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Finite Element Method: Lecture Notes: Introduction To The
Finite Element Method: Lecture Notes: Introduction To The
E-mail: Yijun.Liu@uc.edu
Web: http://urbana.mie.uc.edu/yliu
Copyright Notice
© 1997-2003 by Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati.
Table of Contents
Copyright Notice ....................................................................................................... ii
Preface .......................................................................................................................v
Preface
These online lecture notes (in the form of an e-book) are intended to serve as
an introduction to the finite element method (FEM) for undergraduate students or
other readers who have no previous experience with this computational method.
The notes cover the basic concepts in the FEM using the simplest mechanics
problems as examples, and lead to the discussions and applications of the 1-D bar
and beam, 2-D plane and 3-D solid elements in the analyses of structural stresses,
vibrations and dynamics. The proper usage of the FEM, as a popular numerical
tool in engineering, is emphasized throughout the notes.
This online document is based on the lecture notes developed by the author
since 1997 for the undergraduate course on the FEM in the mechanical engineering
department at the University of Cincinnati. Since this is an e-book, the author
suggests that the readers keep it that way and view it either online or offline on
his/her computer. The contents and styles of these notes will definitely change
from time to time, and therefore hard copies may become obsolete immediately
after they are printed. Readers are welcome to contact the author for any
suggestions on improving this e-book and to report any mistakes in the
presentations of the subjects or typographical errors. The ultimate goal of this e-
book on the FEM is to make it readily available for students, researchers and
engineers, worldwide, to help them learn subjects in the FEM and eventually solve
their own design and analysis problems using the FEM.
The author thanks his former undergraduate and graduate students for their
suggestions on the earlier versions of these lecture notes and for their contributions
to many of the examples used in the current version of the notes.
Yijun Liu
Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
December 2002
Chapter 1. Introduction
I. Basic Concepts
The finite element method (FEM), or finite element analysis
(FEA), is based on the idea of building a complicated object with
simple blocks, or, dividing a complicated object into small and
manageable pieces. Application of this simple idea can be found
everywhere in everyday life, as well as in engineering.
Examples:
“Element” Si
θi
R
1
Area of one triangle: S i = 2 R 2 sin θ i
2π
N
1
Area of the circle: S N = ∑ Si = 2 R N sin N → π R as N → ∞
2 2
i =1
• Mechanical/Aerospace/Civil/Automobile Engineering
• Structure analysis (static/dynamic, linear/nonlinear)
• Thermal/fluid flows
• Electromagnetics
• Geomechanics
• Biomechanics
• ...
Examples:
...
Example:
Computer Implementations
In matrix form:
Ax = b (2)
where
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
[ ]
A = aij =
21
Scalar Multiplication
λA = [λa ij ]
Matrix Multiplication
For two matrices A (of size l×m) and B (of size m×n), the
product of AB is defined by
m
C = AB with cij = ∑ aik bkj
k =1
Transpose of a Matrix
If A = [aij], then the transpose of A is
A T = a ji [ ]
Notice that ( AB ) T = B T A T .
Symmetric Matrix
A square (n×n) matrix A is called symmetric, if
A = AT or a ij = a ji
Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant of square matrix A is a scalar number
denoted by det A or |A|. For 2×2 and 3×3 matrices, their
determinants are given by
a b
det = ad − bc
c d
and
Singular Matrix
A square matrix A is singular if det A = 0, which indicates
problems in the systems (nonunique solutions, degeneracy, etc.)
Matrix Inversion
For a square and nonsingular matrix A ( det A ≠ 0 ), its
inverse A-1 is constructed in such a way that
AA −1 = A −1 A = I
The cofactor matrix C of matrix A is defined by
Cij = ( −1)i + j Mij
Examples:
−1
a b 1 d − b
(1) =
c d (ad − bc) − c a
Checking,
−1
a b a b 1 d − b a b 1 0
c d c d (ad − bc) − c a c d = 0 1
=
−1 T
1 −1 0 3 2 1 3 2 1
1
(2) − 1 2 − 1 = 2 2 1 = 2 2 1
(4 − 2 − 1)
0 − 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Checking,
1 − 1 0 3 2 1 1 0 0
− 1 2 − 1 2 2 1 = 0 1 0
0 − 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 1
[
A( t ) = a ij ( t ) ]
then the differentiation is defined by
d da (t )
A(t ) = ij
dt dt
and the integration by
∫ ∫
A(t )dt = aij (t )dt
x
i j
fi ui uj fj
k
Two nodes: i, j
Nodal displacements: ui, uj (in, m, mm)
Nodal forces: fi, fj (lb, Newton)
Spring constant (stiffness): k (lb/in, N/m, N/mm)
Spring force-displacement relationship:
F = k∆ with ∆ = u j − ui
Linear
F Nonlinear
k
and at node j,
f j = F = k ( u j − ui ) = − kui + ku j
In matrix form,
k − k ui f i
− k =
k u j f j
or,
ku = f
where
k = (element) stiffness matrix
u = (element nodal) displacement vector
f = (element nodal) force vector
Note that k is symmetric. Is k singular or nonsingular? That is,
can we solve the equation? If not, why?
Spring System
x
k1 k2
1 2 3
u1, F1 u2, F2 u3, F3
For element 1,
k1 − k1 u1 f 11
− k =
1 k1 u2 f 21
element 2,
k2 − k 2 u2 f 12
− k =
2 k 2 u3 f 22
That is,
F1 = k1u1 − k1u2
F2 = − k1u1 + ( k1 + k 2 )u2 − k 2 u3
F3 = − k 2 u2 + k 2 u3
In matrix form,
k1 − k1 0 u1 F1
− k k + k
− k2 u2 = F2
1 1 2
0 − k2 k2 u3 F
3
or
KU = F
K is the stiffness matrix (structure matrix) for the spring system.
k1 − k1 0 u1 f 11
− k
k1 0 u2 = f 21
1
0 0 0 u3 0
0 0 0 u1 0
0 k
− k 2 u2 = f 12
2
0 − k 2 k 2 u3 f 22
k1 − k1 0 u1 f 11
− k
k1 + k 2 − k 2 u2 = f 21 + f 12
1
0 − k2 k 2 u3 f 22
which reduces to
k1 + k 2 − k 2 u2 P
−k =
2 k 2 u3 P
and
F1 = − k1u2
Unknowns are
u2
U= and the reaction force F1 (if desired).
u3
Example 1.1
k1 k2 P k3
x
1 2 3 4
(c) From the 1st and 4th equations in (4), we get the reaction forces
F1 = −100u 2 = −200 (N)
F4 = −100u 3 = −300 (N )
200 − 200 ui f i
− 200 200 u = f
j j
Here i = 2, j = 3 for element 2. Thus we can calculate the spring
force as
u2
F = f j = − f i = [ − 200 200]
u3
2
= [ − 200 200]
3
= 200 (N)
Check the results!
