THE POWER SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW Electric energy is the most popular form of energy, because it can be transported easily at high efficiency and reasonable cost. The study of electric systems is concemed with generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization of electric power (load). The generation of electric power involves the conversion of energy from a non-electrical form (such as thermal, hydraulic, or solar energy) to electric energy. The purpose of the transmission network is to transfer electric energy fiom generating units to distribution system to supply the loads, The distribution system is that part which connects the distribution substation to customers. Power systems are probably the largest and most complex systems in the world. History of Electric Power Systems The first complete electric power system (comprising a generator, cable, fuse, meter loads) was built by Thomas Edison and began operation in September 1882. This was a DC system consisting of a steam-engine-driven DC generator supplying power to 59 customers within an area roughly 1.5 km in radius. The load, which consisted entirely of incandescent lamps, was supplied at 110 V through an underground cable system. In the same year, the first water-wheel driven generator was installed in Appleton, Wisconsin. The introduction of the practical DC motor by Frank J. Sprague, as well as the growth of incandescent lighting promoted the ‘expansion of Edison’s DC systems. Within a few years many companies were established. This was the beginning of what developed into one of the largest industries in the world. However, due to excessive power loss, RF at low voltage, Edison’s companies could deliver energy only a short distance from their stations. With the invention of the transformer by William Stanley in 1885-1886, the ability to transmit power at high voltage with corresponding lower current and lower line-voltage drops made AC more attractive than DC. The first single-phase AC line in the United States operated in 1889 in Oregon, between Oregon City and Portland- 21 km at 4 kV. The growth of AC systems was further encouraged in 1888 when Nikola Tesla presented a paper at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers describing two-phase induction and synchronous motors, which made evident the advantages of polyphase versus single-phase systems. The first three-phase AC transmission line became operational in 1891 in Germany, transmitting power over 179 km at 12 kV. The first three-phase AC transmission line in the United States (California) became operational in 1893, transmitting power over 12 km at 2.3 KV. The three-phase induction motor conceived by Tesla became the workhorse of the industry. Aficr a few years, many electric companies were developed in Europe and America, and individual companies were operating at different frequencies anywhere from 25 Hz to 133 Hz. But as the need of interconnection and parallel operation became evident, a standard frequency of 60 Hz was adopted by some countries such as USA, Canada, Brazil, etc. European countries“including the format Soviet republics, South America (excluding Brazil) India, China, almost all Afvican countries, etc. selected the 50 Hz system. Japan has two frequencies 60 Hz in the ‘western part and 50 Hz eastern part of the country. ‘Transmission voltages have since risen steadily. These very high voltages are essential for the efficient transmission of electric power. This is because, for a given power (at specified power factor), as the voltage is transformed up, the current is transformed down by the same factor. Lower line currents are associated with lower resistive losses (FR) in the line. High voltages also have the advantage of improving stability. The highest extra high voltage (EHV) in commercial use is 765 KV. This was first put into operation in the United States in 1969. Ultra High Voltage up to 1000 kV are already been used in Japan and Russia. Voltage up t01100kV, 1500kV, and 2250 KV are under research and development. High-voltage direet-current (HVDC) High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has advantages over AC transmission in some special situations, For instance, to transmit power over very long distances (say 800 km) it may be more economical to convert the EHV AC to EHV DC, transmit the power over two fines, and invert it back to AC at the other end. Studies have shown that HVDC transmission lines are economical for distances longer than 500 km for overhead lines and 50 km for underground, The cost of HVDC transmission is less than that of an AC line with the same capacity. The additional cost of converters is offset when the line is Tong enough. DC lines do not have reactance and are capable of transferring more power for the same capacity than AC lines. Another advantage of DC lines is that they can eliminate stability problems inherent in the AC links by acting as asynchronous link between the two rigid systems. The main disadvantage of the DC line is that it produces harmonics which require filtering, In addition, a large amount of reactive power compensation is required at both ends of the line. ‘The first modern high-voltage DC (HVDC) transmission line was put into operation in Sweden in 1954; it operated at #100 kV for a distance of about 100 km. The first HVDC fine in the united state was +400-KV, 1360 km pacific Intertie line installed between Oregon and California in 1970. The first 533 KV HVDC in South Africa interconnecting Eskom (South Africa) and EDM (Mozambique) was put in operation in 1975. As of 2005, a total of 100 HVDC lines up to 533 kV had been installed worldwide. Structure of Power Systems ‘The electrical power system is probably the largest and most complex systems in the world. Broadly speaking, a power system can be subdivided into four parts (components): * Generation (supply side) © Transmission and sub-transmission © DistributionLoad (demand side) ‘The connecting parts are: transmission and distribution power substations A properly design power system should meet the following fundamental requirements: - Maintain the continuous supply of electric energy to all users. Unlike other types of energy, electricity cannot be conveniently stored in large quantities. Therefore “adequate spinning reserve” of active and reactive power should be maintained and appropriately controlled at all times. - Enstire acceptable level of “quality of supply” (constancy of frequency and voltage, and level of reliability) ~ Operate as economical as possible with minimum ecological impact ‘To achieve the above requirements, several controls involving a complex array of devices are used. Some controllers operate on a centralized (global) basis such AGC other such speed-governor and excitations control operate on decentralized (local) basis, The function of excitation control is to regulate generator voltage and reactive power output. The speed-governor control is to control the generator frequency so that a balance between generation and load is maintained. The transmission controls include power and voltage control devices, such as static var compensator, switched capacitors and reactors, synchronous condenser, tap-changing transformers and HVDC transmission controls, To improve the reliability and the economy, most transmission systems are interconnected. An interconnected system has many advantages. Some of these are: © Utilities can provide mutual emergency assistance * Fewer generators are required as a reserve for peak load and “spinning reserve” © Take advantage of the most economical resources of power (i.., utilities whose generation is primarily hydro can supply low-cost power during high-water periods, and can receive power during low-water periods). It should be mentioned that interconnected systems have also some disadvantages. For example, the fault currents that arise during short circuits of interconnected will increase leading to the use of circuit breakers with higher interrupting capability. Furthermore, there is a possibility that an initial disturbance may lead to regional blackouts, such as the ones that occurred in 1965 in the northeastem United States and in 2003 in northeastem USA and southern Canada Blackout can cause Joss in revenue and The 1965 blackout affected about 25 million people, while the 2003 blackout affected about 50 million people. It was the largest power outage in North American history. Environmental Aspects of Electrical Energy