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Ergo. in The Operating Room PDF
Ergo. in The Operating Room PDF
ISBN/EAN: 978-90-5155-050-4
Proefschrift
Arma an ALBAYRAK
Copromotor:
Dr.ir. R.H.M. Goossens
Samenstelling promotiecommissie
Rector Magnificus, voorzitter
Prof.dr. H. de Ridder, Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor
Prof.dr. H.J. Bonjer, Dalhousie University, Canada, promotor
Dr.ir. R.H.M. Goossens, Technische Universiteit Delft, copromotor
Prof.dr.ir. C.J. Snijders, Technische Universiteit Delft, Erasmus Medisch Centrum
Prof.dr. J. Lange, Erasmus Medisch Centrum
Prof. A. Melzer, University of Dundee, Scotland, UK
Dr. med. U. Matern, University of Tubingen, Germany
Prof.ir. D.J. van Eijk, Technische Universiteit Delft, reservelid
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 9
1.1 LAPAROSCOPY 9
1.2 SURGICAL TEAM AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT 11
1.3 ERGONOMICS 12
1.4 AIM 13
1.5 DESIGN FRAMEWORK 13
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS 14
1.7 READING GUIDE 15
3.1 INTRODUCTION 32
3.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 33
3.3 RESULTS 34
3.4 DISCUSSION 35
5.1 INTRODUCTION 76
5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 79
5.3 RESULTS 86
5.4 DISCUSSION 90
CHAPTER 6 PRACTICAL ERGONOMIC SOLUTIONS FOR THE SURGICAL TEAM 95
SUMMARY 149
SAMENVATTING 153
REFERENCES 157
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 163
GLOSSARY 171
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 LAPAROSCOPY
Considering that laparoscopic cholecystectomy has become the gold standard, the
basic steps of this procedure should be discussed to understand the many
advantages for the patient. A standard laparoscopic procedure starts with a small
incision in the abdominal wall, usually the umbilicus. Through a special hollow
needle, the abdomen of the patient is inflated with gas (carbon dioxide, CO2), to
create workspace for the surgeon. Through other small incisions, so-called trocars
are placed which serve as ports to introduce laparoscopic instruments into the
abdominal cavity (figure 1.1).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Figure 1.1 During laparoscopic procedures several trocars are used which serve as entrance ports for
the laparoscopic instruments and endoscope into the abdominal cavity.
These instruments give the surgical team the ability to manipulate the organs. To
observe the abdominal cavity, an endoscope equipped with a small video camera is
inserted. The camera is attached to the camera controller (processor unit). During
laparoscopy, the surgeon uses 5 or 10 mm instruments to perform the procedure
successfully. Generally, the required equipment is placed on a laparoscopy trolley,
which holds a monitor, a camera controller, an insufflator that is used for inflation
of the abdomen and a light source to illuminate the dark abdominal cavity through
a light guide cable connected to the endoscope (figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Laparoscopy trolley with the required equipment to perform a laparoscopic procedure.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The operating room is the working environment of the surgical team during surgical
procedures and can be divided into three work areas (figure 1.3). The sterile area is
around the operating table and in most of the ORs positioned in the centre of the
operating room underneath the clean airflow (laminar flow). The surgeon, the
resident, and the scrub nurse are working in this sterile area on either side of the
operating table. This environment is sterile from waist to breast height of the
surgical team. The resident assists the surgeon during the procedure and the scrub
nurse is responsible for passing the required instruments to the surgeon or to the
resident. The anaesthesiology area is at the head of the patient. The
anaesthesiologist is positioned in this area and is non-sterile. The anaesthesiologist
is responsible for monitoring the patient and administering of drugs, fluid and
blood.
The rest of the non-sterile work area in the operating room forms the third area;
this area is the work environment of the circulating nurse. The task of the
circulating nurse is to supply equipment and instruments from outside the sterile
area to the surgical team and operate the equipment in non-sterile area.
Dependent on the procedure, the radiology staff, other disciplines, or guests might
also be present in this work area.
Although the principles are the same for open and laparoscopic procedures,
laparoscopy has altered the way surgeons interact with the surgical field in many
ways. Despite the changes in surgical practice due to the introduction of
laparoscopic surgery, few changes have taken place in the operating room layout,
the position, and posture of the members of the surgical team over the last 100
years. Contradictory, the operating rooms are becoming more and more technology
driven. The increasing dependency on technology to perform surgical procedures
has significant ergonomic implications for the surgical team. This introduces a
multi-disciplinary approach to deal with, focusing on one side on the technology-
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
1.3 ERGONOMICS
Since ergonomics has become relevant for product development and product
evaluation, the working principle is; adapt the environment to the workers, instead
of adapting the workers to their environment (Goossens & Van Veelen, 2001). On
this perspective, it is not surprising that knowledge in the field of ergonomics has
significant contributions to offer improvement of surgical quality and optimisation of
working conditions and performance of the surgical team. From ergonomic point of
view the surgical quality can be defined as; the level of efficiency, safety and
comfort of a surgical procedures (van Veelen, 2003). Efficiency is defined as the
coefficient between effort and benefit. In this definition, effort also implies e.g.
product life span and learning and understanding the use of the product (e.g. it can
take several months to learn how to perform a task without errors). Safety deals
with the wellbeing of the user (in the case of minimally invasive surgery also the
wellbeing of the patient) and the prevention of injury. Comfort can be defined as a
physical and mental state in which one is not aware of any discomfort. The surgical
quality and the working condition can be influenced by a variety of organizational
and economical aspect but also by human-error due to poor ergonomic conditions
such as excessive workload, fatigue, poor human-product interaction, poor
communication among staff, etc. (Gawande et al., 2003).
