Running

 head:  RACIAL INEQUALITY IN ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP   1  

 

Racial Inequality in Organizational Leadership: Moving

Towards a Culture of Inclusion

Susan Herman

University of Calgary SOWK 697

     
 
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Abstract

This paper explores the history of white privilege in North American organizational

leadership with an aim to understand how to challenge the status quo to create inclusive

cultures and manage diversity effectively. In so doing, this paper explores the evolution

of whiteness, and evidence suggests numerous benefits in valuing diversity for both

individuals and organizations. Challenges of inclusion are acknowledged, noting

privilege held often by a dominant culture is often not readily relinquished. As a white

person in leadership exploring this topic, I sought to learn pathways of challenging the

status quo while holding the tension of what to do with my whiteness and its inherent

privilege. Models to shape a culture of inclusion do exist within human resource and

management research. A critical reflection of the evidence provides a perspective to

manage diversity so individuals can bring their true self to work.

     
 
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Racial Inequality in Organizational Leadership: Moving

Towards a Culture of Inclusion

Motivated by blind spots of my white privilege, the learnings of diversity,

oppression, and social justice, concerning the intersectionality of race in leadership,

provided a personal challenge in my leadership journey. Parallel to this course, I was

recruited into a director role and am facing into transition. The organization is a well-

established, large, non-profit located within the city of Calgary, a diverse urban setting. I

came to realize the executive leadership team, and board in this organization are all

white. It was not new information. It is a new awareness on my part. I mark the latest

addition of whiteness to the executive leadership team.

It was in this realization that I questioned what to do with my whiteness. How, as

a leader entering a new role, can I work towards challenging this leadership paradigm to,

firstly, create awareness of the white privilege in leadership, and secondly, foster an

inclusive culture without engaging in oppressive practices? Moreover, how do I

reconcile maintaining my white privileged seat at the executive leadership table while

advocating for equal representation from future colleagues who represent racial groups

different than mine? The continual emergence of complex questions generated an

information gathering process to inform my development as an anti-oppressive leader.

Understanding Whiteness

Whiteness is complex, and its intersectional and relational dynamics influence the

workplace. Research provided numerous definitions of whiteness. According to Dubois,

as cited in Nkomo (2014), whiteness evolved over time to be synonymous with highly

capable, ambitious, efficient, and dominant individuals, although excluded those other

than white. Whiteness involves the socially constructed production and reproduction of

     
 
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dominance (Greens et al., 2007 as cited in Al Ariss, Ozbiligin, Tatli, and April, 2014).

Sarver (2017) also describes whiteness as a social construction with inherent power often

invisible or absent to most Whites. Nkomo (2014) further describes this invisible natures

as the ability to live and work without the self-awareness of one's whiteness.

Underscoring all definitions of whiteness is privilege and exclusion (Al Ariss et

al., 2014; Grimes, 2001). Kirk and Okazawa-Rey (as cited in Adams, Blumenfeld,

Catalano, DeJong, Hackman, Hopkins, Love, Peters, Shlasko & Zúñiga, 2018), argue it is

the existence of social categories that form the foundation for all structural inequality (p.

12). This socially constructed racial power to include or exclude, perhaps more

commonly referred to as white privilege, began at some point in history and continues to

influence the modern workplace and its experience of inequality.

History of white privilege in North American organizational leadership

Repressive and exclusionary practices towards blacks, Indigenous peoples, and

other racial groups marks North American history. Racial inequality throughout history

interlinked with politics, education, social practices, and the workplace (Al Ariss et al.

2014). Colonization and racialization are thought as historical forces, which shaped white

privilege (Nkomo, 2014). Some research points to the European global expansion where

explorers considered those other than white as “savages” and “uncivilized” (Nkomo,

2014, p.391). As Europeans established their presence in North America, and the

Industrial Revolution reformed the marketplace through establishing class boundaries

between business owners and workers. John Commons (1907) as cited in Nkomo (2014)

suggests fear of newly arriving European settlers and former black slaves arriving on the

shores of North America perpetuated class division and exclusionary practices to protect

     
 
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jobs. At the micro level, whites born in the United States were paid higher wages than

ethnic minorities, by virtue of their whiteness, relegating Blacks to less skilled and

riskier roles (Nkomo, 2014; Grimes, 2001).