Example 1.2
4 k4 F1
k1 1
2
4 1 k2 F2 k3
2 3 3 5
x
u3 u5 u2 u1
k3 − k3 k4 − k4
k3 = k4 =
− k 3 k 3 − k 4 k 4
ui uj
fi i j fj
x A,E
L
L length
A cross-sectional area
E elastic modulus
u = u( x ) displacement
ε = ε ( x) strain
σ = σ ( x) stress
Strain-displacement relation:
du
ε= (1)
dx
Stress-strain relation:
σ = Eε (2)
EA − EA
k − k L L
k= =
− k k − EA EA
L L
or
EA 1 − 1
k= (8)
L − 1 1
This can be verified by considering the equilibrium of the forces
at the two nodes.
Element equilibrium equation is
EA 1 − 1 ui f i
= (9)
L − 1 1 u j f j
where
x
ξ= , 0≤ξ ≤1 (11)
L
From (3) we can write the displacement as
u( x ) = u(ξ ) = N i (ξ )ui + N j (ξ )u j
or
ui
u = Ni[ ]
N j = Nu (12)
u j
Strain is given by (1) and (12) as
du d
ε= = Nu = Bu (13)
dx dx
where B is the element strain-displacement matrix, which is
d d dξ
B=
dx
[
N i (ξ ) N j (ξ ) = ] dξ
[
N i (ξ ) ]
N j (ξ ) •
dx
i.e., B = [ − 1 / L 1 / L] (14)
(16)
1 T
2
V
∫
= u ( B EB )dV u
T
1 T 1
2
V
∫
u ( B EB )dV u = u T f
T
2
V
or
ku = f (19)
where
k=
∫ (B EB )dV
T
(20)
V
Example 2.1
1 2A,E 2 A,E
1 2 P 3 x
L L
Element 2,
u2 u3
EA 1 − 1
k2 =
L − 1 1
Imagine a frictionless pin at node 2, which connects the two
elements. We can assemble the global FE equation as follows,
2 − 2 0 u1 F1
EA
− 2 3 − 1 u2 = F2
L
0 − 1 1 u3 F3
Deleting the 1st row and column, and the 3rd row and column, we
obtain,
EA
L
[ 3]{u2 } = { P}
Thus,
PL
u2 =
3EA
and
u1 0
PL
u2 = 1
u 3EA 0
3
Stress in element 1 is
u
σ 1 = Eε 1 = EB 1u1 = E[ − 1 / L 1 / L] 1
u2
u2 − u1 E PL P
=E = − 0 =
L L 3EA 3 A
Similarly, stress in element 2 is
u2
σ 2 = Eε 2 = EB 2 u 2 = E [ − 1 / L 1 / L]
u3
u3 − u2 E PL P
=E = 0 − =−
L L 3EA 3A
which indicates that bar 2 is in compression.
Check the results!
Notes:
• In this case, the calculated stresses in elements 1 and 2
are exact within the linear theory for 1-D bar structures.
It will not help if we further divide element 1 or 2 into
smaller finite elements.
• For tapered bars, averaged values of the cross-sectional
areas should be used for the elements.
• We need to find the displacements first in order to find
the stresses, since we are using the displacement based
FEM.
Example 2.2
∆
1 A,E 2
1 2 P 3 x
L L
Solution:
We first check to see if or not the contact of the bar with
the wall on the right will occur. To do this, we imagine the wall
on the right is removed and calculate the displacement at the
right end,
PL (6.0 × 104 )(150)
∆0 = = = 18
. mm > ∆ = 12
. mm
EA (2.0 × 104 )(250)
Thus, contact occurs.
The global FE equation is found to be,
1 − 1 0 u1 F1
EA
− 1 2 − 1 u2 = F2
L
0 − 1 1 u3 F3
FE equation becomes,
1 − 1 0 0 F1
EA
− 1 2 − 1 u2 = P
L
0 − 1 1 ∆ F3
and
u1 0
u2 = 15
. ( mm)
u 12
3 .
To calculate the support reaction forces, we apply the 1st
and 3rd equations in the global FE equation.
The 1st equation gives,
u1
EA EA
F1 = [ 1 − 1 0] u 2 = ( − u 2 ) = −5.0 × 10 4 N
L u L
3
and the 3rd equation gives,
u1
EA EA
F3 =
L
[ 0 − 1 1]u2 =
L
( − u2 + u3 )
u
3
= −10. × 10 4 N
Distributed Load
i j
x
qL/2 qL/2
i j
that is,
1 qL / 2
Wq = u T f q with f q = (22)
2 qL / 2
Thus, from the U=W concept for the element, we have
1 T 1 1
u ku = u T f + u T f q (23)
2 2 2
which yields
ku = f + f q (24)
1 2 3
qL/2 qL qL/2
1 2 3
Local Global
x, y X, Y
ui' , v i' ui , v i
Transformation
ui
ui' = ui cos θ + v i sin θ = [ l m]
v i
ui
v i' = − ui sin θ + v i cos θ = [ − m l ]
v i
where l = cosθ , m = sin θ .
In matrix form,
ui' l m ui
' = v (26)
v
i − m l i
or,
~
u i' = Tu i
where the transformation matrix
~ l m
T= (27)
− m l
~ ~
is orthogonal, that is, T −1 = T T .
For the two nodes of the bar element, we have
ui' l m 0 0 ui
'
v i − m l 0 0 v i
' = (28)
u j 0 0 l m u j
v 'j 0 0 − m l v j
or,
~
T 0
u = Tu
'
with T = ~ (29)
0 T
The nodal forces are transformed in the same way,
f ' = Tf (30)
EA 1 − 1 ui f i
' '
=
L − 1 1 u 'j f j'
1 0 −1 0 ui' f i '
EA 0 0 0 0 vi' 0
' =
L − 1 0 1 0 u j f j'
0 0 0 0 v 'j 0
or,
k 'u' = f '
Using transformations given in (29) and (30), we obtain
k ' Tu = Tf
Multiplying both sides by TT and noticing that TTT = I, we
obtain
T T k ' Tu = f (31)
Thus, the element stiffness matrix k in the global coordinate
system is
k = TT k 'T (32)
which is a 4×4 symmetric matrix.
Explicit form,
ui vi uj vj
l2 lm − l 2 − lm
(33)
EA lm m2 − lm − m2
k=
L − l 2 − lm l 2 lm
2
− lm − m 2
lm m
Calculation of the directional cosines l and m:
X j − Xi Yj − Yi
l = cosθ = , m = sin θ = (34)
L L
The structure stiffness matrix is assembled by using the element
stiffness matrices in the usual way as in the 1-D case.
Element Stress
ui
ui'
1 1 l m 0 0 vi
σ = Eε = EB ' = E −
u j L L 0 0 l m u j
v j
That is,
ui
v
E i
σ = [ − l − m l m] (35)
L u j
v j
Example 2.3
3
A simple plane truss is made
of two identical bars (with E, A, and 45o
L), and loaded as shown in the 2 P2
figure. Find
1) displacement of node 2; Y 2 P1
2) stress in each bar. 1
Solution: 45o
X
This simple structure is used 1
here to demonstrate the assembly
and solution process using the bar element in 2-D space.
