
tooth and cutting speed) are very low. This is the case of the heat resistant alloys, such
as the Ni-base alloy Inconel 718 (standard AMS 5596,UNS N07718, 52Ni-19Fe-18Cr-
5(Cb+Ta)-3Mo-0.9Ti-0.5Al) and the Co-base alloy Haynes 25 (standard AMS 5537,
L605 , UNS R30605, 51Co-20Cr-15W-10Ni-1.5Mn-0.10C-3Fe-0.4Si). These materials
maintain their mechanical properties as well as an excellent corrosion resistance even
over 600ºC. Because of these properties, above materials have been used in the
manufacturing of turbine components of both commercial and military airplane engines.

Laser [5,6,7] and plasma [2,3,4] can be used as energy sources for TEM techniques.
The laser technique is characterized by the high-energy concentration on a small spot,
less than 3 mm [7], but its cost is very high when compared to the machine tool on
which it will be used. In the case of the plasma, the cost of generator is much lower, but
the disadvantage is that the spot size is larger, 4 –5 mm, and the energy density on the
heated spot is smaller. However, a larger spot becomes an advantage in the case of the
milling process. Actually, if the whole chip section was to be heated using a small-size
spot, rotation of the torch at the same rotational speed of tool would be required, which
increases considerably the operational problems of the technology. This is not the case
when using a larger spot, which enables the heating of a spot just ahead of the endmill
López de Lacalle et al. 4

that involves all the radial depth of cut, being this cutting parameter up to 5 mm (see
Fig. 1).

In this research work, a plasma jet has been applied to the milling of Haynes 25, Inconel
718 and Ti6Al4V. Experimental testing has been used to measure and estimate the
cutting forces as a function of the plasma heating parameters: the intensity of the
electric arc and the speed of the torch on the work surface. Tool wear has also been
analyzed, as well as the influence of the heating process on the metallurgical structure
of the material.

1.1 Fundamentals of the technology of plasma assisted milling

Figure 1 shows a schematic drawing of the plasma-machine system layout. The nozzle
is focused at a distance of about 8-10 mm ahead of the milling tool in the direction of
the feed; this distance is high enough to prevent the tool body from being directly
affected by the plasma jet. The nozzle is placed at a height of 5-6 mm over the
workpiece, and thus the electric arc responsible for the ionization of the channel (known
as transferred arc) can be activated. The diameter of the heated spot is about 4-5 mm .
The spot must be located just exactly at the material to be removed, avoiding the zones
of the workpiece previously machined, as shown in Figure 1.

The temperature of the ionized gas (Argon) is well over 15,000 K. The velocity of the
plasma jet about 5 mm away from nozzle is 400 m/s; this is the speed at which the
plasma jet impacts on the material surface. The energy is transferred by convection [9]
to the workpiece and produces the heating of the work surface at temperatures ranging
from 400 to 1,000ºC. A precise model for the calculation of the heating of a surface
exposed at a plasma jet can be found in [4]. In this work, the authors state that the heat
flow distribution transferred to the workpiece is 4,700 W for an arc intensity of 225 A,
and 5,600 W for an intensity of 275 A. The heat distribution on the surface is supposed
to follow a Gauss distribution.

Experimental measurements carried out using an infrared camera (see section 3) show
that there are two zones clearly identified inside the heated spot by the plasma jet: a
circle of maximum heating, where the temperature is between 500ºC and 1,000ºC, and
the adjacent zone, where the heat is transferred by conduction to the workpiece.
López de Lacalle et al. 5

Experimental testing was carried out in a 3 axes conventional machining center,

equipped with a spindle with rotational speed below 10,000 rpm and maximum linear
feed of 5 m/min.

The geometry of the workpiece must be simple, with geometrical features that do not
involve sharp changes in the feed direction, since the plasma spot must be located ahead
of the tool during the whole process.

adjustable spindle
plasma device
gas

12 mm
Feed
electrode
endmill
nozzle
⊕
5-6 mm

8 mm
near heated
maximum zone
heated zone
2-3 mm

future chip

Fig. 1: Main components of the plasma assisted milling system. Below, top view of the
plasma spot and the milling tool.

The ionized gas produces material surface heating by convection. The result is a
phenomenon known as thermal softening, which is related to the reduction of the cutting
forces.
López de Lacalle et al. 6

1.2 Recommended materials for PAM

Plasma assisted milling is recommended for the machining of low-machinability alloys,

and especially those whose mechanical properties decrease only over a certain
temperature. In these materials a high mechanical strength is related to a high shear
strength, and therefore machining is difficult. The Ni-base and Co-base alloys are
considered to be amongst the materials with lowest machinability [10]. This low
machinability depends mainly on the following factors:

• The cutting forces and the temperature at the cutting zone are extremely high.
This is due to the heat generated by the high deformation energy, as well as to the
low thermal conductivity of these materials.

• Ductility: the machining of ductile alloys requires very sharp cutting edges
(with a positive rake angle), for the operation to be a cutting process rather than a
plowing action. However, these materials must be machined with strong tools with
low rake angles because of their high specific cutting energy. The high ductility is
responsible of the some frequent chip type named “chipfoot”, when the tool exits
from the workpiece; at this point the material is stretched rather than cut. This
produces an uncontrolled chipping of the tool edge. Figure 2 shows an Inconel
chipfoot, and the burrs on the edges of a Haynes 25 workpiece that also related with
material ductility.

• Strain hardening: this phenomenon is caused by the cold working of the material
during the plastic deformation inherent to the cutting process. It is closely related to
the metallurgical structure of materials, in our case related to the austenitic matrix of
Inconel 718 alloy and the γ phase of Haynes 25. In order to reduce it, very small
feed, high cutting speed and worn tools must be avoided. Cold working of the
machined surfaces (related to the increase in hardness) makes future operations more
difficult, causing premature notch wear of the tool at the point of the edge
intersecting the work surface (as shown later on in figure 15).
López de Lacalle et al. 7

Fig. 2: a) Chip foot produced when machining with a worn tool. b) Burrs in Haynes 25 when
machining with a worn tool.