The field of ergonomics can be divided along the human functions: physical,
sensorial, and cognitive ergonomics. All three types of ergonomics are relevant
when discovering ways to improve surgical quality.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.4 AIM
The aim of this thesis is to improve surgical quality through ergonomics in the
operating room. The aim can be divided into the following categories:
Gain insight into the ergonomic problems in the operating room.
Gain insight into the current state of ergonomics in the operating room.
Gain insight into the body posture and physical discomfort that surgeons may
experience during surgical procedures.
Gain insight into problems intrinsic to laparoscopic viewing regarding sensorial
and cognitive ergonomics.
Development ergonomic solutions regarding the three domains of ergonomics.
During this PhD-research the basic design cycle of Roozenburg and Eekels is used
as a design framework (Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995). The most fundamental model
of designing (basic design cycle) is supplemented with the Participatory Design (PD)
approach.
The medical specialists are professional users with their specific needs, work
conditions, working environment, (technical) jargon, work culture, etc. When
designing products for professional users their involvement in the design process is
crucial since designers can use their knowledge and experience to improve the
quality of the design proposal.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
During this PhD project, the emphasise was on the user and their knowledge, the
environment wherein this knowledge was created and collecting of data from this
environment. Therefore, this PhD-research mainly consists of field studies and has
therefore a high ecological validity. Some of these field studies are supplemented
with experimental studies. During these field studies, it was difficult to control all
the preconditions of testing. As a consequence of this, the results are exploratory
and, where possible, it will be reflected on theoretical insights.
This thesis is based on published or submitted articles. Some of the studies have
the same starting point but a different focus. Each of the articles was introduced
and discussed from the perspective of that particular focus. Inevitably, this has
caused some overlap in the information provided in the different chapters. We have
therefore included a reading guide for different reader groups (figure 1.5).
14
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The outline of this thesis is visualized in figure 1.4. Chapter 2 gives an overview of
the ergonomic problems in surgery. In Chapter 3 the surgeons working area is
highlighted regarding the current state of ergonomics in the operating rooms.
Chapter 4 deals with the discomfort of surgeons during surgical procedures and
evaluation of the developed product solution. In Chapter 5 the focus is on the
quality of laparoscopic viewing wherein the quality measurements, the factors
describing image quality, and surgeons perception of the image will discussed.
Hereafter in Chapter 6, an overview of some practical ergonomic solutions will
described. In Chapter 7 three cases will presented within the design framework as
described in paragraph 1.5. Finally, in Chapter 8, the results of this thesis will
discussed and recommendations for future research will described. The definitions
of the terminology used in this thesis are described in the Glossary.
15
This chapter is mainly based on the following book chapter and article:
Albayrak A and Snijders CJ. (2007). Basics of Surgery: Tools, techniques, attitude and expertise. Maarssen,
Elsevier Gezondheidszorg. 151-169.
Bonjer HJ, Albayrak A, Stassen LPS, Casseres YA, Meijer DW. Improving the endoscopic image: tips and tricks.
Submitted (2008).
16
CHAPTER 2 AN OVERVIEW OF
ERGONOMIC PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY
In the last 100 years little changes have take place in the operating room layout
while the operating rooms are become more technology driven (Albayrak et al.,
2004; Gallagher & Smith, 2003). The increasing dependency on technology to
perform surgical procedures introduced ergonomic problems for the surgical team.
In this chapter, an overview will be given of the ergonomic problems in surgery.
These problems will be discussed along the three domains of ergonomics; physical,
sensorial and cognitive. The physical ergonomics will be restricted to the strain of
the musculoskeletal system, which is relevant for neck, shoulder, arm, hand
problems, lower back, pelvis, and foot. As most of the sensorial and cognitive
problems are seen during laparoscopy this two sections will be focused on the
laparoscopic procedures.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
2.1.1 Posture
2.1.1.1 Open surgery
Open surgery employs large incisions, which allow direct access to tissues and
organs. Through the incision, the surgeon can see, feel, and manipulate the organs
in a natural way, which means that direct sensory perceptions and feedback are
present. During open surgery, surgeons lean forward toward or across the surgical
field to see and manipulate the organs. Consequently, during open surgery the
posture of the surgeon is characterized by a head-bent and back-bent posture
(figure 2.1). The surgeons freedom of movement during open surgery is less
restricted allow for a more dynamic body posture than during minimally invasive
surgery.
Figure 2.1 The surgeons head-bent and back-bent body posture is characteristic of open surgery.
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CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF ERGONOMIC PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY
Figure 2.2 Displacement of the upper body centre of mass forward is accompanied with increased
muscle activity in the lower back to balance the upper body.
2.1.1.2 Laparoscopy
During laparoscopic procedures, long instruments are used which give the surgeon
the ability to manipulate the tissue, as they were replacing the hands of the
surgeon with limited tactile feedback. In addition, the perception of the tissue is not
direct on the tissue anymore but using a monitor. Consequently, during these kinds
of procedures the posture of the surgeon is characterized by straight trunk, rotation
and flexion of the neck. The upper limbs of the surgeon are usually in excursion for
handling the long instruments (figure 2.3). During laparoscopic procedures, the
body movement of the surgeon is very limited resulting in a more static upright
body posture compared to open surgery.
Figure 2.3 During laparoscopy the straight trunk of the surgeon is often accompanied by rotation and
flexion of the neck. The upper limbs are usually in excursion for handling long instruments.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
surgeons suffer from pain in the upper limbs and neck during and after minimally
invasive surgery (Berguer et al., 1997). The characteristic working situation during
laparoscopic procedures involves elongated instruments and limited mobility of the
surgeon during the procedure (Schurr et al., 1999). Laparoscopy requires greater
concentration and places greater mental stress on surgeons comparing to open
surgery (Berguer et al., 2001).
The surgical team consists of people of different body stature. The operating table
is adjusted in height according to the height of the surgeon. Frequently, however,
this working height is not optimal for the remaining members of the team and leads
to ergonomically poor conditions.