In local coordinate systems, we have
EA 1 − 1
k ='
= k '2
L − 1 1
1
u1 v1 u2 v2
1 1 − 1 − 1
1 1 − 1 − 1
EA
k 1 = T1T k 1' T1 =
2 L − 1 − 1 1 1
− 1 − 1 1 1
Element 2:
2 2
θ = 135o , l = − , m=
2 2
We have,
u2 v2 u3 v3
1 −1 −1 1
− 1 1 1 − 1
EA
k 2 = T2T k '2 T2 =
2 L − 1 1 1 − 1
1 −1 −1 1
Assemble the structure FE equation,
u1 v1 u2 v2 u3 v3
1 1 −1 −1 0 0 u1 F1 X
1 1 −1 −1 0 0 v1 F1Y
EA − 1 − 1 2 0 − 1 1 u2 F2 X
=
2 L − 1 − 1 0 2 1 − 1 v2 F2Y
0 0 −1 1 1 − 1 u3 F3 X
0 0 1 − 1 − 1 1 v F
3 3Y
P1
E 2 L P2 2
σ2 = [1 − 1 − 1 1] 0 = ( P1 − P2 )
L 2 EA 2 A
0
y’
x’
P 3
2 2
1 Y
L
3
1 45o
X
u1 v1 u2 v2
0 0 0 0
0 − 1
( 210 × 10 9 )(6.0 × 10 − 4 ) 0 1 ( N / m)
k1 =
1 0 0 0 0
0 − 1 0 1
Element 2:
θ = 0o , l = 1, m = 0
u2 v2 u3 v3
1 0 − 1 0
0 0 0
( 210 × 10 9 )(6.0 × 10 − 4 ) 0 ( N / m)
k2 =
1 − 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Element 3:
1 1
θ = 45o , l = , m=
2 2
u1 v1 u3 v3
0.5 0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5
0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5
(210 × 10 9 )( 6 2 × 10 − 4 ) 0.5
k3 =
2 − 0.5 − 0.5 0.5 0.5
− 0.5 − 0.5 0.5 0.5
( N / m)
that is,
F3 X + F3Y = 0
Applying the load and BC’s in the structure FE equation by
‘deleting’ 1st, 2nd and 4th rows and columns, we have
1 − 1 0 u2 P
. 0.5 u3 = F3 X
1260 × 105 − 1 15
0 0.5 0.5 v3 F3Y
Further, from the MPC and the force relation at node 3, the
equation becomes,
1 − 1 0 u2 P
. 0.5 u3 = F3 X
1260 × 105 − 1 15
0 0.5 0.5 u3 − F3 X
which is
1 − 1 P
u
2
1260 × 105 − 1 2 = F3 X
u3
0 1 − F
3X
The 3rd equation yields,
F3 X = −1260 × 105 u3
Substituting this into the 2nd equation and rearranging, we have
1 − 1 u2 P
1260 × 105 =
− 1 3 u3 0
Solving this, we obtain the displacements,
u2 1 3 P 0.01191
= 5 = ( m)
3 2520 × 10
u P 0.003968
From the global FE equation, we can calculate the reaction
forces,
F1 X 0 − 0.5 − 0.5 − 500
F 0 − 0.5 − 0.5 u − 500
1Y
2
F2Y = 1260 × 10 0
5
0 0 u3 = 0.0 (kN)
F − 1 15
. 0.5 v − 500
3X
3
F3Y 0 0.5 0.5 500
∑ Aj u j = 0
j
3-D Case
y
x j
Y
i
z
X
Z
Local Global
x, y, z X, Y, Z
ui' , vi' , wi' ui , vi , wi
i j
E,I x
θi, Mi θj, Mj
L
L
length
I moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
E elastic modulus
v = v( x ) deflection (lateral displacement) of the
neutral axis
dv
θ= rotation about the z-axis
dx
F = F ( x) shear force
M = M ( x) moment about z-axis
Direct Method
Using the results from elementary beam theory to compute
each column of the stiffness matrix.
Formal Approach
Apply the formula,
L
k=
∫0
B T EIBdx (39)
N 4 ( x ) = − x 2 / L + x 3 / L2
L L T
1 T 1 1 d 2v d 2v
=
2 ∫0
M
EI
Mdx =
2 dx 2 ∫
EI 2 dx
dx
0
L
1
=
2 ∫
(Bu) T EI (Bu)dx
0
1 T
L
2
0
∫
= u B EIBdx u
T
k=
∫0
B T EIBdx
Example 2.5
Y
P
M
1 2
1 E,I 2 3 X
L L
Given: The beam shown above is clamped at the two ends and
acted upon by the force P and moment M in the mid-
span.
Find: The deflection and rotation at the center node and the
reaction forces and moments at the two ends.
Solution: Element stiffness matrices are,
v1 θ1 v2 θ2
12 6 L − 12 6 L
2
EI 6 L 4 L − 6 L 2 L
2
k1 = 3
L − 12 − 6 L 12 − 6 L
6 L 2 L2 − 6 L 4 L2
v2 θ2 v3 θ3
12 6 L − 12 6 L
2
EI 6 L 4 L − 6 L 2 L
2
k2 = 3
L − 12 − 6 L 12 − 6 L
6 L 2 L2 − 6 L 4 L2
v 2 L − PL
2
=
θ 2 24 EI 3 M
From global FE equation, we obtain the reaction forces and
moments,
F1Y − 12 6 L 2 P + 3 M / L
M 2
1 EI − 6 L 2 L v2 1 PL + M
= 3 =
F
3Y L − 12 − 6 L θ 2 4 2 P − 3 M / L
M 3 6L 2 L2 − PL + M
Stresses in the beam at the two ends can be calculated using the
formula,
My
σ = σx = −
I
Note that the FE solution is exact according to the simple beam
theory, since no distributed load is present between the nodes.
Recall that,
d 2v
EI 2 = M ( x )
dx
and
dM
= V (V - shear force in the beam)
dx
dV
= q (q - distributed load on the beam)
dx
Thus,
d 4v
EI 4 = q( x )
dx
If q(x)=0, then exact solution for the deflection v is a cubic
function of x, which is what described by our shape functions.
i x L j
qL/2 qL/2
qL2/12 qL2/12
i j
L L
qL qL/2
qL2/12
L L
Example 2.6
y
p
1 E,I 2 x
L
1 E,I 2 x
L
where
f = pL / 2, m = pL2 / 12
Applying the FE equation, we have
12 6 L − 12 6 L v1 F1Y
2
EI 6 L 4 L − 6 L 2 L θ1 M 1
2
=
L3 − 12 − 6 L 12 − 6 L v2 F2 Y
6 L 2 L2 − 6 L 4 L2 θ M
2 2
Load and constraints (BC’s) are,
F2 Y = − f , M2 = m
v1 = θ1 = 0
Reduced equation is,
EI 12 − 6 L v2 − f
L3 − 6 L 4 L2 θ = m
2
Solving this, we obtain,
v 2 L − 2 L f + 3 Lm − pL / 8 EI
2 4
= = (A)
θ
2 6 EI − 3 Lf + 6m − pL3
/ 6 EI
These nodal values are the same as the exact solution. Note
that the deflection v(x) (for 0 < x< 0) in the beam by the FEM is,
however, different from that by the exact solution. The exact
solution by the simple beam theory is a 4th order polynomial of
x, while the FE solution of v is only a 3rd order polynomial of x.