The most spread used tools are sintered tungsten carbide ones (grade K5-K10) coated
with TiAlN or TiCN [10], using very moderate cutting conditions. An alternative
solution is the use of more expensive tools such as PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron
Nitride) as well as whiskers reinforced ceramics (Al2O3+CSiw).

Plasma assisted machining could be applied to Ti-base alloys (such as the Ti6Al4V
alloy [6], very popular in the aerospace industry). This material exhibits a very low
machinability. Here, machining problems arise from the high temperatures in the
tool/chip contact area due to the low thermal conductivity of the alloy. These alloys also
present high chemical reactivity at the temperatures (>500º) induced in the tool/chip
interface during the cutting process [11] with almost all tool materials. These facts drive
to a quick tool wear. However, as addressed later in this work (see section 5), the low
thermal conductivity and the unacceptable metallurgical transformations undergone by
the material during the plasma heating are issues for discarding the application of this
technique. Other techniques such as Jet Assisted Machining (JAM) [17] have given
excellent results when machining Ti6Al4V.

Tables 1, 2 and 3 collect the properties of the three materials studied in this work as a
function of the temperature. Inconel 718 combines corrosion resistance and high
strength with outstanding weldability including resistance to postweld cracking. This
alloy has excellent creep-rupture strength at temperatures up to 700°C. Haynes 25 has
excellent high-temperature strength with good resistance to oxidizing environments up
to 980°C for prolonged exposures and excellent resistance to metal galling; it is very
sensitive to cold working (see Table 2). The alloy Ti6Al4V is an alfa-beta alloy used in
the cold parts of turbines.
López de Lacalle et al. 8

Specific Density Thermal Ultimate Yield strength Dynamic Melting

Temp., ºC
heat (g/cc) conductivity strength at 0.2% offset modulus
(J/g K) (W/m K) Mpa MPa elasticity
Gpa
Room 0.439 8.196 11.4 1359 1175 200 1260-
1335
540 0.512 7.979 19 1130 995 173
650 0.576 7.938 20 1155 1000 167
760 22 855 760 153
870 25.2 305 420 134
980 27.1 145 90 117

Table 1. Properties of Inconel 718, precipitation hardened (from Haynes

International Inc.).

Specific Density Thermal Ultimate Yield strength Dynamic Melting

Temp., ºC
heat (g/cc) conductivity strength at 0.2% offset modulus
(J/g K) (W/m K) Mpa MPa elasticity
Gpa
Room 0.420 9.13 9.4 1070 [10%] 725 [10%] 225 1320-
1145 [15%] 855 [15%] 1410
1260 [20%] 970[20%]
540 19 785 [10%] 540 [10%] 210
925 [15%] 740 [15%]
1075 [20%] 915 [20%]
650 20.7 795 [10%] 550 [10%] 203
890 [15%] 765 [15%]
945 [20%] 825[20%]
760 640 [10%] 460 [10%] 198
715 [15%] 595 [15%]
740 [20%] 660 [20%]
870 425 [10%] 325 [10%] 195
485 [15%] 360 [15%]

Table 2. Properties of Haynes 25, solution annealed sheet, in brackets with x% cold
working (from Haynes International Inc.).
López de Lacalle et al. 9

Specific Density Thermal Ultimate Yield Dynamic Melting

Temp., ºC
heat (g/cc) conductivity strength Mpa strength at modulus
(J/g K) (W/m K) 0.2% offset elasticity
MPa Gpa
Room 0.52 4.42 6.7 950 [annealed] 880 110 1604-1660
1172 [aged]
500 0.67 12.5 720 670 94.7
600 0.76 14.1 600 500 74.2
800 0.91 62.8

Table 3. Properties of Ti6Al4V (from ASM Titanium alloys [14]).

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Testing has been carried out in a three axis conventional machining center, with a
spindle of 10.5 Kw and a maximum rotational speed of 6,000 rpm (see Fig.4). The NC
unit controls the machining toolpaths and the basic operation of the plasma power
generator, using specially programmed miscellaneous functions (M type). Thus, the
pilot and the transferred arcs (see Fig. 4) can be switched on/off.

The plasma power equipment is a commercial welding one, providing transferred arcs
(direct current) at a maximum intensity of 250 A. The plasma torch is a copper nozzle
of 2 mm diameter. Tungsten electrodes (cathodes) with 30º taper angle are used. The
plasma gas is Argon with a flow of 0.5 l/min, while the shielding gas is a mixture of
Argon and 5% of Hydrogen, with an approximate flow of 11 l/min. The nozzle serves as
anode when used with non-conductive materials, while the arc is transferred to the
workpiece in the case of conductive pieces. A picture of the plasma torch can be found
in Figure 3. The nozzle is placed 5-6 mm over the workpiece. Previous tests at nozzle
heights between 4 and 7 mm proved that this variable seems to have little or no effect
on the work surface temperature (which was measured using IR and thermocouple
techniques).
López de Lacalle et al. 10

electrode
plasma gas
shielding
pilot gas
arc

water transferred
arc

workpiece

Figure 3: Plasma torch.