It should be clear that the current operating tables cannot be lowered enough to
meet these ergonomic guidelines. This causes excursion/extension of the upper
limbs for handling long instruments. Previous studies reported that approximately
10% of surgeons suffer from pain in the upper limbs and neck during and after
laparoscopic procedures (Berguer et al., 1997). The characteristic work situation
during laparoscopy involves elongated instruments and limited mobility of the
surgeon during the procedure (Schurr et al., 1999). Even if, the posture of the
surgeon is more upright during laparoscopy, however, it seems to be accompanied
by substantially less body movement and weight shifting than during open surgery
(Berguer, 1999). This situation could account for increased static postural fatigue.
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CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF ERGONOMIC PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY
The surgical team also has to deal with problems related to non-optimal working
height. The surgical team often consists of people with different body heights.
Frequently, the height of the operating table is adjusted according to the height of
the surgeon. However, this working height is not always optimal for the other
members of the team and can lead to poor ergonomics conditions. The working
surface height in relation to subject, performing manual work determines the upper
extremity effort and the potential of musculoskeletal injury.
Even in the most modern and well-equipped operating rooms, surgeons often face
ergonomic shortcomings. As a result, the surgeon is frequently forced to adopt
uncomfortable body postures that contribute significantly to fatigue and discomfort,
which may lead to musculoskeletal disorders.
2.1.2 Neck
2.1.2.1 Open surgery
A working environment regarding ergonomics dictates unobstructed line of vision in
neutral standing posture. However, in open surgery, the current position of the
resident and scrub nurse mandates back and neck torsion and flexion to allow clear
vision on the operating field (Gerbrands et al., 2004). To overcome this, most scrub
nurses and residents rotate their body towards the operating field and use a
footstool, particularly during deep intra-abdominal or intrathoracic procedures. The
current height variation of the available footstools is not sufficient for the different
body lengths in the surgical team.
Because of the position of the patient, surgeons tend to lean forward toward or
across the surgical field to see and manipulate the tissue. This body posture
resulting in physical complaints due to neck flexion (figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4 Obstructed line of vision of the resident or scrub nurse due to position of the surgeon.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
2.1.2.2 Laparoscopy
Limited number and wrong positioning of the monitors in the operating room
results in physical complaints in the neck (flexion, extension, and rotation).
2.1.3 Shoulder/Arm
2.1.3.2 Laparoscopy
During laparoscopy, long instruments are used. Due to the fixed insertion point
(position of the trocar) of these instruments, the surgical team has manipulating
problems. Besides the manipulating problems, these instruments also cause
discomfort in the shoulder if the operating table is not adjusted optimally. Since the
operating tables are originally designed for open surgery they cannot adjust low
enough which cause excursion of the upper extremities. Besides wearing heavy
lead apron also caused physical discomfort in the shoulder-neck region (van Veelen
et al., 2003b).
2.1.4 Hand
2.1.4.1 Open surgery
The instruments that are used in open surgery are distinguished from instruments
for laparoscopy with simplicity of their design and favourable mechanical
characteristics. They allow the surgeons with short, solid, and direct contact with
tissues and good tactile feedback.
There are three basic grip principles to handle instruments:
A common grasping and manipulating problem is that instruments are being used
differently than the way they are originally designed for. For instance, using a
precision grip on a handle of an instrument that was designed for force grip. This
unintended use of the instruments could result in physical discomfort like pressure
on the fingers, elbow- and wrist pain.
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CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF ERGONOMIC PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY
2.1.4.2 Laparoscopy
The complexity and inefficient mechanical properties of instruments for laparoscopy
cause grasping and manipulating problems. The internal mechanical design of
instruments results in substantially diminished tactile feedback and an unfavourable
force transmission ratio from handle to tip (Berguer, 1999). In comparing with
instruments for open surgery, 4 to 6 times more force is required to complete the
same task with instruments for laparoscopy (Berguer, 1999). The most frequently
used instruments for laparoscopy can be divided in 3 groups: dissector, grasper,
and scissors. There is a variety of handle design inside this group like axial, angled
shank, multifunctional pistol and ring handle. A previous study shows the results of
an experimental comparison of various ergonomic handles and their design (Matern
et al., 1999). The objective results of this study show that pressure areas caused
by rings and pain caused by ulnar deviation occurred frequently when working with
the ring handle.
ATP is created by the metabolism of the basic foods we eat. This metabolism can
occur in two different modes: aerobic, requiring oxygen, and anaerobic, not using
oxygen. Aerobic metabolism uses a slow biomechanical pathway. On the other
hand, anaerobic metabolism utilizes a fast glycolytic enzyme to break down the
glucose molecule into two lactate molecules and produce two ATPs. The lactate
molecule in the extracellular fluid of the body forms lactic acid, which is a direct
correlate of fatigue. Thus, the trade-off aerobic metabolism is slow but very
efficient, while anaerobic metabolism is very fast but inefficient and gives rise to
fatigue.
During muscle contraction, less blood reaches the working muscle with a
corresponding decrease in oxygen availability. This means that the muscle must
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
2.1.5.2 Laparoscopy
During laparoscopy, the body movement of the surgeon is very limited as compared
with open surgery and they have a more static upright posture. The static strain
results in muscle contraction. Maintaining this position for long periods of time
leads to fatigue in the muscles.
2.1.6 Pelvis
2.1.6.1 Open surgery, laparoscopy
During open surgery as well as laparoscopy, the surgical team tends to lean toward
the rails of the operating table since this is the only supporting surface around the
table. The solid and metal edge of this rail results in bruising in the soft tissue
around the pelvis region.
2.1.7 Foot
2.1.7.1 Open surgery
During open surgery, the diathermy equipment is handled by a knob, which is
integrated in the instrument. Due to manual control of this equipment, a pedal is
unnecessary.
