PRODUCTION

OF MATERIALS | HSC CHEMISTRY 2016

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials
such as ethylene, for the production of other substances.

1B: Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of
the fractions from the refining of petroleum.
Fossil Fuels:
− energy-rich compounds found in earth made from decayed plant or
animal matter
− coal, natural gas and crude oil/petroleum
− fractional distillation separates crude oil/petroleum into its components
(gases, gasoline and oils), utilising different boiling points of each
component due to different amounts of dispersion forces
− 1-4 Carbons = gas, 5+ Carbons = liquid

Ethene/Ethylene:
− derived from petroleum distillation in gas fraction
− very reactive alkene (double C-C bond)
− ethene (systematic name) ethylene (common name) C2H4 (formula)
− used to manufacture plastics, pharmaceuticals and industrial chemicals
− C2H4 (g)

− insufficient supply of ethylene from gas fraction alone, therefore must be
manually made
Cracking:
− long carbon chain fractions are cracked to produce smaller, more useful
compounds like ethylene
 − increases output of high-demand substances
Catalytic Cracking:
− long chain carbon compounds with high molar masses (called feedstock-
'fed' into reaction) are cracked apart to yield more useful compounds
with smaller molar masses
− without a catalyst, this would be expensive and unpredictable (i.e. would
not know where chain will break)
− zeolite: fine powder sprayed in ∴ lots of surface area, gaseous feedstock
sticks to surface to activate cracking; the size of the powder particles
control products; lowers activation energy so lower temperatures can be
used ∴ cheaper; can be reused
zeolite
C10H22 -----> C8H18 + C2H4
Feedstock (decane) ----> octane (petrol) + ethylene
zeolite
C18H38 ----> 4C2H4 + C10H22
Feedstock ----> ethylene + feedstock (cracked again)
Steam Cracking:
− other gases (e.g. ethane) are cracked by heating to 750°C with steam
− alkanes decompose to produce shorter alkanes and small alkenes
− predominant in Australia as we have lots of natural gas stores
750°C Steam
C2H6 ----> C2H4 + H2
Ethane ----> ethylene + hydrogen gas

1C: Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond,
is readily transformed into many useful products
− double C-C bond is very reactive due to high tension from closeness of
repelling electrons
− ethylene always reacts in the same way: one bond breaks, electrons go to
outside of molecule, and the other reactant splits in two to join on each
side
− naming products: identify the homologous series (e.g. all single C-C bonds
for alkane, one double C-C bond for alkene, one -OH group for alkanols),
count what carbon the additional elements are attached and put smallest
from either L-R or R-L

Ethylene + Br2 --> 1,2 dibromoethane Ethylene + Cl2 --> 1,2 dichloroethane

Ethylene + HCl --> chloroethane Ethylene + H2O --> Ethanol

cold dilute KMnO4
Ethylene + H2 --> Ethane Ethylene --> 1,2 diethanediol

Ethylene + benzene --> styrene + H2

1D: Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are
made.
− ethylene is a monomer which makes the polymers: polyethylene,
polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride (they are all plastics!)
Polymers:
− long chains of repeating units
− repeating unit is called monomer
− also called plastics
Naming Polymers:
− poly monomer e.g. polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride




 − if given a long monomer, try to compress the chains hanging off into
formula
Polymerisation
− 'chain building'- smaller molecules (monomers) join together to make a
long chain of monomers, called a polymer
− a chemical reaction, as new substances are made
− addition or condensation polymerisation

1E: Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning
of this term.
Addition Polymerisation:
− monomers ADD together to form polymers, breaking double bonds to
allow the addition of many monomers (between 5000-100000)

− double bond is very reactive, so they pop out when approached by
another ethylene and join with their electron
Structural Equation for a Polymer:
− draw the reactive molecule (monomer) but remove double bonds
− n demonstrates repeating monomer

1F: Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a
commercially and industrially significant polymer.
1. INITIATION (starting)
− organic peroxide catalyst R-O• collides with ethylene (C2H4), forcing the
reactive double bond to break and sending electrons onto either side of
ethylene molecule, forming a monomer radical
− radical = free electron


2. PROPOGATION (chain-building)
− free electron reacts with other ethylene monomers to break their double
bond, joining the monomers through addition polymerisation
− repeats to form new bonds, creating a long chain

3. TERMINATION (finish)
− two polymers with free electrons on one end and catalysts on the other
collide and form a new covalent bond, stopping the reaction due to lack of
electrons
− catalyst is removed and reused, and hydrogen is added to seal up ends

− commercially and industrially significant because it can make
polyethylene, polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polystyrene, all of which make
plastics that are used for many important things in industry

1G: Identify the vinyl chloride and styrene monomers as commercially
significant monomers, using both their systematic and common names.

Systematic Name Common Name Formula Explanation
Chloroethene Vinyl Chloride C2H5Cl One Cl atom replaces one
H atom

Systematic Name Common Name Formula Explanation
Phenylethene, Styrene H H One bulky benzene ring
Ethylnylbenzene, | | (six carbons joined in a
Phenelacetylyne C = C ring with electrons in
| | the middle) replaces one
H C6H5 H atom

1H: Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in
terms of their properties.
POLYETHYLENE
− ethene/ethylene monomer
− forms High Density Polyethylene and Low Density Polyethylene
Polymer Rn. Structure Bonding Properties, Reason Use
Conditions
HDPE - Organic - no branches on - covalent - rigid plastic Lunchboxes:
Peroxide and chains bonding (closeness of chains, rigid plastic
Zeigler-Natta - long linear chains within chain strength of disp. maintains shape
catalyst of polymers, closely - dispersion forces) to protect food,
- low packed forces as - waterproof (too big doesn't leak or
pressure - high density intermolecular & bulky to react or react with food
conditions (minimal space forces, dissolve, non-polar) Buckets: rigid
between chains) strengthened - chemically inert plastic
by closeness - thermoplastic (long maintains shape
of chains chains with only to carry, doesn't
- non-polar dispersion forces react or leak
between allows heat
to rearrange them)



Polymer Rn. Structure Bonding Properties, Reason Use
Conditions
LDPE - Organic - branches on - covalent - soft plastic Clingwrap: soft
Peroxide chains bonding (distance between plastic that
catalyst - long chains of within chain chains, weak disp. moulds to shape
- high polymers with - dispersion forces) to seal food,
pressure branches ∴ cannot forces as IMF, - waterproof (too big doesn't leak or
conditions get too close weak due to & bulky to react or react with food
- low density (lots larger dissolve, non-polar) Wire Insulation:
of space between distance - chemically inert soft plastic that
chains) between - thermoplastic (long covers wires so
chains chains with only they are safe
- non-polar dispersion forces and bendable,
between them allows doesn't react
them to be with anything
rearranged with heat