The heating of the workpiece depends primarily on two operating parameters: the
intensity of the transferred arc I and the translational velocity of torch over the work
surface; in milling, because of the location of the nozzle fixed with respect to the
milling tool, that velocity is equal to the machine-tool linear feed F. This is an important
difference with respect to other research works [2,3,4] focused on Plasma Assisted
Turning. In turning, see Table 4, the relative speed of torch over the workpiece surface
depends on the cutting speed Vc (much more than on F), since the nozzle is fixed on the
cutting tool and an entire band of the workpiece must be heated. Since Vc is higher than
F, much more arc intensity must be used in turning. Illustrative data, in turning an
intensity of 250 A and a cutting speed of 3 m/s (180 m/min) are used, whilst in our tests
values of the intensity ranging from 60 to 100 A and feeds from 600 to 800 mm/min
were used. Another difference is that since spot size is bigger than feed (per
revolution), a band of heated zone is formed during turning, affecting successive tool
passes. In milling the size of the heated spot, larger than the feed per tooth, involves
several teeth passes.
López de Lacalle et al. 11

Heating Process Tool/part Machine parameters

parameters parameters parameters (consequence of process
and tool parameters)
Plasma Assisted F, I fz, Vc, ap, ae D (tool), z F, S, ap, ae
Milling
Plasma Assisted Vc, I fr, Vc, ap D (piece) F, S, ap
Turning

Table 4: Heating and cutting parameters in Thermal Enhanced Milling and Turning.

In Plasma Assisted Milling different technical inputs must be taken into account to
adequately select the cutting parameters:

a) The process parameters fz and ae are related to the size of the heating spot. The
machine linear feed F is directly related to the heating of the work surface. The axial
depth of cut ap depends of the temperature gradient under the surface due to the
plasma heating.

b) The cutting conditions fz, Vc, ap and ae have a direct influence on the tool behavior
and process performance.There is a cross relationship between the machine
parameters (F, S, ap and ae) and the heating parameter F. In Eq.(1) the relation of
these parameter is shown:

f z 1000 Vc z
F= (1)
πD

c) The values for tool diameter D have been selected as a function of the plasma spot
size (3-4 mm). Thus, in the case of solid carbide tools, 12 mm diameter tools have
been used. In the case of insert tools, 50 mm diameter tools with round inserts of 12
mm diameter were selected.

Since F is related to the desired plasma heating, the only value that is still free to be
determined is z (the number of teeth of the milling tool), which can be obtained from
Eq. (1). An adequate selection of z allows the definition of a wide range of values for
the feed per tooth fz and the cutting speed Vc. In order to meet this requirement, tools
having from 3 (ceramic inserts) to 7 teeth (carbide tools) were used.

Workpiece materials (Haynes 25, Inconel 718 and Ti6Al4V) are supplied in the form of
plates of width from 30 to 50 mm, and they are rigidly bolt onto a Kistler 9255B
López de Lacalle et al. 12

dynamometer. Figure 4 shows the experimental equipment for plasma assisted milling,
together with a detail of a cutting operation.

g
c f
e

a
b
d

Fig. 4: Experimental equipment of PAM. (a) Inconel 718 or Haynes 25, (b) milling
tool, (c) plasma torch, (d) Kistler 9255B force measuring device, (e) plasma generator,
(f) 3 axes vertical machining center, (g) torch positioning system (2 axes)

All the tests have been carried out using different measuring systems, in order to collect
the following data:

• Cutting forces: workpieces are bolt onto a Kistler 9255B measuring device,
where Fx, Fy and Fz are obtained. The force signals were sampled at more than 10
KHz.
• In some of the workpieces, small diameter holes have been EDM’ed in order to
introduce K-type thermocouples (1,5 mm diameter) down to 1 mm below the
heated work surface.
• An infrared camera Nikon Laird-S270 has been used to measure the maximum
heating of the work surface just after being exposed to the plasma jet. The camera
has a range of –10 to 1,200ºC ( with two different lens), and accuracy of ±2%. The
scanning frequency is 2 images per second. Figure 5 shows a snap image taken by
the infrared camera during machining, together with a CCD camera equipped with
a luminosity filter. Determination of the target emissivity was done by placing atop
the workpiece surface a piece of thin black electrical paint (ε=0.95). After several
minutes the temperature of both the workpiece surface and the tape are similar, and
the emissivity of workpiece is calculated by an inverted procedure. This method for
emissivity determination is proposed by the camera manufacturer and also used in
Medaska et al. [12]. Its main advantage is that one can be sure that the calculated
López de Lacalle et al. 13

emissivity corresponds to both the same material and texture surface that is going to
be PAM’ed.

chips

nozzle

Fig. 5: Left, infrared image of the PAM process, nozzle drawn in. Right, the same
image taken using a CCD camera with a luminosity filter.

3. RESULTS IN Co-BASE ALLOYS (HAYNES 25)

Due to the fact that Haynes 25 (L 605) is the most difficult-to-cut material amongst the
selected ones, and at the present its machining procedures are far to be industrial
optimized, this was the first to be addressed in the experiments. The studied alloy is
solution treated with more than 15% of cold work.

3.1 Heating of the alloy

The first objective was the evaluation of the temperature in the material just after the
plasma heating. If we go deeper into the material below the work surface, the
temperature decreases rapidly (high gradient). In any case, the temperature of the
surface and the subsurface layers (that will be removed by the machining process) will
be different. The plasma jet must heat the materials as high as possible, but never melt
its surface, as it happened in Fig. 6. If this were the case, a welding bead would appear.
This drives to an unstable process since the milling tool may find unexpected re-
solidified material on its path, perhaps with a very different and harder metallurgical
structure. Molten material may also adhere to the tool. As it was explained in section 2,
this can be produced by a too high plasma arc intensity or/and small linear feed rate.
López de Lacalle et al. 14

Fig. 6: Welding bead produced by the plasma jet. This may happen when the feed is
too small when compared to the plasma intensity.

Figure 7 shows the temperature at a point located 1 mm below the work surface. The
peak value corresponds to the plasma jet impacting just on the workpiece surface. The
table included in Fig. 7 shows the maximum values of this temperature as a function of
tool linear feed and plasma intensity. It is appreciated that for the same intensity, the
maximum temperature decreases when feed is increased, whereas for a constant feed
rate the temperature seems to increase with the plasma intensity. In all the tests the
nozzle was located at 6 mm over the workpiece. Analysis of the temperature 1 mm deep
in previous tests revealed that, if nozzle height is kept between 4 and 7 mm, it has a
negligible effect on the maximum temperature. But values of 5-6 mm were fixed in all
tests for this parameter.