2.1.7.2 Laparoscopy
During laparoscopy, a pedal is used to handle the diathermy and ultra-scission
equipment. The current pedals cause positioning problems due to loosing contact
which contributes to a poor body posture of the surgeon. In addition, there is a risk
of accidentally activating the wrong function (left or right) because of lack of vision.
To hold the foot above the right side of the pedal the surgeon has to keep his/her
foot generally in dorsal flexion. Due to the dorsal flexion of the foot, surgeons
weight is not equally divided over both legs and finally results in an ergonomic poor
and static body posture.
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CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF ERGONOMIC PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY
remote from the manipulation area at the hand level of the surgeon (Hanna et al.,
1998).
With the current monitors as the standard image display system for laparoscopic
surgery, monocular depth cues within the image are further degraded by anti-
cues arising from the monitor. These are caused by the monitor frame and the
glare and reflection from the glass of the monitor. All these factors add to the
degradation in task performance compared to open surgery with normal monocular
vision.
Since the image display system during laparoscopic procedures replaces the eye
of the surgeon, some factors influencing the image quality have to be mentioned.
The three major components describing image quality are resolution, luminance
and chroma (Hanna & Cuschieri, 2001). Image resolution determines the visibility
of details in the image and refers to the sharpness and contrast of the picture;
luminance refers to the amount of light available in the image (brightness), and
chroma denotes the colour intensity or saturation. Several optical factors may
degrade image quality (Eden et al., 1993). Resolution and contrast influence the
ability to appreciate fine details of the image.
The resolution and contrast can also be reduced by glare. Glare can be caused
either by internal reflections (on-axis glare) or by stray light entering the system
from outside the field of view (off-axis glare)(Berber et al., 2002).
During open surgical procedures, the surgeon can view the operating field directly.
The theory of James Gibson can elucidate the cognitive stage of direct visual
perception (Cuschieri, 2006a). This theory postulates a data-driven bottom-up
process and implies direct perception (i.e. the visual data have sufficient
information and are structured within the optical pathway before reaching conscious
perception) (Cuschieri, 2006a). Conversely, during laparoscopic procedures
surgeons must operate guided by images rather than reality (indirect perception).
25
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
According to Gibson, pictures and images of objects have been shown to induce
more perceptual errors than direct perception of objects because they are the result
of viewing with inadequate information (Cuschieri, 2006a). This consideration is of
paramount importance during laparoscopy since the surgical team is almost
completely dependent on the indirect perception. The monitor is hereby the only
interface between the surgical team and the surgical field and thus the main source
yielding/displaying information about the progress of the procedure. A high quality
of the image is therefore requisite to allow safe and efficient laparoscopic
procedures.
Figure 2.5 The circle on the outside represent the original framework of Engeldrums Image Quality
Circle (Engeldrum, 2000) and the circle on the inside represents the topics, which are in the scope of
this thesis. The technology variables are not included in the research.
26
CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF ERGONOMIC PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY
The Image Quality Circle is a framework, which organizes the multiplicity of ideas
that constitute image quality. The Image Quality process begins with determining
Customer Quality Preference and in perspective of laparoscopic procedures
represents the surgeons opinion of image quality. This judgment is connected to
the third element Physical Image Parameters. These are objective measures of
image quality such as the resolution of the endoscope and monitor and
measurements of light transmission of the endoscope and light guide cables. The
last part completing the circle is the Customer Perceptions The Nesses. These
are perceptual attributes mostly visual that form the basis of the judgment of the
surgeon. (Since most visual perceptual attributes like, sharpness, brightness, etc.
end with suffix ness, this term is used as a shorthand notation to emphasise the
connection to human perception).
There are several factors intrinsic to laparoscopic viewing that degrade the surgical
quality and enhance the probability of error during surgical procedures. Many of the
related problems are due to the perceptual and spatial factors. One of the major
perceptual problems is that the image on the flat monitor screen contains only
monocular (pictorial) depth cues of the surgical field to the surgeon (Hanna &
Cuschieri, 2001). This representation of the three-dimensional surgical field on a
two-dimensional screen may reduce depth perception since retinal disparity, and
therefore the resultant stereoscopic vision (i.e. integrated information from two
viewpoints) providing the surgeon a strong sense of depth is missing (Shah et al.,
2003).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
points of instruments do not correspond with the optical axis of the endoscope
camera (Gallagher & Smith, 2003).
Another problem with a spatial aspect involves camera etiquette. The surgeon has
no direct control over the position or orientation of the endoscope. Instead, the
surgeon must rely on the assistant to maintain an optimal position; however,
frequently unintentional camera rotation occurs that can lead to disorientation and
misinterpretation of position of the organs.
One of the problems limiting the surgeons acquisition of skill and degrading the
surgical quality is due to the fulcrum effect. The fulcrum effect of the body wall
causes an inversion of the perceived movements. An internal movement to the
right is displayed as a movement to the left on the monitor. For an inexperienced
surgeon this results in a significantly poorer performance (Gallagher & Smith,
2003).
Some of the problems are caused due to the limitations of the components of the
imaging chain. Both light guide cables and endoscopes contain glass fibres to
transmit light. These glass fibres have a high transmission coefficient. However,
reduction of loss in light in light transmission occurs in the delivery system due to;
Differences of diameters on the connection of the light guide cable with the light
source.
Differences of diameter between the light guide cable and the endoscope.
Surface losses and bulb absorption.
Because of these losses, the transmission coefficient of this part of the imaging
channel is reduced to 20 percent in the best system. As a result of all the losses, a
typical system will deliver considerably less then 1 W of visible light from a 250 W
source lamp (Frank et al., 1997).