If the equivalent moment m is ignored, we have,
v 2 L − 2 L f − pL / 6 EI
2 4
= = (B)
θ
2 6 EI − 3 Lf − pL / 4 EI
3
The errors in (B) will decrease if more elements are used. The
Example 2.7
Y
P
1 E,I 2
2 X
1 3 k
L L 4
v1 θ1 v2 θ2 v3 θ3 v4
12 6 L − 12 6 L 0 0 0 v1 F1Y
4 L2 − 6 L 2 L2 0 0 0 θ1 M 1
24 0 − 12 6L 0 v2 F2Y
EI
8L 2
− 6L 2 L 2
0 θ2 = M 2
L3
12 + k ' − 6 L − k ' v3 F3Y
θ3 M 3
2
4 L 0
Symmetry k ' v4 F4Y
in which
L3
k '= k
EI
is used to simply the notation.
We now apply the boundary conditions,
v1 = θ1 = v2 = v4 = 0,
M 2 = M 3 = 0, F3Y = − P
‘Deleting’ the first three and seventh equations (rows and
columns), we have the following reduced equation,
8 L2 − 6 L 2 L2 θ 2 0
EI
3
− 6 L 12 + k ' − 6 L v 3 = − P
L
2 L2 − 6 L 4 L2 θ 3 0
θ 2 3
PL 2
v3 = − 7 L
θ EI (12 + 7 k ')
3 9
The influence of the spring k is easily seen from this result.
Plugging in the given numbers, we can calculate
θ 2 − 0.002492 rad
v3 = − 0.01744 m
θ − 0.007475 rad
3
From the global FE equation, we obtain the nodal reaction
forces as,
F1Y − 69.78 kN
M − 69.78 kN ⋅ m
1
=
F
2 Y 116 .2 kN
F4Y 3.488 kN
69.78 kN 50 kN
1 2 3
69.78 kN⋅m
116.2 kN 3.488 kN
Example 2.8
Y 500 lb/ft
3000 lb 1 2
1
8 ft
E, I, A 2 3
3 4 X
12 ft
3000 lb 3000 lb
72000 lb-in.
2 3
3 4
We have
l = 0, m = 1
for both elements 2 and 3. Thus,
0 1 0 0 0 0
− 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
T=
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
u3 v3 θ3 u1 v1 θ1
2.65 0 − 127 − 2.65 0 − 127
0 212.5 0 0 − 212.5 0
− 127 0 8125 127 0 4063
k 2 = 10 4 ×
− 2.65 0 127 2.65 0 127
0 − 212.5 0 0 212.5 0
− 127 0 4063 127 0 8125
and
u4 v4 θ4 u2 v2 θ2
2.65 0 − 127 − 2.65 0 − 127
0 212.5 0 0 − 212.5 0
− 127 0 8125 127 0 4063
k 3 = 104 ×
− 2.65 0 127 2.65 0 127
0 − 212.5 0 0 212.5 0
− 127 0 4063 127 0 8125
F3 X − 672.7 lb
F3Y = 2210 lb
M 60364 lb ⋅ in.
3
and
F4 X − 2338 lb
F4Y = 3825 lb
M 112641 lb ⋅ in.
4
Check the results:
Draw the free-body diagram of the frame. Equilibrium is
maintained with the calculated forces and moments.
3000 lb 3000 lb
72000 lb-in.
3000 lb
72000 lb-in.
112641 lb-in.
60364 lb-in.
672.7 lb 2338 lb
2210 lb 3825 lb
and
ε x , ε y , ε z , γ xy , γ yz , γ zx for strains.
σy
τ xy
τ yz
σx
τ zx
y
σz
x
z
y y
p
x z
• Plane strain:
ε z = γ yz = γ zx = 0 (σ z ≠ 0) (2)
p
x z
or,
ε = E −1σ + ε0
where ε 0 is the initial strain, E the Young’s modulus, ν the
Poisson’s ratio and G the shear modulus. Note that,
E
G= (4)
2(1 + ν )
which means that there are only two independent materials
constants for homogeneous and isotropic materials.
We can also express stresses in terms of strains by solving
the above equation,
σ x 1 ν 0 ε x ε x 0
E ν 1
σ
y = 0 ε − ε (5)
1 − ν 2 y y 0
τ
xy 0 0 (1 − ν ) / 2 γ xy γ xy 0
or,
σ = Eε + σ 0
where σ 0 = − Eε 0 is the initial stress.
The above relations are valid for plane stress case. For
plane strain case, we need to replace the material constants in
the above equations in the following fashion,
E
E→
1− ν 2
ν
ν→ (6)
1− ν
G→G
For example, the stress is related to strain by
σ x 1 − ν ν 0 ε x ε x 0
E ν ε − ε
σ y =
1−ν 0
y y 0
τ (1 + ν )(1 − 2ν ) 0 0 (1 − 2ν ) / 2 γ xy γ xy 0
xy
in the plane strain case.
Equilibrium Equations
In elasticity theory, the stresses in the structure must satisfy
the following equilibrium equations,
∂σ x ∂τ xy
+ + fx = 0
∂x ∂y
(9)
∂τ xy ∂σ y
+ + fy = 0
∂x ∂y
where fx and fy are body forces (such as gravity forces) per unit
volume. In FEM, these equilibrium conditions are satisfied in
an approximate sense.
Boundary Conditions
ty
p
y tx
St
Su
x
Example 3.1
A plate is supported and loaded with distributed force p as
shown in the figure. The material constants are E and ν.
1 1 T
∫ ( Eε ) ε dV =
∫
T
= ε Eε dV
2 2
V V
1
2 ∫
= d T B T EB dV d
V
1
= d T kd
2
From this, we obtain the general formula for the element
stiffness matrix,
k=
∫
V
B T EB dV (13)
Note that unlike the 1-D cases, E here is a matrix which is given
by the stress-strain relation (e.g., Eq.(5) for plane stress).
The stiffness matrix k defined by (13) is symmetric since E
is symmetric. Also note that given the material property, the
behavior of k depends on the B matrix only, which in turn on the
shape functions. Thus, the quality of finite elements in
representing the behavior of a structure is entirely determined by
the choice of shape functions.