ºC
jet
PLASMA FEED Tº 1 mm
450.0 I (A) (mm/min)
110 850 424 termocouple 1 mm
90 650 429
350.0 90 850 345
90 1000 317
60 650 311
250.0
60 1000 240

150.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Time(s)

Fig. 7: Temperature at a point 1 mm below the work surface (Haynes 25), when
using 650 mm/min feed and 90A plasma intensity.
López de Lacalle et al. 15

700º
Feed

400º

100º 3 mm

Fig. 8: Temperature at the plasma spot after switching off the transferred arc (Haynes
25). Spot diameter is approximately 3 mm (60A and 650 mm/min).

Figure 8 shows the measurement of the temperature using an infrared camera and taking
the image vertically just after switching off the plasma transferred arc. It is not possible
to measure the temperature during the operation, since the luminosity and the
temperature of the gas would saturate the IR measurement range. The left zone is the
last heated just before switching the plasma off; the color of the 3 mm spot reveals a
maximum surface temperature of 700-750ºC. The right zone at a less temperature is
larger due to the heat conduction into the workpiece, and to a heating distortion on the
part border (with the camera lens for high temperatures part border is not shown).

When using 651 mm/min feed and 60 A, (that is, the test conditions used in the
experiments shown in section 3.2), the maximum temperature measured by the
thermocouple 1 mm deep below the work surface was 311ºC. Since the axial depth of
cut of the test was 1 mm, the removed material was at a temperature between 311 and
750ºC (see Figs. 7 and 8).

3.2 Cutting force reduction

The machining tests on Haynes 25 were carried out using a 12 mm diameter milling
tool. The tool material was sintered tungsten carbide (CW), micrograin grade (K10),
coated with a single layer of TiAlN (3 µm). The geometry of the tool was: helix angle,
30º, clearance angle, 10.6º, rake angle, 2.5º (see Fig. 9). The cutting parameters are also
López de Lacalle et al. 16

collected in Fig. 9. The value of the plasma arc intensity has been varied throughout the
tests, as shown in Table 5. The cutting speed recommended by METCUT [18] is 20
m/min for this material, therefore a productivity improvement of up to 3.5 times can
been achieved.

ap 1 mm Clearance band width 1mm

ae 2 mm
N 1860 rpm Rake angle 2,5º
fz 0.05 mm/th
z 7 Clearance angle 10,6º
F 651mm/min
Vc 70.12 m/min

D 12 mm
Helix angle 30º

Fig. 9:Tool and cutting conditions for Haynes 25.

The reduction of the cutting forces has been measured. Thus, the tangential component
Ft was calculated from the experimentally measured Fx and Fy (see Appendix 1), its
values being gathered in Table 5. Based on these data it can be concluded that the
reduction of the forces is enough high when the plasma intensity is over 30 A. From
room temperature to 500º the material strength decreases slowly, at this temperature the
slope of strength-temperature curve is more pronounced, as it can be seen in Table 2.

Between 30 and 50 A the reduction of the cutting forces is approximately constant. This
is due to the non-uniform distribution of temperatures into the workpiece and on
workpiece surface; some parts of the chip section do not reach high temperatures and
will still maintain its high mechanical features. But at 60A this doesn’t occur. At this
intensity, temperature 1 mm under surface is 311º (see Fig. 7) and all chip section is
between 311 and 750º.

Over 60 A weld bead appears. Therefore, for a constant feed of 650 mm/min the plasma
intensity must range from 30 to 60 A.

Using a tool with more teeth, and keeping constant the feed per tooth, the machine
linear feed can be increased and therefore higher plasma intensities could be used.
López de Lacalle et al. 17

Arc intensity (A) Reduction of Ft (%)

15 11.52
30 21.56
40 21.60
50 21.52
60 28.70
More than 60 (70) Weld bead

Table 5. Tangential cutting force reduction as a function of the plasma intensity (feed
650 mm/min). Over 60 A, weld bead appears on the work surface.

3.3 Tool wear

Flank wear has been measured during the cutting tests, as shown in Fig. 10. These tests
have been performed using a cutting speed of 70 m/min. When conventional milling,
tool wear after a cut length of 500 mm is 0.5 mm, some of the teeth showing chipping.
López de Lacalle et al. 18

Milling Plasma assisted milling

250 mm 500 mm 250 mm 500 mm

1st z

0.1mm

2nd z
chipping

3rd z

6th z
0.3 mm

Fig. 10: Flank wear in four teeth, with and without assisting plasma (the tool has seven
teeth). When no plasma is used, chipping appears.

Under the same conditions and using a plasma intensity of 60 A, tool wear is equal or
even below to 0.1 mm for the same 500 mm machined length. In this case chipping is
not observed.

However, the improvements in the tool life may not be high enough to justify the costs
of the PAM technique, under an industrial point of view. In the case of the following
material to be tested (Inconel 718), a tool material that could withstand very high
temperatures was directly selected. This requirement is met by whiskers reinforced
ceramics (Al2O3+Csiw).

3.4 Influence of the process on the structural integrity of the material

Haynes 25 is very affected by strain hardening due to the effect of cutting processes.
Successive machining passes produce strain hardening of the work surface. The
hardness increase is due to the large amount of plastic deformation and to a change in
López de Lacalle et al. 19

the crystallographic structure of the alloy produced by an allotropic transformation from

fcc to hcp.

Machined
surface

X200 X200 X500

Fig. 11: Strain hardening in Haynes 25 after PAM. a) Surface previous to machining.
b) Machined surface x200. c) Machined surface x500.

In our case, a solution annealed Haynes 25 alloy with 15% cold work and a very small
initial quantity of particles of WCo2 (Fig 11a) was analyzed. The initial hardness of the
matrix is 250-270 HV0.2 (22-25 HRC). Microhardness as a function of depth is shown in
Table 6 for a machined testpiece without heating. As shown in table 6, the hardness on
the machined surface reaches 58 HRC.