POLYVINYLCHLORIDE
− chloroethene/vinyl chloride monomer
− Cl is very electronegative -> dispersion forces are similar strength to
dipole-dipole forces
− stronger than HDPE and LDPE
Structure Bonding Properties, Reason Use
- long chains of - covalent boding within - strong, rigid plastic Water Pipes: doesn't
polymers, loosely chain (strong disp. forces, less collapse underground as
packed - dispersion forces as flex because Cl are very strong, water
- bulky Cl groups IMF, enhanced by repelled from each doesn't leak, doesn't
electronegative Cl other) react with water and soil
- waterproof
- chemically inert
- thermoplastic

POLYSTYRENE:
− phenelethene/styrene monomer
− contains a benzene ring/phenel group
− creates regular Polystyrene and Expanded Polystyrene
Polymer Structure Bonding Properties, Use
Reason
Polystyrene - long chains of - covalent bonding - rigid, strong CD Cases: protects
(regular) polymers, in chain plastic (strong CD as strong, rigid
- bulky benzene - dispersion forces disp. forces, less plastic, translucent
side rings as IMF, flex because
strengthened by benzene rings are
size of molecule repelled from each
(forces exerted per other)
atom) and side - waterproof
chain - chemically inert
- non-polar - thermoplastic

Polymer Rn. Conditions Structure Bonding Properties, Use

Reason
Polystyrene - CO2 gas is - long chains of - covalent - low density Packaging
(expanded) bubbled polymers, bonding in (space between Foam: light,
through liquid spaced out due chain chains, weak low density
polystyrene to to CO2 gas - dispersion disp. forces plastic protects
create foam -low density forces as IMF, means more items, absorbs
- bulky weaker due to flex) impact
benzene rings CO2 spacing out - insulator (gas Eskys:
- non-polar polymer chains is not a good insulator, light
 conductor)
- absorbs
impact (space
between chains

1ii: Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare
the reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in
bromine water.
Bromine Water: pure bromine, Br2 (aq), one of two elements that is naturally
liquid, brown colour

Hexene: Hexane:
Aim: To compare the reactivities of hexane and hexene, corresponding alkanes
and alkenes, using bromine water
Hypothesis:
− hexene will react first to turn the bromine clear, due to the high energy
double bond
− very stressed structure, creating centre of high electron density leading to
faster reactions
Risk Assessment:
− Alkanes and Alkenes:
• volatile, vapours are dangerous to inhale ∴ use fume cupboard,
ensure adequate ventilation
• flammable, fire risk ∴ no open flames/sparks
• very reactive, cause skin irritation ∴ gloves and safety glasses
− Bromine Water:
• corrosive ∴ gloves and safety glasses
• volatile ∴ use fume cupboard, ensure adequate ventilation
− disposal: Br2 is a halogen (group 7) ∴ cannot go down sink, must go in
organic waste storage bottle
Method:
1. in fume cupboard, wearing appropriate safety equipment, add 4mL of
hexane to one test tube and 4mL of hexene to another
2. drop 5 drops of Br2(aq) into hexene and time how long it takes to react i.e.
shaking test tube to observe colour change. Record results
3. drop 5 drops of Br2(aq) into hexene test tube and time how long it takes to
react i.e. shaking test tube to observe colour change. Record results
4. repeat experiment 5 times
Results:
Hexene Hexane
Reaction Time 21s No reaction
Observations:
− hexene test-tube turned colourless, as hexene reacted with bromine
water to create colourless 1,2dibromohexene
 − hexane test tube didn't react, formed distinct layers as the two substances
are not miscible (note: would be able to tell difference between ethanol +
bromine water and hexane + bromine water as ethanol is miscible ∴ no
layers)
− must draw layers!

Hexane + Bromine Water ---> No reaction (Hexane + Bromine Water)

colourless + brown ---> colourless
1-Hexene + Bromine Water ---> 1,2dibromohexane

Discussion:
Hexene:
− 1-hexene undergoes addition reaction with bromine water, causing
decolourisation
− fast reaction-> high energy of double bond, molecule strained due to
proximity of e- ∴ will react fast to reduce the strain
Bromine:
− even bond/sharing between atoms
− ∴ wants to react with Carbon as will get more electrons (which is more
desirable)
Hexane:
− hexane is saturated (complete, full of hydrogens, stable) ∴ less reactive,
energy must be provided for a substitution reaction to occur
− ∴ will only react if H is removed and Br is added --> requires lots of
energy ∴ only occurs in sunlight
− sunlight provides energy for slow reaction

sunlight/UV energy
Hexane + Bromine Water ---------> bromohexane + hydrogen bromide
Conclusion:
− from this experiment, we found that 1-hexene is more reactive than
hexane.
− representative of trend that alkenes are more reactive than alkanes
− 1-hexene reacted in 21s, while hexane did not react
− this is due to 1-hexene's high energy double bond that creates a centre of
reactivity in the molecule

1iii: Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer
simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the
polymerisation process.

http://www.chemistryland.com/PolymerPlanet/Polymers/PolymerTutorial.htm

http://online.clickview.com.au/mylibrary/videos/21578685-fb2c-9d81-96f6-
42ed43b46701

We use models in Chemistry to demonstrate what is happening at a microscopic
level, allowing us to see the polymerisation reaction in ways that would
otherwise be impossible.

2: Some scientists research the extraction of materials
from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.

2A: Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently
obtained from the petrochemical industry.
− petrochemical industry: fossil fuel industry
− fossil fuels (natural gas, oil and coal are created when plant and animals
die and are compressed over thousands of years, sustaining energy from
high energy bonds within these living beings) are non-renewable, as it
takes many years for them to form
− demand for plastic outweighs supply
− environmental impacts of plastic (non-biodegradable etc.)

2B: Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer.
− a compound formed when monomer molecules join together, forming a
polymer, and releasing one molecule of water
− has a by-product (water) unlike addition polymerisation
 2C: Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is
formed.
− two monomers react to form a chain
− a hydroxide group from one monomer reacts with a hydrogen group from
another to separate from the chain and form water

2D: Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a
condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass.
Glucose:
− monomer that makes up cellulose, a condensation polymer
− glucose joins together and water is removed
− for every pair of glucose added together, one molecule of water is
removed ∴ condensation polymer
C6H12O6

Cellulose:
− long chain of repeating units of glucose, linked with covalent bonds, with
hydrogen bonds between chains ∴ very strong and rigid
− cellulose is found in plant cell walls and is most abundant carbohydrate
on earth, main component of biomass
− a condensation polymer i.e. formed when glucose monomers join together
to form a polymer, releasing one molecule of water

(C6H10O5)n

− loses an OH and an H on each end each time it reacts ∴ loses 2 H and 1 O


Drawing Cellulose:
− hexagon
− Carbons on every corner but one, where an Oxygen is placed
− CH2OH group on top of one Carbon, with Hydrogen on the bottom
− OH group on the top of every other Carbon and H on the bottom
− brackets and n

Biomass:
− material produced by living organisms, organic matter
− dry plant matter, a prevalent form of biomass on Earth, is 50% cellulose
− cellulose is derived from waste biomass e.g. sugar cane stems, leaves and
sawdust from chopping down trees, and sewage ∴ recycling