Most commonly employed 2-D elements are linear or
quadratic triangles and quadrilaterals.
v3
3
(x3, y3) u3
y
v
v2
v1 u 2
(x, y) u2
1 (x2, y2)
u1
(x1, y1)
x
Solving these equations, we can find the coefficients b1, b2, ...,
and b6 in terms of nodal displacements and coordinates.
Substituting these coefficients into (14) and rearranging the
terms, we obtain,
u1
v
1
u N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 u2
= (16)
v 0 N1 0 N2 0 N 3 v 2
u3
v3
where the shape functions (linear functions in x and y) are
1
N1 = {( x 2 y3 − x3 y 2 ) + ( y 2 − y3 ) x + ( x3 − x 2 ) y}
2A
1
N2 = {( x3 y1 − x1 y3 ) + ( y3 − y1 ) x + ( x1 − x3 ) y} (17)
2A
1
N3 = {( x1 y 2 − x 2 y1 ) + ( y1 − y 2 ) x + ( x 2 − x1 ) y}
2A
and
1 x1 y1
1
A = det 1 x 2 y2 (18)
2
1 x3 y3
k=
∫
V
B T EB dV = tA( B T EB ) (20)
ξ=1 (a, b)
2
1
and varies linearly within the element. The plot for shape
function N1 is shown in the following figure. N2 and N3 have
similar features.
ξ=0
3
N1
ξ=1
1
2
1
1 y 23 − y13 u1 − u3
=
2 A − x 23 x13 u2 − u3
Similarly,
∂ v
∂ x 1 y 23 − y13 v1 − v3
∂ v = − x (29)
2 A 23 x13 v 2 − v3
∂ y
There are six nodes on this element: three corner nodes and
three midside nodes. Each node has two degrees of freedom
(DOF) as before. The displacements (u, v) are assumed to be
quadratic functions of (x, y),
u = b1 + b2 x + b3 y + b4 x 2 + b5 xy + b6 y 2
(31)
v = b7 + b8 x + b9 y + b10 x + b11 xy + b12 y
2 2
η =1 u4
3 ξ
4
v2
v1 2 u2
1
y u1
η = −1
ξ = −1 ξ =1
x
η =1 7
3 ξ
4
6
8
5 2
1
y
η = −1
ξ = −1 ξ =1
x
There are eight nodes for this element, four corners nodes
and four midside nodes. In the natural coordinate system (ξ , η ) ,
the eight shape functions are,
1
N 1 = (1 − ξ )(η − 1)(ξ + η + 1)
4
1
N 2 = (1 + ξ )(η − 1)(η − ξ + 1)
4 (37)
1
N 3 = (1 + ξ )(1 + η )(ξ + η − 1)
4
1
N 4 = (ξ − 1)(η + 1)(ξ − η + 1)
4
1
N 5 = (1 − η )(1 − ξ 2 )
2
1
N 6 = (1 + ξ )(1 − η 2 )
2
1
N 7 = (1 + η )(1 − ξ 2 )
2
1
N 8 = (1 − ξ )(1 − η 2 )
2
8
Again, we have ∑ N i = 1 at any point inside the element.
i =1
Example 3.2
A square plate with a hole at the center and under pressure
in one direction.
y
A
x
B
FE Analysis:
From the knowledge of stress concentrations, we should
expect the maximum stresses occur at points A and B on the
edge of the hole. Value of this stress should be around 3p (=
300 psi) which is the exact solution for an infinitely large plate
with a hole.
Discussions:
• Check the deformed shape of the plate
• Check convergence (use a finer mesh, if possible)
• Less elements (~ 100) should be enough to achieve the
same accuracy with a better or “smarter” mesh
• We’ll redo this example in next chapter employing the
symmetry conditions.
Transformation of Loads
Concentrated load (point forces), surface traction (pressure
loads) and body force (weight) are the main types of loads
applied to a structure. Both traction and body forces need to be
converted to nodal forces in the FEA, since they cannot be
applied to the FE model directly. The conversions of these loads
are based on the same idea (the equivalent-work concept) which
we have used for the cases of bar and beam elements.
qB
q fB
qA
fA
s
B B
A L A
Traction on a Q4 element
un ( s ) = (1 − s / L )unA + ( s / L )unB
The traction q(s), which is also linear, is given in a similar way,
q( s ) = (1 − s / L )q A + ( s / L )qB
Thus, we have,
L
1 − s / L q A
Wq = t ∫ [ unA unB ] [1 − s / L s / L ] ds
0 s / L q B
(1 − s / L ) 2
L
( s / L )(1 − s / L ) q A
= [ unA unB ]t ∫ ds q
0 ( s / L )(1 − s / L ) ( s / L ) 2
B
tL 2 1 q A
= [ unA unB ]
6 1 2 q B
and the equivalent nodal force vector is,
f A tL 2 1 q A
= q
f
B 6 1 2 B
Note, for constant q, we have,
f A qtL 1
=
f
B 2 1
For quadratic elements (either triangular or quadrilateral),
the traction is converted to forces at three nodes along the edge,
instead of two nodes.
Traction tangent to the boundary, as well as body forces,
are converted to nodal forces in a similar way.
Stress Calculation
The stress in an element is determined by the following
relation,
σ x εx
σ y = E ε y = EBd (39)
τ γ
xy xy
where B is the strain-nodal displacement matrix and d is the
nodal displacement vector which is known for each element
once the global FE equation has been solved.
Stresses can be evaluated at any point inside the element
(such as the center) or at the nodes. Contour plots are usually
used in FEA software packages (during post-process) for users
to visually inspect the stress results.
σx +σ y σx −σ y
2
σ1P = + + τ xy
2
2 2
(41)
2
σx +σ y σx −σ y
σ2 = P
− + τ xy
2
2 2
Averaged Stresses:
Stresses are usually averaged at nodes in FEA software
packages to provide more accurate stress values. This option
should be turned off at nodes between two materials or other
geometry discontinuity locations where stress discontinuity does
exist.
Discussions
A C
B D
Improper connections (gaps along AB and CD)
I. Symmetry
Types of Symmetry:
• Reflective (mirror, bilateral) symmetry
• Rotational (cyclic) symmetry
• Axisymmetry
• Translational symmetry
• ...
Examples:
…
Examples:
…
Cautions:
In vibration and buckling analyses, symmetry concepts, in
general, should not be used in FE solutions (works fine in
modeling), since symmetric structures often have antisymmetric
vibration or buckling modes.
Physical Meaning:
A finite element model of a portion of structure.
Mathematical Meaning:
Boundary matrices which are load and stiffness matrices
reduced (condensed) from the interior points to the exterior or
boundary points.
Disadvantages:
• Increased overhead for file management
• Matrix condensation for dynamic problems introduce
new approximations
• ...