Depth (mm) Microhardness HV0.2

Machined surface 666 ap 1mm
(≈0.02) (58HRC) removed
0.05 665
0.17 557
0.35 453
Base 250
(22 HRC)

Table 6. Microhardness of the material measured from the work surface after having
removed the axial depth of cut ap.(without PAM).

After PAM, the surface hardness is 560 HV0.2 (53 HRC). The effect of heating on the
structure of the metal is very limited (see Fig. 11b and 11c), since no variations can be
identified in the austenitic phases of this alloy. The plasma heating does not affect
negatively and it can even be concluded that its effect is to delay the above-mentioned
allotropic transformation, favoring thus the stability of the structure, as it is explained in
[15]. Therefore, it can be concluded that the plasma heating has a beneficial effect on
the stability of the Co-base alloy. This is in accordance with the existing data referring
López de Lacalle et al. 20

to the good weldability of this alloy, and the stability of the material below 900ºC in
service conditions.

4. RESULTS IN Ni-BASE ALLOYS (INCONEL 718)

The results in Haynes 25 show that PAM greatly reduces the cutting forces. However,
this phenomenon is not directly related to a same increase in tool life, which is one of
the industrial targets to be achieved. An increase in the tool life is observed but not at
the same rate as cutting forces are reduced. This is due to the fact that there is a
continuous heat flow from the workpiece towards the tool through the tool teeth, even
though milling is a non-continuous operation. As consequence, the temperature of the
carbide tool is gradually increasing, and after few seconds the thermal barrier effect
provided by the monolayer TiAlN coating is not strong enough to prevent tool from
degradation.

Therefore, PAM tests on Inconel 718 were carried out using CC670 (by Sandvik,
similar to WG300 by Greenleaf) ceramic inserts. These Al2O3 ceramics, reinforced
with CSi whiskers, are stable up to approximately 2000ºC. The recommended cutting
conditions in conventional milling are very high in order to reach adiabatic cutting
conditions, that is, heat induced by deformation and friction goes out with the removed
chips. In this way, thermal fatigue of ceramic inserts, which is the main wear
mechanism of this cutting tool, due to the heating/cooling cycles (produced by the
milling interrupted cutting) can be reduced. Thus, a higher productivity should be
obtained from the application of the external heating provided by PAM.

A 50 mm diameter tool with 3 ceramic round inserts of 12 mm diameter was used. The
inserts have no inherent rake and clearance angles. The axial and radial effective rake
angles of the inserts, bolt on the toolholder, are –12º and –23º respectively (see Fig. 12).
The insert manufacturer recommends the use of 3.175 mm axial depth of cut (i.e., ¼ of
the diameter). The radial depth of cut, ae 4mm, is determined by the plasma spot size
(≈4mm). The actual cutting speed was 942.5 m/min, which corresponds to the
maximum spindle rotational speed (6,000 rpm). The feed per tooth was that
recommended by the manufacturer, fz 0.054 mm/tooth, which means a linear feed of
972 mm/min, applying Eq. 1. All these values have been kept constant during all the
López de Lacalle et al. 21

tests, except the plasma intensity which has been varied in order to obtain different
degrees of heating. Afterwards, the tool wear induced by each value of the plasma
intensity has been measured.

ap 3.175 mm 12º 23º

ae 4 mm
N 6000 rpm
fz 0.054 mm/th
z 3
F 972 mm/min
Vc 942.5 m/min

D 50mm
Insert ∅ 12mm

Fig. 12: Tool and cutting conditions for Inconel 718.

Figure 13 shows that when the heating increases, the flank wear decreases. However, it
is not possible to increase the plasma intensity over 110 A, since higher values are
related to the formation of a weld bead. Therefore, the plasma intensity parameter was
set at 110 A in order to minimize the tool wear and avoid work surface melting.
López de Lacalle et al. 22

Vb (mm)
0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
0 30 60 90 110
plasma intensity (A)

Fig. 13: Tool wear as a function of the plasma intensity (machined length: 273 mm). In
figure, photo of tool wear. Upside, image of the process.

4.1 Heating of the alloy

The temperature increase of Inconel 718 when working at F 972 mm/min and I 110 A
has been measured. Figure 14 shows the infrared image of two states. In the first state
(Fig. 14a), the heating of the workpiece surface previous to machining is shown, just
half a second after switching the plasma off, when the maximum temperature reaches
810ºC, and therefore it implies that, half a second before, the temperature was in the
range between 850 and 900ºC. Figure 14b shows the heating of the material just after
undergoing the PAM process, with an axial depth of cut of 3.175 mm. In this case the
maximum temperature is about 400ºC. Therefore, the temperature of the removed layer
is between 400º and 900º, high enough to achieve the reduction of the cutting forces.
For the aim of this work, a higher accuracy in the temperature estimation is not
required. A more detailed analysis could be developed following the work by Leshock
et al [4].
 López de Lacalle et al. 23

420º
810º

410º
210º

100º

Fig. 14: Infrared images of the material a) Work surface after applying plasma at 110A
and F 972 mm/min, without machining. b) Work surface just after PAM.

4.2 Tool wear

Figure 15 shows the different tool wear patterns that occur in conventional milling and
in PAM processing. In conventional milling a larger notch wear (in the zone of the
insert in contact with the workpiece surface) than flank wear (in the lower part of the
insert) appears. At 110A both mechanisms exhibit a great reduction and deep notching
nearly disappears.

tool axe without plasma with plasma 110A

round insert

P ap

flank wear notch wear flank wear notch wear

Vbmax Vb Vbmax Vbmax Vb Vbmax

Flank notch Flank notch

Fig. 15: Comparison of wear patterns for the same cutting conditions with and without
plasma assistance.
López de Lacalle et al. 24

Figure 16 shows insert tool wear as a function of the machined length (l), and therefore
as a function of time (l/F) and the chip volume (l*ap*ae). Thus, the time required to
reach the same value of tool wear can be analyzed. In conventional milling, a flank wear
Vb 0.4 is observed after 16.85 seconds, whereas if the material is heated with a plasma
jet at 110 A, the same wear is reached after 33.7 seconds (twice the previous value). The
same effect is observed for a wear of 0.67 mm, the tool life being 55 seconds in
conventional milling and more than 100 seconds in PAM.