 2E: Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures
needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material.
Petrol: C8H18 | Diesel: C12H26 | Natural Gas: C4H10 | LPG: C3H8 | Ethylene: C2H4
Cellulose: (C6H10O5)n
− all petrochemicals are made from Carbon and Hydrogen, and cellulose is
made from Carbon and Hydrogen (and Oxygen)
− products (such as plastic) that would usually depend on fossil fuels to be
made can be made with cellulose
− cellulose structures are biopolymers ∴ biodegradable (able to be broken
down by living things) because they are made from living things and is a
condensation polymer
− ∴ biopolymers are much more environmentally friendly than
petrochemical polymers, are not rejected by body and
− in nature, biomass (cellulose) is broken down by bacteria, which eat
covalent bonds within structure to get energy from them, separating into
atoms to form new structures
How is cellulose used?
− industry replicates natural processes through use of genetically modified
bacteria, which are used to separate cellulose into Carbon and Hydrogen
so petrochemicals can be created
− expensive at the moment, but will decrease as research improves and
fossil fuels increase in price
− prevented or disliked by petrochemical companies as has potential to
overtake their business
Potential of cellulose as raw material:
− modifiable to make new polymers by changing existing polymer structure
− broken down to produce source of carbon compounds (e.g. ethylene) and
resulting polymers
− converted to products that can be readily metabolised for food source
(e.g. glucose)
Examples:
− dissolvable stitches (sturdy and strong but no need to return to doctor)
− used as 'cages/moulds' for heart cells, then dissolves to leave heart
(biocompatible i.e. will not be rejected by body as made from natural
structures)

2i: Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary
sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a
named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s) or
organisms used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or
potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties.
− biopolymer: naturally-occuring long chain chemical made from renewable
resources (e.g. plants/microorganisms)
− e.g. cellulose, starch, cotton, proteins, gluten
− note: addition polymers will very rarely be biodegradable, regardless of
what they were made from (i.e. even if biopolymer)- usually condensation
polymers are the biodegradable ones

Name and Info:
− Biopol, a polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
− a copolymer (made of two monomers)
Monomers:
− 3-hydroxyvalerate
− 3-hydroxybutyrate
Structure:

Organisms for Synthesis (bacteria):
− Alcaligenes Eutrophus
Production:
− bacteria grow in steamy, aqueous medium, 20-30°C
− fed large amounts of nutrients (glucose)
− they reproduce rapidly to form large population
− nitrogen is restricted from nutrients once population is big enough,
preventing further reproduction
− polymer isolated and purified
Development:
− attempts to grow polymer more economically have utilised genetic
engineering (biotechnology)
− GMO bacteria include E. coli, can be used to produce Biopol
− advantages: faster growth, better yield, easy recovery, less waste
produced, can utilise cheaper biomass (e.g. whey)
− currently Biopol is more expensive to produce than petrochemical
plastics, but they are biodegradable and made from renewable resources
− using GMO plants/organisms will help to lower cost
Properties (similar to polypropylene):
− biodegradable
− biocompatible
− non-toxic
− insoluble in water
− permeable to oxygen
− resistant to UV, acids and bases
− high MP
− high tensile strength
− denser than water
Uses:
− carrier for slow release of fertilisers/herbicides
− disposable containers (e.g. shampoo/cosmetics bottles)
− disposable items (razors, plastic bags, plastic plates and utensils)



Evaluation:

Advantages Disadvantages
Biodegradable ∴ does not contribute Very high cost due to new technology,
to landfill time etc. (currently costs 5-7 times
more to produce PHA than
petrochemical equivalent)
Biocompatible ∴ can be used in More energy required for PHB
medicine production than petrochemical
equivalent
Renewable ∴ does not contribute CO2 Difficult to produce in large numbers
to environment and does not deplete
fossil fuel stores
Produces lots of waste due to starving
bacteria

∴ will be helpful, effective and suitable once price of production decreases

3: Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available
from renewable resources such as plants.

3A: Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need
for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used.
Ethanol:
− alkanol
− alcohol (drinking and otherwise)
− fuel
− demand for its production is increasing CH3CH2OH or C2H5OH

Dehydration Reaction:
− water molecule is removed from reactant
Concentrated H2SO4
CH3CH2OH(l) -----> C2H4(g) + H2O(l)

Catalyst:
− concentrated H2SO4 (or any concentrated acid)
− lowers the activation energy, increasing efficiency of production
− dehydrating agent (removes water) to favour FR to create more, increasing
yield of ethylene ?

Significance of reaction:
− produces ethylene, highly versatile and sought after chemical
− ∴ reduces reliance on current manners of producing ethylene (fossil
fuels), reducing environmental issues

3B: Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production
of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the
catalyst used.
Dilute H2SO4
C2H4 (g) + H2O (l) -----> CH3CH2OH (l)

Catalyst:
− dilute H2SO4 (or any dilute acid) and 300°C steam
− without the catalysts, ethylene and water would not react (as too stable)
− lowers the activation energy so the reaction occurs faster and yields
more, thus increasing profit and reducing cost

Problems with relying on this method:
− ethylene is derived from fossil fuels ∴ is not renewable, reducing
potential to produce ethanol if crude oil runs out

3C: Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar
and non-polar substances.
− ethanol has a polar end and a non-polar end (amphiphile? ask)
− one end (OH end) has uneven distribution of electrons due to
electronegative O attached to H ∴ polar
− other end has even distribution of electrons as bonds are even and shared
∴ non-polar

− EXPLAIN USING INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
− like dissolves like
− polar substances are capable of hydrogen bonds and dipole-dipole forces
− non-polar substances are only capable of dispersion forces
− polar solvents can dissolve polar solutes as the negative end of one
solvent molecule will be attracted to the positive end of one solute
molecule
− ∴ overcomes original hydrogen bonds/dipole-dipole forces between each
substance's molecules to form hydrogen bonds/dipole-dipole forces with
the other substance's molecules ∴ "dissolving"

 − non-polar solvents can dissolve non-polar solutes as each substance's
dispersion forces between molecules are equally weak ∴ every molecule
is equally attracted to each other ∴ "dissolving"
− ∴ as ethanol is both polar and non-polar, it can dissolve polar substances
using Hydrogen bonds and dipole-dipole forces and non-polar substances
using dispersion forces

3D: Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a
renewable resource.
− classified as fuel as undergoes combustion with oxygen to release energy
CH3CH2OH (aq) + 3O2 (g) -----> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g) + energy
− ethanol can be produced from glucose in biomass via fermentation ∴ is
renewable, as is derived from natural, unlimited sources