Iterative Methods:
• Solution time is unknown beforehand
• Reduced storage requirement
• Suitable for large problems, or bulky structures (large
bandwidth, converge faster)
• Need solving again for different load cases
Back Substitution:
x 3 = 12 / 2 = 6 1.5
x 2 = ( −2 + 12 x 3 ) / 14 = 5 or x = 5 .
x1 = ( 2 + 2 x 2 ) / 8 = 1.5 6
Stiffening Effect:
• FE Model is stiffer than the real structure.
• In general, displacement results are smaller in
magnitudes than the exact values.
∆ (Displacement)
Exact Solution
FEM Solutions
No. of DOF’s
V. Numerical Error
Type of Errors:
• Modeling Error (beam, plate … theories)
• Discretization Error (finite, piecewise …)
• Numerical Error ( in solving FE equations)
u1 u2
P
1 k1 2 k2 x
FE Equations:
k1 − k 1 u1 P
− k =
1 k 1 + k 2 u 2 0
and Det K = k 1 k 2 .
The system will be singular if k2 is small compared with k1.
P
u2 = u1 −
u2 k1
k1
u2 = u1
k1 + k 2
P/k1 u1
P
u2 = u1 −
u2 k1
k1
u2 = u1
k1 + k 2
k2 >> k1 (two line apart):
Ö System well conditioned.
P/k1 u1
Type of Refinements:
h-refinement: reduce the size of the element (“h” refers to the
typical size of the elements);
p-refinement: Increase the order of the polynomials on an
element (linear to quadratic, etc.; “h” refers to
the highest order in a polynomial);
r-refinement: re-arrange the nodes in the mesh;
hp-refinement: Combination of the h- and p-refinements
(better results!).
Examples:
…
Error Indicators:
Define,
σ --- element by element stress field (discontinuous),
σ*--- averaged or smooth stress (continuous),
σE = σ - σ* --- the error stress field.
M
1 *T −1 *
U = ∑U i* ,
*
U* =i ∫ 2 σ E σ dV ;
i =1 V i
M
1 T −1
U E = ∑U E i , UEi = ∫ 2 σ E E σ E dV ;
i =1 V i
Examples:
…
I. Plate Theory
• Flat plate
• Lateral loading
• Bending behavior dominates
Applications:
• Shear walls
• Floor panels
• Shelves
• …
∆y
y
∆x My
q(x,y)
Qy Mxy
t Mx
Qx
x Mid surface
Mxy
Stresses:
τyz y
σy
τxy
τxz τxy
σx
x
Displacement:
∂w
z
∂x
w
x
w = w( x, y ), ( deflection )
∂w
u = −z , (7)
∂x
∂w
v = −z .
∂y
Strains:
∂ 2w
ε x = −z 2 ,
∂x
∂ 2w
ε y = −z 2 , (8)
∂y
∂ 2w
γ xy = −2 z .
∂x∂y
Note that there is no stretch of the mid surface due to the
deflection (bending) of the plate.
Governing Equation:
D∇ 4 w = q ( x , y ) , (10)
where
∂4 ∂4 ∂4
∇ ≡ ( 4 + 2 2 2 + 4 ),
4
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Et 3
D= (the bending rigidity of the plate),
12(1 − ν )
2
which yields,
∂Q x ∂Q y
+ + q( x , y ) = 0 .
∂x ∂y
Substituting the following relations into the above equation, we
obtain Eq. (10).
Boundary Conditions:
∂w
Clamped: w = 0, = 0; (11)
∂n
Simply supported: w = 0, M n = 0; (12)
Free: Q n = 0, M n = 0; (13)
where n is the normal direction of the boundary. Note that the
given values in the boundary conditions shown above can be
non-zero values as well.
s n
boundary
Examples:
A square plate with four edges clamped or hinged, and
under a uniform load q or a concentrated force P at the center C.
y
C L
L
x Given: E, t, and ν = 0.3
in which: D= Et3/(12(1-v2)).
These values can be used to verify the FEA solutions.
∂w
z θy ≠ −
∂x
w
∂w x
∂x
New relations:
u = zθ y , v = − zθ x ; (14)
∂θ y
εx = z ,
∂x
∂θ
ε y = −z x ,
∂y
∂θ ∂θ
γ xy = z ( y − x ), (15)
∂y ∂x
∂w
γ xz = +θ y ,
∂x
∂w
γ yz = −θ x.
∂y
Note that if we imposed the conditions (or assumptions)
that
∂w ∂w
γ xz = + θ y = 0, γ yz = − θ x = 0,
∂x ∂y
then we can recover the relations applied in the thin plate theory.
Main variables: w( x, y ),θ x ( x, y ) and θ y ( x, y ) .
z y
Mid surface 4
3
x
1 2
∂w ∂w t
w1 , , ∂w ∂w
w2 , ,
∂x 1 ∂y 1 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂w ∂w
DOF at each node: w, , .
∂y ∂y
On each element, the deflection w(x,y) is represented by
4
∂w ∂w
w( x, y ) = ∑ N i wi + N xi ( ) i + N yi ( ) i ,
i =1 ∂x ∂y
where Ni, Nxi and Nyi are shape functions. This is an
incompatible element! The stiffness matrix is still of the form
k = ∫ B T EBdV ,
V
z y z y
4 4 7 3
3
8 6
x x
1 2 1 2
t t 5
4 6
1 2
t 5 x
∂w ∂w
DOF at corner nodes: w, , ,θ x ,θ y ;
∂ x ∂y
DOF at mid side nodes: θ x ,θ y .
1 2
x
∂w ∂w
At each node: w,θ x = ,θ y = .
∂ x ∂ y
Total DOF = 9 (DKT Element).
• Incompatible w(x,y); convergence is faster (w is cubic
along each edge) and it is efficient.
Test Problem:
z
P
y
C
L
L
x L/t = 10, ν = 0.3
Example:
• Sea shell, egg shell (the wonder of the nature);
• Containers, pipes, tanks;
• Car bodies;
• Roofs, buildings (the Superdome), etc.
Forces in shells:
Membrane forces + Bending Moments
(cf. plates: bending only)
p p
internal forces:
p
p
membrane stresses
dominate
Shell Theory:
• Thin shell theory
• Thick shell theory
Shell theories are the most complicated ones to formulate
and analyze in mechanics (Russian’s contributions).
• Engineering ≠ Craftsmanship
• Demand strong analytical skill
Shell Elements:
w
v
u θx
θy
Q4 or Q8 shell element.