White privilege affects recruitment and career advancement. Recruitment is

"Homosocial reproduction," informs recruitment through selecting candidates who best

represent oneself (Nkomo, 2014; p. 396). In an organization with white leadership, the

white person has the advantage. A white person may be seen as successful while

exclusionary practices towards racialized groups are not considered (Nkomo, 2014).

Whiteness also determines workplace power, with increasing inequality at higher levels

(Elliott and Smith as cited in Nkomo, 2014). The historical power differential of

whiteness constructed through colonization and racialization are thought to continue

through capitalism (Al Ariss, 2014).

Over time, racial inequality in the workplace was challenged, and organizations

shifted recruitment practices to diversify their workforce for a variety of reasons,

including legislative compliance and competitive advantage in the global marketplace. A

few different approaches were employed:

1. Affirmative Action: a mandated system with pre-established diversity objectives

informing recruitment (Syed & Kramar, 2009).

2. Diversity Management: underpinned by a strengths-based philosophy that

differences create productivity when everyone is valued and fully utilized to

advance organizational goals (Syed & Kramar, 2009).

3. Socially Responsible Diversity Management: a voluntary, relationally based,

multi-level organizational approach (Syed and Kramar, 2009).

     
 
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Syed & Kramar (2009) point to limitations of each approach, noting affirmative

action received backlash from the privileged as it was seen to threaten the free

marketplace. Further to this, diversity management was seen to under deliver on the

social benefits which were represented in unimpressive business process outcomes (Syed

& Kramar, 2009). They argue a socially responsible approach involving multi-level

organizational implementation at both the mezzo and micro levels will foster the

accomplishment of business outcomes and social inclusion. (Syed & Kramar, 2009).

Benefits of an Inclusive Culture

Research points to benefits for both the individual and the organization when

diversity is managed well. According to Burgess, French, and Strachan (n.d.), diversity is

difficult to define. While linked to socio-political features of a population including race,

it also involves invisible dimensions including attitudes and culture. Pless and Maak

(2004) define diversity as a question of “norms, values, beliefs, and expectations”

(p.130), while Guillaume, Dawson, Priola, Sacramento, Woods, Higson, Budhwar and

West (2014) describe it to include any difference perceived to differentiate one from

another.

From a macro level, structural inequalities of power and privilege are challenged,

which opens opportunity for racialized groups (Syed & Kramar, 2009). There is strong

evidence to suggest organizations gain competitive advantage through increased

productivity, innovation, and access to global markets while employees experience

psychological benefit through a sense of well-being, which correlates with their creativity

and performance (Syed & Kramar, 2009; Guillaume et al., 2014). While this paper does

not provide a full discussion of the benefits, it is important to note the complexity of

     
 
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diversity and the intersectionality of race to achieve organizational and individual

benefits of an inclusive culture.

Affecting Organizational Change to Build an Inclusive Culture

Organizational initiatives intersect with the social, political, and cultural systems

(Syed & Kramar, 2009) and are often influenced by deeply entrenched social constructs.

While legislation, such as the Canadian Charter of Human Rights and various labour

codes, act as a baseline standard for access to employment, employee rights and

protections to promote equality and protect oppressed groups, research suggests building

inclusive cultures requires a multi-dimensional approach to respond to its intersectional

and complex nature.

Individual Level

At a micro level, biases and perspectives shape the lens in which one experiences

self. Critical self-reflection is presented in research as an essential practice to bring

awareness to the unconscious dimensions of self and power differentials (Adams et al.,

2018; Adamowich, Kuwee Kumsa, Rego, Stoddart & Vito (2014); Pless & Maak, 2004;

Sakamoto & Pitner, 2005). Increased self-awareness facilitates an opportunity to prevent

further participation in oppressive practices. Black (n.d.) connects this awareness of self

within leadership as emotional intelligence, noting effective leaders are not only aware of

self but also aware of those around them. It is presumable that to affect change towards

an inclusive culture, one first needs to become aware of self to then become aware of

others and accept differences.