3E: Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted.
− Warm Temperatures: enzymes responsible for fermentation process
thrive at warm temperatures (30°C), thus growth and activity increases to
promote fermentation
− Anaerobic Conditions: oxygen would react with ethanol to produce
ethanoic acid, reducing yield, and some enzymes are killed by oxygen
− Removal of Alcohol: yeast is killed off in alcohol concentrations >15% ∴
must be removed to avoid this and reaction continues (vodka is 35%
alcohol, achieved through distilling alcohol separately and adding to
solution)

3F: Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process.
Zymase (yeast)
C6H12O6 (aq) -----> 2CH3CH2OH (l) + 2CO2 (g)
− enzymes (biological catalysts) convert aqueous glucose into ethanol and
carbon dioxide
− yeast/zymase can produce 10-15% concentrated ethanol before it is
killed off
− Photosynthesis: 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) -----> C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)
− glucose stored as cellulose polymer in plants (starch) and animals
(glucose)
− ethanol from fermentation has flavour and is used as drinking alcohol e.g.
wine is tasty due to fancy grapes being used as the biomass from which
glucose is derived, vodka is strong due to potatoes being used as biomass
from which glucose is derived

3G: Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the
value for ethanol from first-hand data.
Molar Heat of Combustion:
− amount of heat released when one mole of a substance undergoes
complete combustion
− kJ/mol
− ΔH is the energy change i.e. heat released per mole of substance
− always negative ΔH i.e. exothermic, as releases heat
Complete Combustion:
− fuel + oxygen ---> water + carbon dioxide
− CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) ---> 3H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
Incomplete Combustion:
− must have H2O and either/both C or CO as products
− will probably have CO2 as product as well
− 2CH3CH2OH(l) + 11/2O2(g) ---> 2CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + C(s) + CO(g)
− CH3CH2OH(l) + 3/2O2(g) ---> 3H2O(l) + C(s) + CO(g)
Balancing Combustion Equations:
1. balance Carbons
2. balance Hydrogens
3. balance Oxygens (using fractions if necessary)
Calculating the Molar Heat of Combustion:
ΔH = -mCΔT
− ΔH- energy change
− m- mass of water
− C- specific heat of water (4.18)
− ΔT- temperature change

3H: Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of its use.
E10:
− petrol blend: 10% ethanol, 90% petrol ∴ 10% of each tank comes from
renewable resource
− reduces reliance on fossil fuels ∴ better for environment
− reduces cost of petrol as ethanol is readily available
− can be used without modification

Advantages of Ethanol as fuel:
1. made from a renewable resource (glucose in plants) ∴ will not run out:
Zymase (yeast)
C6H12O6 (aq) -----> 2CH3CH2OH (l) + 2CO2 (g)
2. burns more completely than petrol, requiring less moles of oxygen per
mole of ethanol:
Ethanol: CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) -----> 3H2O(l) + 2CO2(g) + energy
Petrol (octane): C8H18(l) + 25/2O2(g) -----> 9H2O(l) + 8CO2(g) +energy
∴ incomplete combustion of petrol will occur more often than for ethanol,
releasing more toxins into environment (wastes petrol as revapourised if
not enough O2):
C8H18(l) + 11O2(g) -----> 6CO2(g) + 9H2O(l) + CO + C
3. less CO2 produced per mole of ethanol, reducing greenhouse gas
emissions
4. carbon neutral, amount of CO2 taken in by photosynthesis for glucose =
amount released throughout entire production of ethanol:
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) -----> C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)
Fermentation: C6H12O6 (aq) -----> 2CH3CH2OH (l) + 2CO2 (g)
Combustion: 2CH3CH2OH (l) + 7O2 (g) -----> 6H2O (l) + 4CO2 (g)
(note: combustion equation is balanced differently as 2 mol ethanol produced
in fermentation, 2 mol ethanol available for combustion)
 − reduces strain on fossil fuel supplies, possibly reducing mining
− burns more efficiently than petrol: E10 produces same amount of energy
as 100% petrol
− good solvent ∴ will dissolve engine deposits, cleaning

Disadvantages of Ethanol as a Fuel:
1. does not produce as much energy as petrol with complete combustion:
1364kJ/mol vs. 5464kJ/mol
2. is 20-30 cents more expensive to make per litre (not necc. to buy)
3. large amounts of arable lands required to produce sufficient crops to
make ethanol: not available in most countries
− >10-24% ethanol concentration requires remodelled engine
− lower ingnition temp than petrol ∴ more dangerous to transport: 365°C
vs 450°C
− higher flashpoint than petrol (requires higher temp to vapourise for
energy) ∴ harder to use in cold climates: 13°C vs -40°C
− can absorb moisture and accelerate corrosion ∴ may be bad for car

Potential as an alternative fuel:
− expensive to modify engines for pure ethanol
− expensive to develop infrastructure to support new engines
− not commercially viable to convert large amounts of glucose to ethanol
− ∴ unlike to be used as complete alternative to petrol- more likely to be
used as petrol extension

3I: Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1
to C8.
CARBONS IN CHAIN PREFIX- ANOL
1 Meth
2 Eth
3 Prop
4 But
5 Pent
6 Hex
7 Hept
8 Oct

3i: Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model
kits, digital technologies or computer simulations to model:
− the addition of water to ethylene.

 − note: the double bond must first be broken (by steam and acid) to react
with water, forming ethanol
− the dehydration of ethanol.

− note: the double bond is reformed to form ethylene
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mwci0qcTVDU

3ii: Process information from secondary sources to summarise the
processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane.
− fermentation of ethanol is increasingly popular due to use of renewable
resources, but using grapes for fermentation is expensive
− using agricultural waste for glucose is cheaper e.g. sugar cane, corn
− main crop is removed and waste (leaves, stems etc.) are left- they all
contain cellulose ∴ glucose for cheap fermentation
− ethanol produced using waste is flavourless ∴ used in industry
Crop (whatever is readily available in
country e.g. sugarcane, corn)

Usable part of crop removed

Waste chopped up • Physical Process

H2SO4 hydrolysis/bacteria used to

extract and break down cellulose into • Produces waste and glucose, Chemical Process
glucose

Fermentation •C6H12O6 (aq) -----> 2CH3CH2OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g), Chemical Process

Ethanol Solution
• Initially only 15% concentration as yeast will die when this is
exceeded

Distillation
• Chemical added to remove water, solution distilled and
condensed until purely ethanol, Physical Process


3iii: Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of
ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage.
Summarise Use:
− give definition of fuel with combustion equation
− how: produced from renewable resource, fermentation of glucose from
agricultural waste
− advantages x3
− disadvantages x3
Current Usage:
 − Brazil: did use 100% ethanol as result of 1975 oil crisis, remodeling all
cars, however droughts reduced supply of sugar cane for ethanol,
eliminating fuel source. Engineers then invented FlexiFuel engines, which
can take both ethanol and ethanol/petrol blends depending on what is
readily available and cheap ∴ successfully reducing dependence on
foreign oil and reducing greenhouse gas emissions
− Australia and USA: both use E10, does not require remodeling of engines
− E85 is become more available in some countries, however does require
remodeling
Future Usage:
− cellulosic ethanol: utilises anything with plant cell walls (e.g. grass or
woodchips initially considered as waste), removes cellulose from walls
and breaks into glucose to ferment into ethanol. Would reduce pressure
on agriculture, leaving more supplies for food, however is still expensive
to start a cellulosic ethanol plant
− GMO bacteria: yeast can only withstand 10% ethanol, however using
genetically modified E. coli or similar, would be able to withstand higher
concentrations thus increasing yield