θz
i w
v
i u θx
θy
Test Cases:
L/2
q L/2
F
A
R A
80o R
F
Roof Pinched Cylinder
F2
F R F
b
A
A F L
F1
F
Difficulties in Application:
• Non uniform thickness (turbo blades, vessels with
stiffeners, thin layered structures, etc.);
• Should turn to 3-D theory and apply solid elements.
x
z
y,v
σy
τ yx
τ yz τ xy
τ zy
σx
τ zx τ xz
σz x, u
z, w
σx
σ
y
σ
σ = {σ }= z , or [σ ] (1)
τ xy
ij
τ yz
τ zx
Strains:
εx
εy
εz
ε = { ε }=
γ xy , or [ε ]
ij (2)
γ
yz
γ zx
Stress-strain relation:
1 − v v v 0 0 0
σx v 1− v v 0 0 0 εx
σ
y v v 1 − v 0 0 0 ε y
σz 1 − 2v
=
E 0
0 0 0 0 ε z
2
τ xy (1 + v )(1 − 2v ) 1 − 2v γ xy
τ yz 0 0 0 0 0 γ yz
2
τ zx 0 0 0 0 0
1 − 2 v γ zx
2
or σ = Eε (3)
Displacement:
u ( x, y , z ) u1
u = v ( x, y , z ) = u 2 ( 4)
w( x , y , z ) u
3
Strain-Displacement Relation:
∂u ∂v ∂w
εx = , εy = , εz = ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂u ∂w ∂v ∂u ∂w
γ xy = + , γ yz = + , γ xz = + (5)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
or
1 ∂ui ∂u j
ε ij = + , ( i, j = 1, 2, 3)
2 ∂x j ∂xi
or simply,
1
ε ij =
2
( ui , j + u j ,i ) ( tensor notation)
Equilibrium Equations:
∂σ x ∂τ xy ∂τ xz
+ + + fx = 0 ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂τ yx ∂σ y ∂τ yz
+ + + fy = 0 , ( 6)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂τ zx ∂τ zy ∂σ z
+ + + fz = 0 ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
or
σ ij , j + f i = 0
p
n
Γσ
Γ ( = Γu + Γσ )
Γu
Stress Analysis:
Solving equations in (3), (5) and (6) under the BC’s in (7)
provides the stress, strain and displacement fields (15 equations
for 15 unknowns for 3-D problems). Analytical solutions are
difficult to find!
Nodal values
In matrix form:
u1
v1
u N1 0 0 N2 0 0 L w1
v = 0 N1 0 0 N2 0 L u2 (9)
w
( 3×1)
0 0 N1 0 0 N2 L
( 3×3N ) v2
w2
M ( 3N ×1)
or u=Nd
Using relations (5) and (8), we can derive the strain vector
ε =B d
(6×1) (6×3N)×(3N×1)
Stiffness Matrix:
k = ∫ B T E B dv (10)
v
(3×N) (3N×6)×(6×6)×(6×3N)
Hexahedron (brick):
Penta:
Element Formulation:
Linear Hexahedron Element
3
4
y 8 7 2
1
5 6
x
z mapping (xyz↔ξηζ)
(-1≤ ξ,η,ζ ≤ 1)
η
(-1,1,-1) 4 3 (1,1,-1)
(-1,1,1) 8 7 (1,1,1)
o ξ
(-1,-1,-1) 1 2 (1,-1,-1)
(-1,-1,1) 5 6 (1,-1,1)
ζ
Shape functions:
1
N 1 (ξ ,η ,ζ ) = (1 − ξ ) (1 − η ) (1 − ζ ) ,
8
1
N 2 (ξ ,η , ζ ) = (1 + ξ ) (1 − η ) (1 − ζ ) ,
8
1
N 3 (ξ ,η , ζ ) = (1 + ξ ) (1 + η ) (1 − ζ ) , (12)
8
M M
1
N 8 (ξ ,η , ζ ) = (1 − ξ ) (1 + η ) (1 + ζ ) .
8
Note that we have the following relations for the shape
functions:
N i ( ξ j ,η j ,ζ j ) = δ ij , i, j = 1,2,L, 8.
8
∑ N i ( ξ ,η ,ζ ) = 1.
i =1
The same shape functions are used as for the displacement field.
⇒ Isoparametric element.
Jacobian Matrix:
∂u ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂u
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂x
∂u
∂u ∂x ∂y ∂z
= (14)
∂η ∂η ∂η ∂η ∂y
∂u ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂u
∂ζ ∂z
∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ
≡ J Jacobian matrix
∂u ∂u
∂x ∂ξ
∂u
−1 ∂u ∂u 8
∂N i
⇒ =J , = ∑ ∂ξ i u , etc.
∂y ∂η ∂ξ i =1
∂u ∂u
∂z ∂ζ
and
∂v ∂v
∂x ∂ξ
∂v
−1 ∂v
=J , (15)
∂y ∂η
∂v ∂v
∂z ∂ζ
also for w.
∂u
∂x
∂v
ε x
ε ∂y
y ∂w
ε z ∂z
ε = = ∂x ∂u = L use (15) = B d
γ xy +
γ yz ∂x ∂y
∂w ∂v
γ zx +
∂y ∂z
∂u
+ ∂w
∂z ∂x
Strain energy,
1 1
U = ∫ σ T ε dV = ∫ ( Eε ) T ε dV
2V 2V
1
= ∫ ε T E ε dV
2V
1 T T
= d ∫ B E B dV d (17)
2 V
(24×24) (24×6)×(6×6)×(6×24)
In ξηζ coordinates:
dV = (det J ) dξ dη dζ (19)
1 1 1
⇒ k = ∫ ∫ ∫ B T E B (det J ) dξ dη dζ ( 20)
−1 −1 −1
( Numerical integration)
Principal stresses:
σ 1 ,σ 2 ,σ 3 .
Examples: …
θ
r, u
z, w
σz
θ
r, u
τ rz
r σθ σr
Displacement field:
Strains:
∂u u ∂w
εr = , εθ = , εz = ,
∂r r ∂z
∂w ∂u
γ rz = + , (γ rθ = γ zθ = 0) ( 21)
∂r ∂z
u
r (r+u)dθ
dθ
rdθ
Stresses:
σ r 1 − v v v 0 ε r
σ v 1− v v 0 ε
θ E θ
= v v 1− v 0 ( 22)
σ z (1 + v ) (1 − 2v ) 0 1 − 2v ε z
τ rz 0 0 γ rz
2
Axisymmetric Elements
2 2
η
r, u 3 2
r, u
3 ξ
3 4 1
1 1
∫
k = B T E B rdr dθ dz
V
( 23)
or
2π 1 1
k=
∫∫∫
0 −1 −1
B T E B r (det J ) dξ dη dθ
1 1
= 2π
∫∫
−1 −1
B T E B r (det J ) dξ dη ( 24)
Applications
• Rotating Flywheel:
z
ω angular velocity (rad/s)
Body forces:
fr = ρ rω 2 ( equivalent radial centrifugal/ inertial force)
fz = − ρ g ( gravitational force)
p
r0
q = ( p ) 2π r0
• Press Fit:
ri
r0 ri +δ
at r = ri :
uo − ui = δ
⇒ MPC
“i” “o”
I. Basic Equations
A. Single DOF System
k m - mass
f=f(t) k - stiffness
m
c
c - damping
f ( t ) - force
ku
c u& m f(t)
x, u
i.e.,
[− ω 2
]
m+k U = 0.