To create a culture of inclusion, Pless and Maak (2004) suggest it is about

recognizing the individual self as a unique person and as a different other, in a way that

     
 
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facilitates equality and acceptance of the person’s whole self where individuals feel safe

to be their true selves at work. Guiallaume et al., (2013) refer to this as “employee

dissimilarity” (p. 787). Adamowich et al. (2014) suggest that the whole self is often not

readily visible. Well articulated in the video, My Whole Self, individuals described

experiences of racism and microaggressions within the workplace, which informed the

experience of belonging, value, and advancement. Their stories brought to life how

entrenched the structural oppression of racism is through words, images, and actions, and

its intersectional nature within the workplace and relationships.

Related to this, Grimes (2001) positions “interrogating whiteness” as an essential

activity for every white person to engage in, illustrating each white person has

responsibility within the current system of domination, which perpetuates power,

privilege, and oppression (p. 135). Grimes (2002) defines interrogating whiteness as an

active process which involves both naming and unmasking it through the use of critical

self-reflection, with the aim of identifying and unveiling micro-aggressions and one's

participation or silence which feeds the retention of power and privilege.

Organizational Level

To affect change towards an inclusive culture, evidence suggests attention needs

to be paid to the mezzo level with management processes and influences that sustain

white privilege (Nkomo, 2014; Pless & Maak, 2004). Research illustrates this includes

how white employees “perform whiteness and do race” (Lewis as cited in Nkomo, 2014,

p. 399; Sarver, 2017). Al Ariss et al., (2014) argue that an essential first step is to make

whiteness visible as privilege and domination exist in the discourse of valuing diversity

(Nkomo, 2014). Burgess et al. (n.d.) note that diversity training often seeks to focus on

     
 
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recognizing and valuing differences with a focus on reducing discrimination and

promoting equal employment opportunities. Nkomo (2014) challenges mainstream

diversity training practices which often “sanitize whiteness” and instead, highlights the

importance of including the historical social construction of white privilege as part of

diversity training (2014, p. 399). Green et al. (as cited in Al Ariss et al., 2014) echo the

importance of giving space to historical formations of power and privilege. To focus on

ethnic and racial minorities perpetuates a system of invisible whiteness, a paradox to the

very intent of diversity training.

Burgess et al. (n.d.) present two approaches to build an inclusive organizational

culture through “productive diversity” and “valuing diversity” (p. 81). The foci of the

approaches include aligning all human resource management functions with inclusion

and diversity for vastly different reasons.

Productive diversity, according to Burgess et al. (n.d) highlights the

organizational benefit of diversity as a competitive advantage through the utilization of

"different skills and diverse individuals" (p. 81). Diversity is advocated to provide

“greater market understanding, increasing creativity and innovation, and effective global

relationships” (Robinson & Dechant as cited in Burgess et al., n.d., p. 81). This approach

does not attempt to address or correct any structural inequalities or issues of justice

including pay equity, racialized managerial or leadership models, or addressing employee

well-being or experience of psychological safety.

Valuing diversity, instead, focuses on accommodating different individuals and

adapting organizational systems to align with best management practices of diversity and

inclusion for mutual benefit of the organization and the individual (Burgess et al., n.d.).

     
 
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The process is inclusive of all employees, advocating diversity as a positive benefit with

an aim to change dominant culture, rather than assimilate individual into a dominant

culture (Burgess et al., n.d.). This approach involves cross-cultural diversity sharing,

networking, and mentoring to create awareness of the cultural, political, and structural

system within organization and opportunities for change, yet does not address issues of

hierarchy. This type of organizational change is noted to be slow (Burgess et al., n.d.)

which may result in continued oppressive experiences for individuals from racialized

groups.

Pless and Maak (2004) introduce a four-phase relational model for building a

culture of inclusion:

1. Raising awareness, creating understanding, encouraging reflection.

2. Developing a vision of inclusion.

3. Rethinking key management concepts and principles.

4. Adapting HR systems and processes.

Engaging all levels of the organization and inviting their perspective and voice

into phase one and two works to balance out power differentials and model equality and

inclusion in the organizational process. Inviting participation aligns with Wheatley's

concept of people as co-creators within a living system undergoing constant change. Pless

and Maak (2004) note it is important to identify challenges in hierarchical leadership,

noting a person who is not fully accepted may have difficulty sharing their voice. As

well, hierarchical structures have inherent power imbalances in which executive

leadership may be seen or function as the thinkers and visionaries whereas frontline are

the implementers and doers (Pless and Maak, 2004).