3iv: Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry
out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes.
Aim: To ferment glucose into ethanol and monitor the mass changes that occur,
using yeast as a catalyst and placing it in the sunlight, and connecting it to
limewater to prove CO2(g) production and measuring mass changes.
Hypothesis: The yeast will react with glucose and produce CO2 and ethanol. The
CO2 will make the limewater go milky. The mass will decrease because the CO2
has escaped.
Risk Assessment:
− perform experiment in a well-ventilated area because the ethanol is
volatile and products are smelly.
− wear safety glasses as reactants and products will irritate eye if splashed
Equipment:

Method:
1. place 10g glucose in side arm conical flask and add 60mL warm water.
Stir.
2. add a spatula of dried yeast
3. place the cork in the flask and weigh (without the hose attached)
4. connect the flask to a test tube of limewater
5. place in a sunny spot for one week
6. reweigh the flask with cork in. Record results.
7. filter and distil the filtrate, collecting distillate with boiling point <90°C
Results:
Mass Before (g) Mass After (g) ∴ Mass Change (g)
179.65 176.32 3.33
− observations: limewater turned cloudy, thick froth from CO2 before it
bubbled through to limewater, yeasty and off-alcohol smell

Discussion:
− mass change was due to the CO2 gas that escaped the flask as a product in
the fermentation reaction
− conditions to promote fermentation: warm temperatures, anaerobic
conditions (oxygen reacts with ethanol to create ethanoic acid, this is
what makes wine go off)
− volume of CO2 released (using n= V/MV): 2.8L
Conclusion:
− made ethanol through fermentation using yeast as catalyst in lab
− determined CO2 is product by bubbling gas through limewater, which
made the limewater cloudy
− measured mass change as 3.33g and attribute this to CO2 'lost' to
environment

3v: Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced
equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol.
Yeast
C6H12O6 (aq) -----> 2C2H5OH (l) + 2CO2 (g)

3vi: Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand
investigation to determine and compare heats of combustion of at least
three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole.
Aim: To determine and compare the heats of combustion of pentanol, propanol
and ethanol, per gram and per mole.
Hypothesis: The heat from the combustion of alkanols will heat water up,
allowing us to measure the temperature change of the water using a
thermometer. Using the formula ΔH = -mCΔT, we can calculate the heat of
combustion for each alkanol.
Risk Assessment:
− make sure the room is well-ventilated as there is a risk of incomplete
combustion, which produces toxic CO
− flammable materials (alkanols) must be contained and controlled by the
spirit burner, which encasing alkanol and gradually sucks it up the wick
Equipment:

Method:
1. Weigh the spirit burner containing the alkanol
2. Measure 150mL of water into the can and record the temperature
3. Light the wick
4. When the water temperature is about 15° more than room temperature,
extinguish and record the exact temperature
5. Weight the burner and repeat.







Results: (can use these to practice and test answers)
ALKANOL ΔT WATER Mass of Alkanol (g) ΔH (kJ/mol)
Ethanol 15.5 0.93 -481.41
16 0.87 -531.21
15 0.68 -544.17
15.5 0.85 -526.70
Propanol 17.5 0.66 -1005.74
15 0.74 -763.79
18 0.84 -807.36
16 0.8 -753.58
Pentanol 16 0.61 -1449.46
16.5 0.62 -1470.80
16 0.75 -1572.05
Average ΔH Ethanol: -520.8725 kJ/mol Actual ΔH Ethanol:
Average ΔH Propanol: -832.6175 kJ/mol Actual ΔH Propanol:
Average ΔH Pentanol: -1497.436 kJ/mol Actual ΔH Pentanol:

Discussion:
Why were our results different to actual results?
− heat is 'lost' to surroundings (tin, air and thermometer)
− ethanol is volatile and escaped ∴ hard to get accurate mass
How do we increase accuracy?
− put a heat shield around the tin to insulate against heat loss
− put a lid on tin
− if we used glass, it would absorb heat ∴ using tin
Conclusion:
From this experiment, we were able to measure the heat of combustion of
ethanol as 521 kJ/mol, propanol as 833 kJ/mol and pentanol as 1497 kJ/mol
using a spirit burner. As the alkanols increase in size, so do their heat of
combustions.

4. Oxidation-reductions reactions are increasingly
important as a source of energy.

4A: Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of
electrons.
− a displacement reaction is one in which metal ions in solution accept
electrons from another source (normally atoms of a different metal) to
form atoms and come out of solution, thus transferring electrons
− transfer of e- between substances creates charge ∴ creates electricity
− electron transfer reaction = redox reaction
Half-Equations:
− show transfer of electrons when two are considered together
− are all reversible (equilibrium reactions)
− electrons have no state
− transition metals: assume 2+ unless Ag or Au

Writing Half-Equations:
1. ionic equation: break (aq) into ions
2. net ionic equation: cancel spectator ions
3. oxidation and reduction half equations
OIL: Oxidation is Loss
RIG: Reduction is Gain
Oxidation:
− atom (or ion) loses electrons
− often metal
− the more reactive element reacts to form a compound by losing electrons
− electrons are on RHS
− OIL: Oxidation Is Loss
Ca(s) <---> Ca2+(aq) + 2e-
Al(s) <--> Al3+(aq) + 3e-
Fe+(aq) <--> Fe2+(aq) + e-
Reduction:
− ions (or atom) gain electrons
− metal atoms do not reduce, only oxidise
− the less reactive element reacts to form a pure substance by gaining
electrons
− electrons are on LHS
− RIG: Reduction is Loss
Mg2+(aq) + 2e- <---> Mg(s)
P3-(aq) <---> P(s) + 3e-
2Cl-(aq) <---> Cl2 (g) +2e-
or
Cl (aq) <---> 1/2Cl2 (g) + e-
-
(this is 1/2 mole of Cl2, not half a molecule)

4B: Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in

solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals.
− more reactive metals displace less reactive metals
− the table of standard potentials is a reactivity series (Top=More,
Bottom=Less)

− if a less reactive metal is present in solution (as a soluble salt), it will
swap places if a more reactive metal is added
 − reactive metals want to react with other elements and form a
compound ∴ undergoes oxidation (i.e. two ions joined together i.e.
ions in solution)
− less reactive metal wants to exist by itself ∴ undergoes reduction
CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s) ---> FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Cu (aq) + 2e- <---> Cu(s) | Fe(s) <---> Fe2+(aq) + 2e-
2+