Vb
0.9
without plasma Possible evolution
0.8
with plasma A
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3 ap 3.175 mm
ae 4 mm
0.2
N 6000 rpm
0.1 F 972 mm/min

0
0.00 273 546 819 1092 1365 1638 mm (length)
s (time)
0.00 3.47 6.93 10.40 13.87 17.34 20.80 cm3 (volume)

Fig. 16: Flank wear as a function of machined length (and therefore machining time,
l/F, and chip volume, l*ap*ae). Dashed lines shows tool life with and without PAM for
the same value of flank wear.

In tests performed on a Kistler dynamometer with a plasma intensity of 110A, a

reduction of the cutting forces of up to 45% when compared with conventional milling
has been identified.

These results address the industrial interest of PAM since tool life increases; but still,
material integrity has to be analyzed.
López de Lacalle et al. 25

4.3 Influence of the plasma assisting process on the material integrity

Inconel 718 has been analyzed in three different states: as supplied, after conventional
machining, and finally after PAM. Figure 17 shows these cases. None of them present
carbide precipitation or the existence of new metallurgical phases.

After machining, the work surface exhibits important strain hardening (see Fig. 17b),
which is inherent in materials with austenitic structure. This effect is even more obvious
when round inserts with negative axial rake angle are used, since cutting is very
aggressive. However, in the case of conventional milling, (Fig. 17b), the affected zone
is 180 µm deep, with 435 Hv0.2 (44 HRC) measured at 22 µm below the surface, and
405 Hv0.2 (41,3 HRC) at 82 µm; the hardness of the base material is 235 Hv0.2 (20,5
HRC). In the case of PAM, (Fig. 17c) the affected zone is very irregular, ranging from
80 to 100 µm deep, the microhardness being between 340 and 399 Hv0.2 (34,5 to 40,1
HRC) at 24 µm. Table 7 shows the microhardness measurements.

Depth (mm) under Conventional. PAM.

machined surface Microhardness Microhardness ap 3 mm
HV0.2 HV0.2 removed
Machined surface 435 399.9
(≈0.022 ) (44 HRC) (40.1 HRC)
0.06 389.9
(39.3 HRC)
0.08 405 296
(41.3 HRC) (28.9 HRC)
0.35 mm under 235 235
surface (20.5 HRC) (20.5 HRC)

Table 7. Microhardness of PAM’ed workpieces, measured from the surface, after

having removed the depth of cut ap.

These results are coherent with the thermal softening suffered by Inconel after applying
plasma heating. Since the strength of the material to be machined is smaller, the layer
affected by strain hardening is smaller both in depth and value. However, the strain
hardening is still present even after applying PAM. This is due to the plowing effect
associated to the little chip thickness in the low axial point of the inserts (point P in Fig.
15), which also results in a high localized flank wear, and to the negative axial and
radial rake angles of the cutting ceramic inserts.
López de Lacalle et al. 26

The PAM processing of Inconel 718 does not affect the material integrity and therefore
this process can be recommended for industrial production of aircraft engine
components.

Fig. 17: Strain hardening of Inconel 718. a) Surface previous to machining (without
strain hardening). b) Surface after conventional milling. c) Surface after PAM.

5. RESULTS IN TITANIUM ALLOYS (Ti6Al4V)

The good results of PAM in the two above low-machinability alloys, have led us to
analyze its possible application in the case of titanium alloys, also a difficult-to-cut
material used in aircraft engines, and specifically to the machining of Ti6Al4V
(titanium alloy of type α+β). This technology was addressed in 1995 by the project
entitled Laser Assisted Machining Processes (Brite Euram III,1994-05-31)[13] in
Europe. The possibilities of Thermal Assisted Machining processes for titanium alloys
was also described by Von Turkovich [19], but in these works this technique is not
recommended for titanium alloys. However in Lesourd et al (1994) Laser Assisted
Machining of Ti6Al4V was also appointed as a possibility. Positive results have also
been mentioned in some works from the Fraunhofer Institute of Boston [20]. Therefore,
and since contradictory data are available on this subject, it has been considered
necessary undergoing further experimentation regarding the alloy Ti6Al4V.

Hard metal tools have been used (micrograin grade K10), with a monolayer TiAlN
coating (3µm), similar to those used in the case of Haynes 25. The cutting conditions
are: ap 1 mm, ae 2 mm, N 1,860 rpm, fz 0.05 mm, F 651mm/min, Vc 70.1 m/min. The
plasma nozzle was set at 6 mm over the material surface in all the tests.
López de Lacalle et al. 27

The temperature 1 mm below the work surface has been analyzed. Thus, when using a
plasma intensity of 30 A the temperature is 171ºC, whereas in the case of 60 A the
temperature is 247ºC. These values are lower than those measured in the case of Haynes
25 (see Fig. 7) or Inconel 718. This is due to the low thermal conductivity of titanium,
nearly 35% less than the heat-resistant alloys.

With PAM, the three components of the cutting force (Fx, Fy, Fz) are reduced. Ft has
been measured at different plasma intensities; these results have been compared with
those obtained in conventional milling. At 25 A the force reduction is 18%, while at 60
A the reduction is 31%. However the maximum flank wear increases when a 30A
plasma jet is applied, up to 0.45 mm after having cut a length of 200mm (without
plasma is 0.2 mm for the same cut length). The reason is again the low thermal
conductivity of titanium, which causes a high heat concentration on the surface. This is
why the tool section in contact with the surface suffers a more rapid degradation.