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CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF ERGONOMIC PROBLEMS DURING SURGERY
The coaxial alignment of optical fibres and the optical lens system also results in a
shadow less surgical field as both light directions and optical axis subtend the same
angle to the target organ. Because shadows constitute very important pictorial
depth cues, their absence detracts further from the visual information presented to
the surgeon (Hanna & Cuschieri, 2001). In the second place, the viewing angle of
the endoscope refers to the angle formed by the two outer visual limits and
determines the diameter of the field of view and the magnification. Restricted field
of endoscopic vision predispose to iatrogenic tissue injury when instruments move
outside the field of view and account for the high percentage of bile duct and bowel
injuries that are missed during laparoscopic surgery and declare themselves by
virtue of major complications in the postoperative period (Fletcher et al., 1999;
Russel et al., 1996).
The term distortion is applied to the image where lines at the edge of the image
appear curved. Outward curved lines are termed barrel distortion, often
encountered, in endoscopes. The distortion effect increases with wider field of view.
Field curvature indicates that the centre and the edge of the image are not in focus
at the same time. This is difficult to perceive during viewing by eye due to the
constant refocusing of the human ocular lens.
The ergonomic problems discussed in this chapter show how divers the problems
are that the surgical team has to deal with in their profession in daily life. The
overview also shows the opportunities to improve the surgical quality and optimize
the work conditions of the surgical team. In the next chapters, these problems will
be analyzed from a certain perspective and the solutions will be discussed.
29
This chapter is based on the following article:
Albayrak A, Kazemier G, Meijer DW, Bonjer HJ. (2004). Current state of ergonomics of operating rooms of Dutch
hospitals in the endoscopic era. Minimal Invasive Therapy & Allied Technologies. 13(3); 156-160.
30
CHAPTER 3 ERGONOMICS IN THE
OPERATING ROOMS OF DUTCH HOSPITALS
31
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
3.1 Introduction
The majority of current operating rooms (ORs) have been designed in the second
half of the 20th century to allow performance of open surgery. Novel operating
techniques, such as laparoscopic and robotic surgery, differ from open surgery in
many ways. To perform these types of surgery successfully, trolleys for
laparoscopic surgery, monitors, and robotic systems are required. Laparoscopic
equipment such as camera, light source, and insufflator are usually placed on one
or more laparoscopy trolleys. This trolley-based model restricts the ergonomic
configuration of the operating room. Alarcon et al. showed that the percentage of
total floor space occupied by personnel, furniture, and equipment during
laparoscopic procedures increased by 10% over open procedures (Alarcon &
Berguer, 1996). Increasing OR crowding may present unnecessary hazards to
traffic and adversely affect the performance of the surgical team (Alarcon &
Berguer, 1996). Most references of OR design state that the minimum dimensions
for a modern OR should be 37 m2 while specialized rooms require up to 55 m2 of
floor space (Quebbeman, 1993).
Menozzi et al. advised to position the monitors in front of the viewer with a
downward gaze of approximately 100 to 250 below eye level (Menozzi et al., 1994).
To allow these conditions, monitors should be mobile and in height adjustable.
This study reports the current state of ergonomics of Dutch operating rooms for
laparoscopic surgery.
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CHAPTER 3: ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOMS OF DUTCH HOSPITALS
Twenty-nine Dutch hospitals have been visited. Two of the 29 visited hospitals were
academic hospitals, 12 were teaching hospitals and 15 were community hospitals.
The operating room departments of each hospital were visited and the following
items were recorded:
Number of operating rooms per hospital type.
Number of available laparoscopy trolleys.
Mid monitor height (figure 3.1).
Monitor type and dimension.
Monitor placement (either on trolley or on ceiling-mounted boom).
Operating room floor surface area in m2.
Range of height adjustment of operating tables.
Positioning of the surgical team.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
3.3 Results
3.3.2 Trolleys
In the 29 hospitals visited, 69 laparoscopy trolleys were present with a median of
two and an average of 2.4 trolleys per hospital. The average number of trolleys at
university hospitals was 2, at teaching hospitals 3.25 and at community hospitals
1.7.
3.3.3 Monitors
In total 65 monitors were available at the visited hospitals. The average mid
monitor height was 163 cm (range 145-180 cm). All monitors were Cathode Ray
Tube monitors (classic monitors) except for one monitor being a 13 inch Liquid
Crystal Display. All monitors were placed on trolleys except for two, which were
attached on a ceiling-mounted boom. One of the 29 hospitals had ceiling-mounted
booms for placement of two monitors. The dimension and the number of the
monitors are shown in table 3.2. Fifty-one monitors (81%) were fixed on the top of
the trolley. Twelve monitors (19%) were attached to the trolley by a swinging arm,
allowing it to move towards or swing over the operating field.
Table 3.2 Dimension, number and mobility of monitors per hospital type.
34
CHAPTER 3: ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOMS OF DUTCH HOSPITALS
Five different positions of surgical teams were registered (figure 3.2). Position 1
and 4 were encountered in 12% of procedures, position 3 and 5 in 21% of
procedures, and position 2 in 67% of procedures. There was no difference in
distribution of positioning of the surgical team over each type of hospitals.
Figure 3.2 Different positions of the surgical team during laparoscopic surgery.
3.4 Discussion
35
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
gases, and electric outlets has become commonplace. Use of ceiling-mounted boom
for monitors is, however, rare, given that only one of the visited had such a setup.
The disadvantage of attaching a heavy monitor on a ceiling-mounted boom is the
necessity to install heavy-duty booms. Moving the monitor and boom requires
substantial physical strength. The latest high quality versions of flat screens, which
are low in weight, are easy to position and take up less space.
In laparoscopic surgery, members of the surgical team stand on both sides of the
table in the great majority of procedures. Assessing the position of the surgical
team from an ergonomic point of view, position 1 and 4 require one monitor (12%
of procedures), position 3 requires two monitors (11% of procedures), and position
2 and 5 require three monitors (77% of procedures) to allow unobstructed line of
vision without neck torsion by each member of the surgical team (figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3 Ergonomically optimal positioning of the surgical team and number of monitors.