4C: Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their
loss or gain of electrons.
Oxidation State:
− a number/charge assigned to an atom/ion/molecule based on a set of
rules
− indicates the number of electrons lost or gained and the degree of
oxidation
− you must work out the oxidation state of each of the elements on each
side of the equation and compare them
− if oxidation states have changed in a reaction, the species have lost or
gained electrons it is a redox reaction
− if number gets more positive (increased oxidation state), oxidation (loss)
− if number gets more negative (decreased oxidation state), reduction
(gain)
Rules:
1. elements (i.e. natural state, not charged and pure) have an oxidation
number of 0
Cu(s) = 0, O2(g)= 0
2. ions have a oxidation number equal to their charge
Mg2+(aq) = 2+
3. the oxidation number of elements in a neutral compound adds to 0
MgO(s) = 0, O = 2- ∴ Mg = 2+
FeCl3(s) = 0
___ + 3 (___) = 0
Cl = -1 ∴ Fe = +3
4. the oxidation number of substances in polyatomic ion add to the charge
on the ion
SO42-(aq) = 2-
___ + 4 (___) = -2
___ + -8 = -2
O = -2 ∴ S = +6
Cr2O72-= 2-
2 (___) + 7 (___) =-2
2 (___) +-14 = -2
O = -2 ∴ Cr = +6
− N.B: Hydrogen is generally +1, Oxygen is generally -2, group 1 is generally
+1 and group 2 is generally +2 in compounds




4D: Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction
reactions.
− two separated half cells, both an electrode immersed in an electrolyte
− undergoes a redox reaction and transfers electrons through external
circuit
− one cell oxidises to lose electrons and one reduces to gain them, allowing
a flow of electrons between the cells to create electricity (which is a flow
of charge)

− after time, the cell reaches equilibrium ∴ the battery runs out
Salt Bridge:
− a piece of filter paper dipped in salty (ionic) solution
− aims to maintain electrical neutrality (as ions migrate from half-cell to
half-cell) and complete the circuit (allowing ions/charge to flow)
− different solution to two electrolytes
− KNO3 (aq) is best, because it doesn't form a precipitate and is the most ionic
solution
− completes the circuit by allowing ions to flow through solution to the
other side ∴ continuing the flow of charge i.e. electricity
− negative ions flow in the same direction as electrons BECAUSE continuing
electron flow
− positive ions flow in the opposite direction as electrons BECAUSE
attracted to the side that is becoming more negative due to electrons
− initially, the ions from the salt solution flow, and this then gives way to
ions from each electrolyte
Cell Notation:
− a shorthand way of showing the entire galvanic cell
− shows what oxidises (0 -> +2), what reduces (+2 -> 0) and salt bridge (//)
Zn/Zn2+//Cu2+/Cu



4E: Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of
electron flow.
− two electrodes, each immersed in an electrolyte containing ions of the
same metal e.g. Cu(s) and CuSO4(aq)
− connected by a salt bridge and an external wire (using alligator clips) and
connected to a voltmeter
− electrons always flow from most to least reactive i.e. from anode
(oxidation) to cathode (reduction)

Net Redox Equation/Total Cell Equation:
− the overall reaction
− half equations put together with no electrons
Fe(s) --> Fe2+(aq) + 2e-
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- --> Cu(s)
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) --> Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Observations of an Operating Galvanic Cell:
− cathode increases in mass (quantitative)
− shiny new metal deposit on cathode (qualitative)
− Why? Reduction is occurring, meaning that metal ions in the catholyte are
coming out of solution to form a new solid by accepting electrons from
the anode. This new solid forms on the surface of the cathode
− anode decreases in mass (quantitative)
− anode becomes discoloured (qualitative)
− Why? Oxidation is occurring, meaning that solid metal atoms are
dissociating into solution to form their ions and electrons, allowing the
electrons to flow through the circuit. Therefore, molecules of the anode
are being stripped away
− solutions may change colour (if Cu2+ or Fe2+ ions in solution)
− Why? the coloured ions are reduced and turn into solid metal, losing their
colouring

4F: Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe
galvanic cells.
Anode:
− the electrode in a galvanic cell where oxidation occurs
− classified as negative terminal
− normally the more reactive metal
Cathode:
 − the electrode in a galvanic cell where reduction occurs
− classified as positive terminal (t = +)
− normally the less reactive metal
AN OX, RED CAT
Electrode:
− a conductor through which electric current enters or leaves an
electrolytic cell in the form of electrons
− is connected to an external circuit
− metallic in galvanic cells, but can be non-metal
Electrolyte:
− a substance that contains ions and therefore can conduct current flow by
allowing movement of charge
− the substance in which electrodes are placed to provide or accept ions for
redox reactions

4i: Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under
which a galvanic cell is produced.
− set up galvanic cell as shown in diagram
Conditions:
− anode must the most reactive metal
− anode and cathode must be immersed in their respective electrolytes and
physically separated
− conducting circuit must be the only path through which electrons can
flow
− salt bridge must exist
Standard Conditions:
− solutions are 1molL-1 concentration
− experiment done at room temperature (25°C) and room pressure
(100kPa)
− size and condition of electrodes also affects
− needed for experimental value to reach calculated voltage

4ii: Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to
measure the difference in potential of different combinations of metals in
an electrolyte solution.
1. Set up galvanic cell and record voltage on voltmeter
2. Draw and fully label the cell
3. Write the half equations
4. Write the net redox equation for the cell
5. Calculate the predicted voltage
− the voltage is bigger the further apart the elements on the data sheet
Cell Notation: Fe/Fe2+//Cu2+/Cu Measured Voltage: 0.2V
Cell Notation: Sn/Sn2+//Cu2+/Cu Measured Voltage: 0.15V
Cell Notation: Mg/Mg2+//Pb2+/Pb Measured Voltage: 0.45V
Cell Notation: Zn/Zn2+//Cu2+/Cu Measured Voltage: 0.4V


4iii: Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a
dry cell or lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to the button cell in
terms of: chemistry, cost and practicality, impact on society, environmental
impact.
Dry Cell (Regular Battery Button Cell (1.6V Silver)
1.5V)
Chemistry Electrolyte: NH4Cl Paste, Electrolyte: KOH paste, providing
providing just enough just enough electron flow for
electron flow for reaction reaction but not liquid ∴ less leaks
but not liquid ∴ less leaks
Anode: Zinc (outer casing Anode: Zinc (powdered inside
of battery) casing)
Anode Reaction: Anode Reaction:
Zn(s) <--> Zn (aq) + 2e
2+ - Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) --> Zn(OH)2(aq) + 2e-
Cathode: Cathode:
- Graphite (non-metal that - Steel (iron and carbon)
conducts) - surrounded by Ag2O paste
- graphite cathode does not
actually participate in
reaction, just conducts
electrons down it
- MnO2(aq) plastered over
cathode
- the MnO2 ions in solution
around the cathode react
Cathode Reaction: Cathode Reaction:
2MnO2(aq) + 2H (aq) + 2e --> Ag2O(aq) + H2O(l) + 2e- --> 2Ag(s) +
+ -