     
 
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Pless and Maak (2004) note rethinking key management concepts and principles

becomes an interactive, dynamic leadership function founded on relationships

characterized by mutual dialogue and understanding, shared responsibility, with the aim

of involving all people, teams, departments in the ongoing organizational processes.

With respect to the last phase of adapting all HR systems and processes, while

Pless and Maak (2004) outline several competencies and developmental components

including training, mentorship, workshop awareness, and ongoing personal reflection,

they also note the importance of addressing succession planning with roles. This concept

is representative of key opportunities for changing an all-white leadership team to

intentional intersections of racial diversity, not for racial representation such as tokenism,

but to address oppression and inequality within the organization with a purpose of

eradication. Additionally, Pless and Maak (2004) point to the importance to not only

hiring diversity but ensuring the recruitment acts as a safeguard, so every new hire

embraces the values of diversity to champion an organizational culture of inclusion.

Guillaume et al. (2013) also position a model linking employee diversity with

organizational outcomes. This “work motivation” model focuses on employee

innovation, effectiveness, and well-being, suggesting dissimilarity leads to favourable

work outcomes in an environment of inclusion, safeguarded by diversity management

practices reinforced through transactional and transformational leadership (Guillaume et

al., 2013, p. 786). Guillaume et al. (2013) argue that evidence suggests that performance

standards and incentives are instrumental in contributing to workgroup effectiveness in

times when individual identification with a workgroup may be low.

Dealing with Resistance

     
 
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One could estimate that all organizations want to succeed in the marketplace.

While research suggests an organizational culture of diversity and inclusion provides a

benefit to this end, Grimes (2001) notes there are often “unintentional ways” white

privilege is maintained. Furthermore, Sarver (2017) points to the often subconscious

ways an individual performs whiteness in their leadership. When one is privileged, it can

be difficult to not only acknowledge the privilege but more so to relinquish it (Grimes,

2001; Johnson as cited in Adams et al., 2018, p. 621).

Creating a culture of inclusion often requires a profound transformation (Pless &

Maak, 2004). Cummins, as cited in Grimes (2002) articulates a poignant question of how

to create organizational change when it is the white person who holds the power or is in

control of the organizational environment. Johnson invites the idea of creating links so

the privileged also understand it as their issue and problem (as cited in Adams et al., 621).

In the face of resistance or challenge, Burgess et al. (n.d.) argue obtaining buy-in

through utilizing the advancement of diversity as a business case to maintain a

competitive edge and acquire a better understanding of the marketplace is a practical

approach. This approach aligns with Sinek’s Golden Circle in which he illustrates

effective leadership through change begins with answering the question of “why” which

engages people to then deliver on the “what” and “how” (2009). Leadership is often

concerned with organizational viability and sustainability. Engaging white leadership

through a business case using a shared goal can likely lend itself to future conversations

of the social benefit of inclusion. That being said, regardless of how and why diversity as

a management philosophy is undertaken, research shows any potential benefit will be

     
 
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limited unless diversity is valued within all levels of the organization (Guiallaume et al.,

2013; Pless and Maak, 2004; Syed & Kramar, 2009)

Green et al. as cited in Al Ariss (2014) question the role of tolerance by the

dominant towards a racialized group instead of challenging the privilege of the dominant.

Pless and Maak (2004) identify organizational expectations of assimilation as a barrier to

inclusive cultures, opining this approach “ignores differences” (p. 130) and expects

integration into the dominant organizational culture rather than identifying, valuing, and

leveraging differences for optimal individual and organizational performance. This

philosophy aligns with Burgess et al. (n.d.) and Guillaume et al. (2013) who further note

the goal of inclusion needs to be woven into each aspect of the organization, including

performance outcomes, to foster an end goal of an organizational culture transformation.