To allow the surgical team to watch the screen without cervical torsion, this study
shows that employment of two or more monitors is mandatory in those instances.
In this study, only seven of 29 (24%) hospitals used multiply monitors.
When the screen is attached on a ceiling-mounted boom that can be moved up and
down, the optimal viewing angle of 10-25 degrees downward gaze can be realized
(Menozzi et al., 1994). The optimal dimension of the monitor is determined by the
distance between the surgeons eye and the screen. In the majority of the hospitals
19-inch screen were used. Considering this screen size, the average distance
36
CHAPTER 3: ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOMS OF DUTCH HOSPITALS
between the surgeons eyes and the screen should be between 70-95 cm (Menozzi
et al., 1994).
The total length of the arm of the surgeon holding a laparoscopic instrument is
approximately 30 cm greater than that of a surgeons arm holding an instrument
for open surgery. Studies show that long laparoscopic instruments potentially cause
excessive flexion and ulnar deviation of the surgeons wrist and abduction of the
arms during manipulation (Berguer, 1998; Matern & Waller, 1999). The optimal
height of the operating table in open surgery is three quarters of the height of the
surgeons elbow (van Veelen et al., 2002b). Given that the average height of the
elbow of the surgeon (± SD) is 110 cm (male and female) (www.dined.nl, 2004),
the table should be positioned at a height of 82.5 cm for open surgery. Adding the
length of laparoscopic instrument converts the optimal height of the operating table
for laparoscopic surgery to 52.5 cm. To prevent undue strain of the surgeons upper
limbs, operating tables should be lowered further than currently possible. Berguer
et al. showed, using electromyography, that a mismatch between table height and
body length of the surgeon increases muscular strain (Berguer et al., 2002).
The floor surface area of operating rooms in the first half of the 20th century
tended to be greater than in the second half. In the early nineteen hundreds day
light was a main source of lighting the surgical field. Therefore, large windows were
necessary to provide sufficient exposure to day light. Furthermore, surgical
instruments in large canisters were stored in the operating room instead of in a
separate room. Due to the development of high power operating lamps and
alternative design of the operating room complex, the floor surface area of
operating rooms was reduced.
37
This chapter is based on the following articles:
Albayrak A, van Veelen MA, Prins JF, Snijders CJ, de Ridder H, Kazemier G. (2007). A newly designed ergonomic
body support for surgeons. Surgical Endoscopy 21(10): 1835-1840.
Albayrak A, de Ridder H, Bonjer HJ, Goossens RHM, Snijders CJ, Kazemier G. (2006). Reducing muscle activity of
the surgeon during surgical procedures. In Proceedings of the 16th World Congress on Ergonomics, Maastricht, The
Netherlands: International Ergonomics Association.
Albayrak A, Goossens RHM, Snijders CJ, de Ridder H, Kazemier G. Impact of a chest support on lower back
muscles activity during forward bending. Submitted (2008).
38
CHAPTER 4 DISCOMFORT DURING
SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND
EVALUATION
One of the main physical ergonomic problems during surgical procedures is the
surgeons uncomfortable body posture. Surgeons maintain this position for long
periods often resulting in physical discomfort during and after surgery.
Furthermore, people of different body height are often present within the surgical
team. During both kinds of procedures, the operating table is adjusted in height
best suiting the surgeon. Frequently, however, this working height is non-optimal
for the other members of the team.
The aim of Study II is to investigate the impact of the developed product solution
on lower back muscle activity during forward bending and to establish a possible
relation between the supporting force and the kind of balancing strategy a person
adopts.
39
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
40
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY I
4.1.1 Introduction
Due to the position of the patient during open surgery, surgeons tend to lean
forward toward or even over the surgical field to see and manipulate the tissue.
This leaning forward results in increased muscle activity to balance the upper body.
Kant et al. reported that surgeons and scrub nurses exhibited frequent static body
postures that were distinctly harmful and contributed to physical fatigue during
surgery (Kant et al., 1992). Maintaining the uncomfortable position of the body for
longer periods results in musculoskeletal fatigue and physical complaints on the
part of surgeons. After open surgery, 30% of surgeons report pain and stiffness of
shoulders, neck, and lower back (Mirbod et al., 1995). These complaints are caused
by extending the centre of gravity of the upper body forwards (figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1 Displacement centre of gravity of the upper body as a result of bending forward.
41
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
1997). Cuschieri has described a surgical fatigue syndrome that occurs after
minimally invasive surgery has been performed for 4 hours (Cuschieri, 1995).
Figure 4.2 Uncomfortable excursion of the upper extremities as a result of using long laparoscopic
instruments.
In addition to poor posture, which can cause musculoskeletal fatigue, the surgical
team also has to deal with problems related to non-optimal working height. The
surgical team often consists of people with different body heights. Frequently, the
height of the operating table is adjusted according to the height of the surgeon.
However, this working height is not always optimal for the remaining members of
the team and can lead to ergonomically poor conditions. The working surface height
relative to a subject performing manual work determines the upper extremity effort
and the potential for musculoskeletal injury. Furthermore, operating tables were
originally designed for open surgery, they are not optimal for minimally invasive
procedures. The operating tables are adjustable in height between 725 and 1215
mm (Albayrak et al., 2004).
A previous study showed that the discomfort and difficulty ratings were lowest
when instrument handles were positioned at the elbow height of the surgeon
(Berguer et al., 2002). Regarding the guideline of positioning the instruments at
elbow height, the ergonomic operating surface height (defined as the navel height
of the patient lying on the operating table while the abdomen is filled with carbon
dioxide [CO2]) lies between 0.7 and 0.8 of the operator/assistants elbow height
(6501000 mm) (van Veelen et al., 2002b). It is obvious that current operating
tables cannot adjust low enough to satisfy the ergonomic guidelines, thus changing
the relation between the height of the surgeons hands and the desirable height of
the operating table (van Veelen et al., 2002b).