Mn2O3(aq) + H2O(l) 2OH-(aq)

- NH4Cl provides H (∴
+ - water comes from paste (is
acidic conditions) liquidy)
Diagram: Diagram:

Cost & - inexpensive - expensive due to Ag and the
Practicality - zinc anode casing does precision and size needed making
not oxidise uniformly so them
corrodes in some areas and - powdered Zn anode gives large
leaks surface area and oxidises evenly,
- electrolyte starts to react allowing a high, stable current
with other substances, density over a long time and
 decreasing concentration, doesn't leak
so is not available for - electrolyte concentration is
conducting ∴ reduced constant keeping a steady voltage,
current 2OH- in anode and in cathode
- NH4Cl(aq) <--> NH3(g) + balance each other out so it
HCl(aq) doesn't slowly decrease, just
- build-up of NH3 gas suddenly stops
creates a barrier and
voltage decreases
- also, if gas escapes eqm.
shifts to RHS ∴ less
electrolyte ∴ less
conductivity
Impact on - provides portable energy - is small and chemically non-inert,
Society for safety and convenience allowing devices to be small e.g.
(uses) e.g. torches while pacemakers and hearing aids ∴
bushwalking, black box in improved quality of life
planes - will last a long time suddenly run
- first commercially out as predicted ∴ can be changed
available battery before that in pacemakers
- convenience due to portability
e.g. GPS, calculator
- light
Impact on - does not have huge - has a bigger impact on
Environment impact on environment environment
(disposal) - is a primary cell ∴ cannot - is a primary cell ∴ cannot be
be recharged ∴ contributes recharged ∴ contributes to landfill
to landfill and are and are pollutants (but smaller
pollutants (but only small) than dry cells)
- no radical chemicals- Zn - KOH is caustic ∴ will affect if
and NH4 can be tolerated in leaked
small amounts - Ag is a heavy metal ∴ toxic to
living things even in small
amounts

4iv: Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E⦵
requirement of named electrochemical processes using table of standard
potentials and half-equations.
How to calculate voltage:
1. Find each metal's half-equation on the table of standard potential
2. For the reducing metal, use the given value
3. For the oxidising metal, reverse the sign on the given value (as the
standard potentials are reducing, not oxidising)
4. Add them together
Cell Notation: Fe/Fe2+//Cu2+/Cu Measured Voltage: 0.2V
Fe(s) <---> Fe2+(aq) + 2e- Voltage: +0.44V (reversed)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- <---> Cu(s) Voltage: +0.34V
Calculated Voltage: 0.44V+0.34V = 0.78V
Difference between Calculated and Measured Voltage:
− not at standard conditions (1molL-1 solution and room temperature and
pressure)
Significance of + or - Voltage:
− Positive: reaction is spontaneous i.e. no energy required to catalyse it
− all galvanic cells are spontaneous
− Negative: reaction doesn't occur without input of energy i.e. deficient in
energy
− -2.70V needs >2.70V to become positive ∴ becomes spontaneous

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials.

5A: Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the
conditions under which a nucleus is unstable.
Chemical Reactions vs Nuclear Reactions:
− chemical reactions change the electron arrangement of atoms involved
− nuclear reactions change the nucleus of atoms involved
Isotope:
− atoms with different amounts of neutrons but the same number of
protons ∴ are variations of the same element
− elements are defined by their proton count
Atomic Number:
− protons
− top on periodic table
Mass Number:
− sum of protons and neutrons
− bottom on periodic table
− shown in isotopes e.g. 60Co
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio:
− NEUTRONS/PROTONS or N/P

Stable Isotopes:
− n-p ratio =1
− inside the zone of stability
− smaller elements (atomic number <83) are generally stable (although can
have unstable isotopes)
Unstable Isotopes:
− radioactive isotopes
− n-p ratio = <1 or >1
− too many neutrons or protons in the nucleus
− ∴ emits radiation (either particles or energy) to stabilise and return its n-
p ratio to 1:1
− excited nucleus: too much energy, less stable
− any atom
Types of Radiation:

Alpha Decay (α):
− gets rid of two protons and two neutrons
− ∴ is a Helium nucleus, as anything with two protons is He
− alpha particle = He nucleus
− $#!"
− the biggest particle emitted by a radioisotope
− travels 10cm through air
− stopped by paper
− positively charged
Beta Decay (β):
− gets rid of one neutron by breaking it into a proton and electron, and
expelling the electron
− neutron: proton and electron joined together
− %&'": has 0 mass (electrons weigh nothing) and -1 charge
− electron is a product i.e. on RHS
* * )
)n --> *p + %*e
− travels 20-30cm through air
− stopped by Aluminium
− negatively charged
 − if high (>1.5) n-p ratio, nucleus will undergo β decay to get rid of neutrons
N/P = 126/83 = 1.5
1)2 ) 1)2
/0Bi --> %*e + /5Po
N/P = 144/90 = 1.6
105 ) 105
2)Th --> %*e + 2*Pa
)
− ∴ when told beta decay, use %*e and balance the atomic number (i.e. 91 +
-1 = 90)
Positron Emission:
− gets rid of one proton by breaking it into a positron and a neutron
− positron = positive electron
− '&": 0 mass and 1+ charge
* * )
*p --> )n + *e
− centripetal
− if low (<1) n-p ratio, nucleus will undergo positron emission to get rid of
protons
N/P = 7/8 = 0.875
*: ) *:
/O --> *e + =N
N/P = 6/7 = 0.85
*0 ) *0
=N --> *e + ?C
− ∴ when told positron emission, use )*e and balance the atomic number
(i.e. 6+1=7)
Electron Capture:
− gets rid of one proton by absorbing an electron which combines with a
proton in nucleus to form a neutron
− %&'"
− electron is reactant ∴ is on LHS
* ) *
*p + %*e --> )n
− if low (<1) n-p ratio, nucleus will capture an electron to get rid of a proton
N/P = 8/9 = 0.88
*= ) *=
2F + %*e --> /O
N/P = 22/80 = 0.275
*)1 ) *)1
/)Hg + %*e --> =2Au
− ∴ when told electron capture, use %*)e as reactant and balance atomic
number (i.e. 80 + -1=79)
Gamma Emission (γ):
− electromagnetic wave
− an excited nucleus emits gamma photon to reduce energy levels and
become stable
− no mass and neutral charge, as is light
− travels at speed of light
− travels few km through air
− stopped by lead, concrete or steel
− can put a γ symbol at the end of any nuclear reaction as well as the other
relevant symbol from above
N.B: When describing radioactive decay, use above nuclear equations!