5.1. Influence of the plasma assisting process on the material integrity

The metallurgical structures of Ti6Al4V after heating, and after PAM (heating and
machining) have been analyzed. The main conclusion is that material melting in the
heated zone always happens, even at low plasma intensity or high linear feed, due again
to the very low thermal conductivity of titanium.

Figure 18a shows the material under 60 A, without any further machining. In the
interface between solid and melted material (see Fig. 18b) a metallurgical structure type
widmanstatten (also so-called basketweaves) can be observed. This acicular (as needles)
structure is characterized by a higher hardness, 420 HV0.2 instead of 320 HV0.2 of the
base material. But the most remarkable effect is that material becomes brittle and its
fatigue behavior (in service operation) is difficult to predict. So, this structure must be
avoided. The size of the affected zone is not easy to estimate, it cannot be assured that
all the affected material can be removed in the cutting operation, as shown in Fig.18c.
 López de Lacalle et al. 28

1.35
mm

5.5 mm X 20 X 500 X 16

Fig. 18: a) Heated zone (without machining) x20. b) Widmanstatten microstructure

(basketweaves) of the interface x500. c) Affected zone after PAM showing that there is
still widmanstatten microstructure.

Melting of the material has been detected in all the tests (arc intensities from 25 to 60
A), together with a small zone of transition between the heated and the not-heated
zones. After solidification, a widmanstatten microstructure appears that advices against
the application of PAM to titanium alloys. Thus, no further studies have been carried
out.

Laser Assisted Machining techniques may control the removal of the entire affected
layer in a more efficient and precise way than PAM does, due to the smaller spot of
laser. This can explain the good results of other above-mentioned references.

6. CONCLUSIONS

Throughout this report, a study on the Plasma Assisted Milling of three difficult-to-
machine materials has been presented. When using PAM in Haynes 25, tool wear is
reduced if compared to conventional milling, in which edge chipping is common. In the
new process, TiAlN coated hard metal tools at high cutting speed (more than 70 m/min)
have been used; the cutting forces are reduced up to 25%. Since the usually
recommended values are 20 m/min, a productivity increase of 350% has been achieved.
Heating has a positive effect on the integrity of Haynes 25, since the allotropic
transformation (from fcc to hcp) associated to strain hardening is delayed.
López de Lacalle et al. 29

Based on the results, it has been identified that the use of PAM for Inconel 718 using
whisker reinforced ceramic tools (Al2O3 +CSiw) leads to an increase in the tool life of
approximately 200%. The reason is that notch wear, which is the most important wear
mechanism in conventional milling, nearly disappears. Flank wear is reduced but it can
not be entirely eliminated from the axial lower point of the inserts. The reduction in the
cutting forces is about 40%. The cutting speed is close to 970 m/min, and the material
removal rate is 12.3 cm3/min.Therefore, the process should be recommended for
roughing operations, given its high productivity.

For Ti6Al4V, PAM leads to localized melting of the material, and to the formation of a
new metallurgical structure with lower mechanical properties, especially in service. So
it is not recommended.

Some general consideration must be addressed. The problem of the plasma jet
orientation just ahead of the cutting tool, and the dimensional variation induced by the
localized material heating are the reasons for which this technique should be
recommended only in roughing operations. Precision finishing cannot be obtained due
to thermally induced dimensional variations. Moreover, the use of ceramic tools in
milling is restricted to roughing operations, since the mechanical and thermal stability
of cutting is directly related to the engagement conditions of the tool in the material,
which require a sufficient chip thickness. Thus, in roughing the combination of heating
and ceramic tools reaches excellent results.

If the process is to be industrialized, other aspects should be considered in more detail,

namely the security devices with which the machine should be fitted, which should
allow the operator to watch the process without any risks, and the design of a controlled
orbital device in order to make the torch rotate around the tool, controlled from the NC.
Solutions for these aspects can be easily designed.
López de Lacalle et al. 30

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks must be given to Mr. E. Sasia and Mr. D. Grijalba for their help in the work.
Thanks are addressed to Mr. J. Albóniga and Mr. A. Gutiérrez from ITP for their advice,
as well as to Prof. J.J. González and Prof. J.L. Arana, from the Department of
Metallurgical Engineering of the UPV/EHU. Finally, we would like to thank the
Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology for the financial support to this project,
MICYT DPI2002-04167-C02-02.

7. REFERENCES

[1]. Weinert, K., (1994), Relation between Process Energy and Tool Wear when
Turning Hardfacing Alloys, Annals of the CIRP, vol. 43, n. 1.
[2]. Novak, J.W., Shin, Y.C. & Incropera, F.P., (1997) Assessment of Plasma
Enhanced Machining for Improved machinability of Inconel 718, Journal of
Manufacturing Science and Engineering, vol. 119, pp. 125-129
[3]. Kitagawa,T. & K. Maekawa, K. (1990) Plasma Hot Machining for New
Engineering Materials, Wear, vol. 139, pp. 251-267.
[4]. Leshock,C.E., Kim, J.N., Shin,Y.C., (2001), Plasma enhanced machining of
Inconel 718: modelling of workpiece temperature with plasma heating and
experimental results, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture,
vol. 41, pp.877-897.
[5]. Kónig, W., Cronjäger, L., Spur, G., Tónshoff, M. Vigneau & Zdebelick, W.J. ,
(1990), Machining of New Materials, Annals of the CIRP, vol. 39/1, pp. 673-
681.
[6]. Lesourd, B., LeMaitre, F. & Thomas, T,(1994), Laser assisted hot machining
processes, Proceedings of LANE-94, vol 1, pp 389-404.
[7]. Rozzi, J.C., Pfefferkorn, F.E., Incropera, F.P. and Shin, Y.C., (2000),
Experimental Evaluation of the Laser Assisted Machining of Silicon Nitride
Ceramics, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol. 122, pp.
666-670.
[8]. Thirdwave Advantedge V4.0, (2000), Third wave system, Available from:
http://www.thirdwavesys.com.
López de Lacalle et al. 31