42
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY I
Crowding in the operating room and positioning of the surgical team around the
operating table also contribute to the aforementioned problems. Alarcon and
Berguer concluded that there is a significant trend toward increasing operating
room crowding during laparoscopy (Alarcon & Berguer, 1996). The percentage of
operating room space occupied by furniture, equipment, and people increased from
36% for open surgery to 41% for laparoscopy. The median number of pieces of
equipment present in the operating room increased from 6 for open procedures to
13 for laparoscopic procedures, reflecting the increased dependency of laparoscopy
on technology (Alarcon & Berguer, 1996). Additionally, the freedom of positioning
the surgical team and equipment around the operating table is limited because the
base of the operating table is usually fixed to the floor.
This study aimed to develop an ergonomic body support that supports surgeons
during both open and minimally invasive procedures, reduces the surgeons muscle
activity in the lower back and extremities, and solves problems related to non-
optimal working height.
During the design process, the participatory design approach was used. This
approach involves the user group throughout the whole design process to help
ensure that the product designed meets their needs (Muller & Kuhn, 1993). The
surgeons of the Erasmus Medical Centre in Rotterdam were closely associated with
this study. After a literature study, observations, interviews, and analysis of the
current situation, a couple of design criteria were formulated. Based on these
design criteria, a prototype was built.
The feasibility of this prototype was assessed during surgical procedures in the
operating room, and a questionnaire was used to record the value of the prototype
as perceived by the participating surgeons. Furthermore, electromyography (EMG)
recording was accomplished with one subject using the prototype.
43
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Due to their body posture, surgeons experience physical discomfort in their lower
back during and after open surgery. Accordingly, in the biomechanical model the
forces are assessed in the lower back (Snijders et al., 2004). For the analysis of
load transfer at the lumbar level, a free body diagram was made. The mass centre
of gravity of the upper body is located just below the axillaes. Here the gravity
force (Fg) is drawn. The disc L5-S1 is located in the cross-section (D) and can be
considered as the hinge of a joint (figure 4.3). The horizontal distance between
gravity force and this joint is the lever arm (a) of upper body weight. The product
of Fg and a produces moment M = Fg x a which tends to rotate the upper body
clockwise. This must be counteracted by a moment with counter clockwise
direction. This is produced by the back muscle force (Fm) with lever arm b with
respect to the middle of the disc. Additionally, the supporting force Fsupport also
produces a moment M = Fsupport x c with counter clockwise direction (c is the
distance between the centre of the chest support and the centre of the disc (D)).
Equilibrium of moments results in;
Fg . a = (Fm . b) + (Fsupport . c) or
Fm = Fg . a/b Fsupport . c/b.
44
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY I
45
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
SPSS 11.0 for Windows was used for statistical analysis of the results. The
Repeated-Measures ANOVAs, 2 (angles 1 en 2) x 3 (with/without support on
height h1 and h2) was done per muscle group. All effects were reported as
significant at p 0.05.
Figure 4.4 Design process for the ergonomic surgeons body support.
4.1.2.4 Prototype
Further development of the concept in detail has finally led to building a functional
prototype (figure 4.5). The body support consists of different parts. The surgeon
stands on a platform that can move up and down (as directed by a remote control).
There is a chest support, which the surgeon can activate during open procedures by
leaning against it. The chest support is adjustable in height and can be removed
easily, which allows the surgeon more space during laparoscopic procedures or
46
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY I
4.1.2.5 Questionnaire
The feasibility of the designed ergonomic body support was assessed during several
open and laparoscopic procedures in the operating room of the Erasmus Medical
Centre (figure 4.6). For an objective assessment of the prototype, the surgeons
involved in developing the body support were excluded from the feasibility study. A
questionnaire was used to record the value of the support as perceived by the
participating surgeon.
47
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Figure 4.6 Feasibility of the prototype during minimally invasive procedures (right side) and open
procedures (left side).
4.1.3 Results
4.1.3.1 Electromyography using the chest support
The results of the EMG-recording of the three measured muscles (erector spinae,
semitendinosus, and gastrocnemius muscles) are shown in figure 4.7 as
percentages of MVC-recording. The minimal muscle activity for all of the three
muscles is during relaxed standing. During bending forward without support, the
muscle activity increases proportionally with the bending angle. The usage of the
chest support reduces the muscle activity systematically especially in the leg
48
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY I
muscles. The muscle activity reduces proportionally with increasing height of the
support. It is remarkable that increasing of the bending angle barely affect this
trend.
There was a significant interaction between the angle and height at m. erector
spinae (back muscle) (F (1.8, 7.1) = 11.19; p = 0.007). At the leg muscles, there
was a significant main effect of height: m. semitendinosus (hamstring) (F (1.0, 4.1)
= 18.23; p = 0.012); m. gastrocnemius (calf muscle) (F (1.1, 4.3) = 39.30; p =
0.002).
4.1.3.2 Questionnaire
The results of the questionnaire completed by seven independent participating
surgeons are presented in Table 4.1. The results are divided into four categories:
personal information about the subjects, type of surgery, and the positioning of the
surgical team during the procedure, total operating time, and time of prototype
usage as a percentage of the total operating time, and finally the judgment of the
participating surgeons. The comfort judgment is based on the extent of overall
discomfort reduction using the prototype and the user friendliness of different parts
49
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
of the prototype. For this reason, the comfort judgment is divided in four
subgroups:
Overall comfort.
Comfort during the use of chest support.
Comfort during the use of semi-standing support.
Comfort during the use of the foot pedal.
1 2 3
O = Open surgery
MIS = Minimally invasive procedure
** These two surgeons have alternated during the procedure
*** U = unrestricted, R = restricted
**** After processing his suggestions in the product
50
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY I
Figure 4.8 Results of electromyography (EMG) recording for one subject (P50-man) with and without
the chest support.