Sarver (2017) illustrates whiteness is not a permanent social construct and as it

evolved into existence, over time it too can be socially reconstructed. First, though,

Sarver (2017) suggests it requires one to awaken to a "performance of whiteness," and

the intersections of racism and leadership (p. 43). Nkomo opines “whites who abdicate

racial privilege can readily reclaim it at the moment they cease to actively reject it”

(2014; p. 396). Ultimately, to transform organizational culture, one must remain patient

with the process and resistance, and actively engage with identifying and understanding

the experience of self and the experience of the other from a lens of power and privilege.

Entrenched systems of power and privilege take time to uproot and allow new systems

and ways of working to emerge and take form.

Conclusion

Whiteness is a complex social construction interlinked with power and privilege,

     
 
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garnering existence in North America through historical factors including colonization.

White privilege still exists within the workplace, and in leadership, despite historical and

recent diversity management efforts, discrimination and inequality still exist towards

racialized groups, perhaps in a more covert manner such as microaggressions. It is

incumbent as social workers, either at the front lines or in leadership, to engage in

ongoing critical reflection to avoid the “unconscious” and promote responsibility for our

thoughts and perspectives which inform our experience and the experience of the other

(Adamowich et al., 2014). Effective leadership is informed by self-awareness.

Critical Reflection

I wrestle with the question of what to do with my whiteness. Whiteness,

according to Nkomo (2014) includes the ability to live and work without the self-

awareness of one's whiteness. Before this course, I was not actively engaged in a process

to remain aware of my privilege and how my social location interacted or impacted

another person. I struggled, and admittedly still do, to know when and how to discuss my

whiteness and make it more visible. Sarver (2017) and Smith, as cited in Adams (2018),

encourages the process of self -reflection to garner awareness of how oppression

intersects with whiteness and informs one’s experience (p.640). For me, this entails

asking myself tough questions, acknowledging how capitalism, sexism, ageism have all

informed the way I view myself, and the world, and choosing to do something

transformative.

Zúñiga, Lopez, and Ford, as cited in Adams et al. (2018) encourages the practice

of intergroup dialogue to unlearn oppression and learn liberation (p. 646). This

intentional organization of people to listen and discuss issues of social justice increases

     
 
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understanding and promotes change. In light of this, I can leverage my privilege for

change at the executive leadership table by beginning conversations regarding inclusion.

I am curious if they have awakened to the realization of their whiteness. Additional

opportunities include forming an inclusion committee as a place for critical reflection,

generating awareness, and fruitful discussion with people from all organizational levels

and departments. This committee could interface with organizational systems and

processes, provide training, and make recommendations on human resource policy for

effective diversity management. The leadership challenge in such a committee includes

creating a culture of safety and openness whereby all people have a voice and feel safe to

share. Power and privilege interplay even at a committee level and it will take active

engagement on my part to identify and address differences of power.

I question if dominant culture can ever be fully equalized and if the concept of

homosocial reproduction exists as a continual threat to valuing differences. At times I

feel the issue of racism and its points of intersectionality is insurmountable. Nkomo

opines "whites who abdicate racial privilege can readily reclaim it at the moment they

cease to actively reject it" (2014; p. 396). This notion seems daunting, that unless I

actively reject my racial privilege, I inadvertently participate in retaining a system of

domination. The Cycle of Liberation, introduced by Harro, as cited in Adams (2018),

provides a model to draw on for social change (p. 629). I can start with dismantling my

own beliefs and internalized oppression, then reach out and name injustices in the

workplace. From there, it seems achievable to build alliances and coalitions within the

organization to begin asking important questions and start to create space and

engagement for change (Harro, as cited in Adams et al., 2018, p. 621).

     
 
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While I have experienced a new level of awakening of my whiteness and that of

the leadership team I am joining, I will consciously work to dismantle my own beliefs

and perspectives by engaging in an intentional process of critical self-reflection as the

first step. I know I have a responsibility to interrogate my whiteness to understand how it

informs workplace relationships and experiences of privilege or oppression to foster an

environment conducive of change. Going forward, my inspiration lies in the quote from

Mohandas Ghandi:

“Be the change you want to see in the world.”

     
 
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