[9]. Pfender,E., Chen,W.L.T., Spores, R., (1990), A new look at the thermal and gas
dynamic characteristics of a plasma jet, Thermal spray research and applications,
Proc. of the third National Thermal Spray Conference, long Beach, CA, 1990,
pp. 1-10
[10]. Arunachalam,R., Mannan, M.A., (2000), Machinability of nickel–based high
temperature alloys, Machining Science and Technology, vol. 4, n.1, pp. 127-169
[11]. Yang, X., Liu, C.R., (1999), Machining titanium and its alloys, Machining
Science and Technology, vol. 3, n.1, pp. 107-139
[12]. Medaska, M.K., Nowag,L., Liang,S.Y., (1999), Simultaneous measurement of
the thermal and tribological effects of cutting fluid, Machining Science and
Technology, vol. 3, n. 2, pp. 221-238
[13]. Project Brite Euram II, European Union-Second Framework Programme, Laser
Assisted Machining Processes (project BREU0155), available information in the
search for projects service of the Europe Union R+D web, available from
http://www.cordis.lu
[14]. Boyer, R., Welsch, G., Collings, E.W. (Eds.), (1994), Materials Properties
Handbook: Titanium Alloys, ASM International
[15]. ASM Handbook, (1990), vol. 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels and High
performance alloys, American Society of Materials.
[16]. López de Lacalle, L.N. ; J.Pérez, Llorente, J.I. ; Sánchez, J.A., (2000), Advanced
Cutting conditions for the milling of aeronautical alloys, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, vol. 100, n, , pp 1-11
[17]. López de Lacalle, L.N., A.Gutiérrez , Llorente, J.I. , Sánchez, J.A. , J.Albóniga,
(2000), Using high pressure coolant in the drilling and turning of low
machinability alloys, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology, vol. 16, nº 2, pp 85-91.
[18]. METCUT, (1980), Machining data handbook, Institute of Advanced
Manufacturing Sciences IAMS.
[19]. Von Turkovich, (1997), Machining Trends, XII Congreso de Ingeniería
Mecánica (XII Mechanical Engineering Symposium), Bilbao.
[20]. Laser assisted machining of titanium alloys, Fraunhofer Institute of Boston,
available from http://www.fhcmi.org/
López de Lacalle et al. 32

APPENDIX 1

In Fig. 19 Xm and Ym are the coordinate axes of the Kistler measurement device, where
the cutting forces (Fx and Fy) are measured. Xt and Yt are the tool coordinate axes,
where the tangential (Ft) and thrust force (Fv) components must be calculated. A
procedure to get the Ft and Fv cutting force components from the measured Fx and Fy
must be carried out.

In figure 18, where ϕ is the tool position angle,

 Ft  cos ϕ - sin ϕ   Fx  XT
 =  
 Fv   sin ϕ cos ϕ   Fy 
ϕ

Ft
Fx
Xm

Fy
Fν

YT

Ym

Fig. 19: Calculation of Ft and Fv from Fx and Fy.

López de Lacalle et al. 33

FOOTNOTES

Fig. 1: Main components of the plasma assisted milling system. Below, top view of the
plasma spot and the milling tool.

Fig. 2: a) Chip foot produced when machining with a worn tool. b) Burrs in Haynes 25
when machining with a worn tool.

Figure 3: Plasma torch.

Fig. 4: Experimental equipment of PAM. (a) Inconel 718 or Haynes 25, (b) milling
tool, (c) plasma torch, (d) Kistler 9255B force measuring device, (e) plasma generator,
(f) 3 axes vertical machining center, (g) torch positioning system (2 axes)

Fig. 5: Left, infrared image of the PAM process, nozzle drawn in. Right, the same
image taken using a CCD camera with a luminosity filter.

Fig. 6: Welding bead produced by the plasma jet. This may happen when the feed is too
small when compared to the plasma intensity.

Fig. 7: Temperature at a point 1 mm below the work surface (Haynes 25), when using
650 mm/min feed and 90 A plasma intensity.

Fig. 8: Temperature at the plasma spot after switching off the arc (Haynes 25). Spot
diameter is approximately 3 mm (60A and 650 mm/min).

Fig. 9: Tool and cutting conditions for Haynes 25.

Fig. 10: Flank wear in four teeth, with and without assisting plasma (the tool has seven
teeth). When no plasma is used, chipping appears.

Fig. 11: Strain hardening in Haynes 25 after PAM. a) Surface previous to machining.
b) Machined surface x200. c) Machined surface x 500.

Fig. 12: : Tool and cutting conditions for Inconel 718.

Fig. 13: Tool wear as a function of the plasma intensity (machined length: 273 mm). In
figure, photo of tool wear. Upside, image of the process.

Fig 14: Infrared images of the material a) Work surface after applying plasma at 110A
and F 972 mm/min. b) Work surface after PAM.

Fig. 15: Comparison of wear patterns for the same cutting conditions with and without
plasma assistance.

Fig. 16: Flank wear as a function of machined length (and therefore machining time,
l/F , and chip volume, l*ap*ae). Dashed lines shows tool life with and without PAM for
the same value of flank wear.

Fig. 17: Strain hardening of Inconel 718. a) Surface previous to machining (without
strain hardening). b) Surface after conventional milling. c) Surface after PAM.
 López de Lacalle et al. 34

Fig. 18: a) Heated zone (without machining) x20. b) Widmanstatten microstructure

(basketweaves) of the interface x500. c) Affected zone after PAM showing that there is
still widmanstatten microstructure.

Fig. 19: Calculation of Ft and Fv from Fx and Fy.

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