which yields
k
ω = . (3)
m
u
u = U s in w t
U
t
U
T = 1 /f
U n d a m p e d F r e e V ib r a t io n
ωd = ω 1 − ξ 2 , (6)
c
where ξ = (damping ratio).
cc
For structural damping: 0 ≤ ξ < 0.15 (usually 1~5%)
ωd ≈ ω . (7)
Thus, we can ignore damping in normal mode analysis.
u
Mass Matrices
Lumped mass matrix (1-D bar element):
ρAL 1 ρ,A,L 2 ρAL
m1 = m2 =
2 u1 u2 2
Element mass matrix is found to be
ρAL
0
m= 2
ρAL
0
44244
1 2 3
diagonal matrix
2 V 2 V
1
= ∫ ρ (N u& ) (N u& )dV
T
2 V
1
= u& T ∫ ρ N T N dV u&
2 1V
42 43
m
Example
Simple Beam Element:
v1 v2
θ 1 ρ, A, L θ2
m = ∫ ρNT NdV
V
Solutions?
For each ωi , Eq. (13) gives one solution (or eigen) vector
[K − ω i
2
]
M ui = 0 .
u i (i=1,2,…,n) are the normal modes (or natural modes,
mode shapes, etc.).
Note:
• Magnitudes of displacements (modes) or stresses in normal
mode analysis have no physical meaning.
• For normal mode analysis, no support of the structure is
necessary.
ωi = 0 ⇔ there are rigid body motions of the whole or
a part of the structure.
⇒ apply this to check the FEA model (check for
mechanism or free elements in the models).
• Lower modes are more accurate than higher modes in the
FE calculations (less spatial variations in the lower modes
⇒ fewer elements/wave length are needed).
Example:
y
v2
ρ, A, EI θ2
1 2 x
L
v2 0
[
K − ω M = ,
2
]
θ2 0
EI 12 − 6L ρAL 156 − 22L
K= 3 2
, M= 2
.
L − 6L 4L 420 − 22L 4L
EVP: 12 −156λ − 6L + 22Lλ
= 0,
− 6L + 22Lλ 4L2 − 4L2λ
in which λ = ω ρ AL / 420 EI .
2 4
III. Damping
B. Modal Damping
Incorporate the viscous damping in modal equations.
ΦT MΦ = I.
Transformation for the displacement vector,
u = z1 u 1 + z 2 u 2 + L + z n u n = Φ z , (21)
where
z1 ( t )
z (t )
z= 2
M
z n ( t )
Notes:
• Only the first few modes may be needed in constructing
the modal matrix Φ (i.e., Φ could be an n×m rectangular
matrix with m<n). Thus, significant reduction in the size
of the system can be achieved.
• Modal equations are best suited for problems in which
higher modes are not important (i.e., structural vibrations,
but not for structures under a shock load).
&& + Cu& + Ku = F
Mu 1sin
23ωt
Harmonicloading
(25)
Modal method: Apply the modal equations,
&z&i + 2ξ iω i z&i + ω i2 zi = pi sin ω t , i=1,2,…,m. (26)
These are 1-D equations. Solutions are
pi ω i2
zi ( t ) = sin(ω t − θ i ), (27)
(1 − η ) + ( 2ξ iηi )
2 2 2
zi
where
2ξ iη i
θ
i = arctan , phase angle
1 − η i2
ηi = ω ω i ,
ci ci
ξ =
i c = , damping ratio
ω/ ωi c 2 m ω i
f(t)
u(t)
u n u n+1
u2
t0 t1 t2 t n t n+1 t
&& n + Cu& n + Ku n = f n .
Mu
Time increment: ∆t=tn+1-tn, n=0, 1, 2, 3, ⋅⋅⋅.
There are two categories of methods for transient analysis.
F ( t ) = f ( f n + 1 , γ , β , ∆ t , C , M , u n , u& n , u
&& n ).
This method is unconditionally stable if
1
2 β ≥ γ ≥ .
2
1 1
e . g ., γ = , β =
2 4
B. Modal Method
First, do the transformation of the dynamic equations using
the modal matrix before the time marching:
m
u = ∑ u i zi (t ) =Φ z ,
i =1 i = 1,2,⋅⋅⋅, m.
&z&i + 2 ξ i ω i z& i + ω i z i = p i ( t ),
Examples
I. Temperature Field
Fourier Heat Conduction Equation:
1-D Case:
∂T
f x = −k , (1)
∂x
where,
fx = heat flux per unit area,
k = thermal conductivity, x
T = T(x) = temperature.
3-D Case:
fx ∂T ∂x
f y = − Κ ∂T ∂y , (2)
f ∂T ∂z
z
where, fx, fy, fz = heat flux in x, y and z direction, respectively,
and in case of isotropy,
k 0 0
Κ = 0 k 0 . (3)
0 0 k
n
y Sq
ST
x
T = T, on S T ;
∂T
= Q, on S q . (6)
∂n
Note that at any point on the boundary S = S T U S q , only one
type of BC can be specified.
Note that there is only one DOF at each node for the thermal
problems.
1-D Case:
At temperature T1
At temperature T2
εo
Thermal Strain (Initial Strain):
ε o = α∆T , (9)
in which,
α = the coefficient of thermal expansion,
∆T = T2 − T1 is the change of temperature.
Total strain,
ε = εe + εo (10)
with ε e being the elastic strain due to mechanical load.
That is,
ε = E −1σ + α∆T , (11)
or σ = E (ε − ε o ) . (12)
2-D Cases:
Plane Stress,
ε x α∆T
ε o = ε y = α∆T . (13)
γ 0
xy o
Plane Strain,
εx (1 + ν )α∆T
ε o = ε y = (1 + ν )α∆T . (14)
γ 0
xy o
Here, ν is the Poisson’s ratio.
3-D Case:
εx α∆T
ε α∆T
y
ε α∆T
εo = z = . (15)
γ xy 0
γ yz 0
γ zx o 0
Observation: Temperature changes do not yield shear strains.
Total Strain:
ε = εe + εo . (16)
Stress-Strain Relation:
σ = Eε e = E(ε − ε o ) . (17)
Further Reading
1. O. C. Zienkiewicz and R. L. Taylor, The Finite Element Method, 4th
ed (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989).
2. J. N. Reddy, An Introduction To The Finite Element Method,
Second Edition ed (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993).
3. R. D. Cook, Finite Element Modeling For Stress Analysis (John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1995).
4. K. J. Bathe, Finite Element Procedures (Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1996).
5. T. R. Chandrupatla and A. D. Belegundu, Introduction To Finite
Elements in Engineering, 3rd ed (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 2002).
6. R. D. Cook, D. S. Malkus, M. E. Plesha, and R. J. Witt, Concepts
and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, 4th ed (John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 2002).
7. S. Moaveni, Finite Element Analysis - Theory and Application with
ANSYS, 2nd ed (Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2002).