5B: Describe how transuranic elements are produced.
Transuranic Elements:
− elements with atomic mass >92 (i.e. greater than Uranium)
− elements 1-92 are naturally occurring (except Tc)
− elements >92 are man-made using a nuclear reactor or a particle
accelerator
− nucleus of existing isotope is changed by bombarding the target nucleus
with particle
Particle Accelerator:
− protons, alpha particles, nucleus of small elements (H, B, C etc) are fired at
target nucleus (i.e. CHARGED PARTICLES)
− proton = **H
− nuclei are positive as no electrons, just positive protons and neutral
neutrons
− specifically produced by CYCLOTRONS
− particles must be moving at high speed to overcome repulsion from the
positive nucleus (positive repels positive)
− done using alternating positive and negative electric and magnetic fields
− produces neutron-deficient radioisotopes, P > N, because more protons
are added to nucleus
− Production of Mt: two nuclei smash into each other at high speeds
1)/ :/ 1?: *
/0Bi + 1?Fe --> *)2Mt + )n
Linear Accelerators:
− long line of alternating + and - fields with input for particles and target for
nucleus







Cyclotrons:
− accelerates charged particles in a circular path, allowing for more
acceleration distance ∴ more speed

Synchrotrons:
− accelerate protons up to 90% of the speed of light
Nuclear Reactors:
− neutrons are fired at target nucleus
− no need for speed to overcome repulsive forces as they are neutral
 − Uranium-235 undergoes fission reactions to produce neutrons, as is a
chain reaction that occurs each time Uranium meets a neutron
− target nuclei are placed in reactor core where they absorb neutrons
− in core, there are control rods that block Uranium-235 from producing
more neutrons ∴ slowing down or stopping reaction
− reactor core is immersed in heavy water (hydrogen with more than one
neutron), as it absorbs radiation
− produces neutron-rich radioisotopes, as adds neutrons to nucleus
− Production of Np: undergoes Beta decay, proton absorbed by U to
produce Np
10/ * 102 )
21U+ )n --> 20Np + %*e
− ∴ atomic numbers balance on each side
N.B: use the equations to prove that these methods produce transuranic
elements (if in doubt, make up the mass number- it's the process that's
important). Write about the equation and where and how it happens

5C: Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced.
− particle accelerator, firing charged particles at a target nucleus to increase
protons in the nucleus, using either a linear accelerator, cyclotron or
synchrotron with alternating positive and negative electric and magnetic
fields
− ANSTO operates the nucleur reactor at Lucas Heights, Australia,
producing radioisotopes used in medicine, industry, biological and
chemical research
− Used in radiopharmaceuticals, plant experiments, PET scans
*1 * *0
?H + *I --> =J
1= 5 0) *
*0Al + 1He --> *:P + )n
− nuclear reactor, bombarding the target nucleus with neutrons produced
from Uranium-235 fission
2/ * 22 22 )
51Mo + )n --> 51Mo --> 50Tc + %*e
Half-Life:
− time required for half of the initial number of atoms of a radioactive
isotope to decay
− half-life affects the commercial usefulness of a radioisotope

5D: Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect
radiation.
Photographic Film:
− photographic film is encased in plastic and made into a badge
− silver salts within in darken upon exposure to gamma radiation
− checked at the end of each shift to qualitatively measure radiation
− if too dark, people are moved away from that area to allow their body to
get rid of radiation

Geiger Counter:
− chamber filled with inert Ar gas
− radiation ionises Ar, forming positive ions and free electrons
− electrons are attracted to electrodes in the chamber that conduct current
to a recording device
− device makes audible beeps which are counted to quantitatively detect
radiation
− measured in counts per minute (cpm)

Scintillation Counter:
− some substances emit a flash of light when exposed to radiation e.g. ZnS
− electrons become excited and emit light to release energy
− light flashes are counted electronically to quantitatively measure
radiation

How has the development of technology to measure radiation helped society?
− ensures safety before returning to radioactive areas
− ensures safety working in radiation industries, sustaining production for
further use in industry, medicine
− saved lives by reducing and recording exposure
− advanced science, given data to use for research.

5E: Identify one use of a named radioisotope in industry and in medicine.
and
5F: Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical
radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their properties.
and
5ii: Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated
with the use of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine.





 Medical:
22
Technetium-99 | 50 Tc
2/ * 22 22 )
51Mo + )n --> 51Mo --> 50Tc + %*e

Describe Use Chemical Relate Use to Properties Benefits Problems

Properties

- made into 1. low-level 1. needs to emit gamma so - non-invasive - safety risk with
radiopharmaceuti gamma can be detected by the diagnosis ∴ less radiation (e.g.
cals (drugs) and emitter gamma camera time in hospital, cell deformity
injected into 2. short half- 1. low level = safe for patient less recovery time, for workers or
patient life of 6 hours and technician safer patient)
- used to diagnose 3. variety of 1. gamma means that it can - faster and more - made in a
- emits gamma oxidation escape the body as not easily accurate diagnosis nuclear reactor
radiation which is states (from blocked ∴ limited
detected by a +1 to +6) 2. patient does not emit availability as
gamma camera, radiation after they leave only one in Aus,
converts to image hospital and risks of
of organ tested 2. long enough to make drug nuclear reactor
and do scan - benefits are
3. variety of drugs available clear but
to target different organs problems not
(e.g. Iodine goes to thyroid completely
∴ TcI, TcI6) confirmed ∴
risky

Industrial:
Cobalt-60 | ?) 1=Co
:2 * ?)
1= Co + ) n --> 1=Co + γ

Describe Use Chemical Relate Use to Properties Benefits Problems

Properties

- gauges metal 1. half-life of 1. can be left within metal - ensures - long half-life ∴
thickness to find 5.3 years pipes in container as it does quality control harder to dispose of
faults in objects 2. low-level not require regular of metal and - safety risk with
such as metal gamma replacement ∴ convenient safety of pipes radiation (e.g. cell
pipes emitter, a and cost-effective - convenient deformity for
- source of ?)Co is highly 2. emits gamma which and accurate workers or patient)
placed on one penetrative penetrates some metal, way to - made in a nuclear
side in sealed em wave making it useful in regulate pipes reactor ∴ limited
container and determining degree of - less physical availability as only
photographic film thickness work one in Aus, and risks
placed on other. 1 and 2. minimises exposure of nuclear reactor
Film darkens to workers ∴ safer - benefits are clear
when gamma hits but problems not
surface through completely
metal ∴ if dark, confirmed ∴ risky
metal is
thin/cracked

5i: Process information from secondary sources to describe recent
discoveries of metals.
1937: Tc created in a nuclear reactor by bombarding Mo with deuterium nuclei
(heavy Hydrogen 1*H)
1945-1955: Glenn Seaborg created 10 new elements in an accelerator e.g. Np, Pu
1982: Atom number 209 Meitnerium made in a particle accelerator
1)/ :? 1?: *
/0Bi + 1?Fe --> *)2Mt + )n
2003: Atom number 115 Ununpentium made in a cyclotron accelerator by
smashing Americium-243 and Calcium-48 together using alternating positive
and negative electric and magnetic fields to gather speed
150 5/ 1/= *
2:Am + 1)Ca --> **:Uup + 4 )n