The minimal muscle activity for all three muscles occurs during relaxed standing.
When the surgeon bends forward without support, the muscle activity increases
proportionally with the bending angle. Use of the chest support reduces the muscle
activity systematically (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Reduction of muscle activity during bending forward without chest support.
Reduction of muscle activity during bending forward without chest
support
Forward bending angle with
m. erector spinae m. semitendinosus m. gastrocnemius
chest support
15º 40 % 26 % 77 %
20º 48 % 14 % 70 %
The results of the EMG recording for the three measured muscles (erector spinae,
semitendinosus, and gastrocnemius muscles) with and without the semi-standing
support are shown in figure 4.9 as percentages of MVIC.
The semi standing support is effective in reducing muscle activity in the leg
muscles, especially the calf muscle (Table 4.3).
51
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Figure 4.9 Results of electromyography (EMG) recording for one subject (P50) man) with and without
the semi-standing support.
Table 4.3 Reduction of muscle activity using the semi standing support.
Reduction muscle activity (%) with regard to without semi-standing support
m. erector spinae m. semitendinosus m. gastrocnemius
With semi-
5% 12 % 50 %
standing support
4.1.4 Discussion
In general, the risk factors for musculoskeletal injury include non-ergonomic body
postures, frequent awkward repetitive movements of the upper extremities, and
prolonged static head and back postures. In addition, surgeons experience
cardiovascular stress during procedures, and the magnitude of this stress can
exceed the level of aerobic physical work performed (Berguer, 1999). The fact that
surgeons are performing surgery so concentrated that they tend to neglect their
posture increases the need for body support.
Our design vision has resulted in the development of an ergonomic body support
for surgeons that is suitable for use during both open and minimally invasive
procedures. Only a few studies have dealt with support for the surgeons body. In a
previous study, the design of an ergonomic surgeons chair was discussed, but it did
not provide any information about the effect of body support on the reduction of
muscle activity (Schurr et al., 1999).
The results of our study imply that supporting the body by means of a chest
support is effective in reducing the activity of the lower back and leg muscles
during open surgery. The desired effect of the chest support is closely related to the
optimal height of the support (Albayrak et al., 2006b; Albayrak et al., 2006c).
According to the variation in body lengths, the chest support must be adjustable in
52
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY I
a range of 40 cm (0.8 x P5-woman shoulder height and 0.9 x P95- man shoulder
height) (Albayrak et al., 2006b; Albayrak et al., 2006c). The semi-standing support
shows a trend of reduced leg muscle activity similar to that for the chest support.
Conversely, the contribution of the semi-standing support to the reduction in
activity of the erector spinae muscle is very limited.
Laparoscopy has been adopted in operating rooms without any proper adjustments
of their design and layout. Because the current operating tables are originally
designed for open surgery, they are not optimal for minimally invasive procedures
with regard to ergonomic guidelines. The current operating tables are adjustable in
height to between 725 and 1,215 mm (Albayrak et al., 2004). A previous study
showed that the discomfort and difficulty ratings were lowest when instruments
handles were positioned at elbow height of the surgeon (Berguer et al., 2002). With
regard to the guideline of positioning the instruments at elbow height, the
ergonomic operating surface height (defined as the navel height of the patient lying
on the operating table while the abdomen is filled with carbon dioxide [CO2]) lies
between 0.7 and 0.8 of the operator/assistants elbow height (6501000) (van
Veelen et al., 2002b).
It is obvious that the current operating tables cannot be adjusted low enough to
satisfy ergonomic guidelines. According to Berguer et al., redesigning of surgical
tables or the operating room workspace is required to optimize the postural
ergonomics of laparoscopy (Berguer et al., 2002). However, this is an expensive
and time-consuming approach that may interfere with adoption of this solution by
the hospitals. A much cheaper and more effective solution for this problem is to
position the surgeon on a height-adjustable platform.
The platform of the body support is adjustable in height by means of a motor that
can be operated by a remote control. This remote control is packed in a sterile
cover, allowing the surgeon to adjust the height of the platform independently of
assisting personnel during the procedures. The platform is powered from the main
supply, and the height of the platform ranges from 60 mm (minimum) to 460 mm
(maximum), meaning that 95% of the user group will have a comfortable posture
(in combination with the current operating tables). The semi-standing support at
the buttocks has a maximum height of 900 mm when the platform is positioned in
the lowest position for a tall surgeon. The height of the semi-standing support is
proportional to the height of the platform. This allows optimal placement of this
support for the whole user group.
Due to the positioning of the equipment during both kinds of procedures, surgeons
have a limited space around the operating table for movement, which elicits a static
body posture. Taking into account the limited space available in the operating
53
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
room, the body support must be designed as compactly as possible. The design
criteria (body support as compact as possible, comfortable and safe use by 95% of
the user group, and sufficient space allowed for positioning of the foot pedal for
electro surgery) are contradictory conditions. The platform must be large enough
for comfortable and safe standing of a tall surgeon while allowing sufficient space
for positioning of the foot pedal. On the other hand, it must be as compact as
possible considering the limited space.
A point of interest for the designer when users are interacting with products is the
experienced level of comfort. Van Veelen et al., reports that surgeons frequently
complain about pressure areas as well as pain and fatigue in hand and lower limb
joints from manipulation of instruments for minimally invasive surgery (van Veelen
et al., 2003a). It should be mentioned that we were particularly interested in one of
the interactions between our product and surgeons: leaning against the chest
support. This may have consequences for breathing because of the pressure on the
chest. Nevertheless, none of the surgeons has experienced discomfort using the
chest support.
Conclusions
The optimum working condition for a surgeon is a compromise between the spine
and arm positions and the effort and fatigue of their respective supporting muscular
groups. The results of this study imply that supporting the body is an effective way
of reducing muscle activity, which over the long term may reduce physical
complaints and discomfort. Additionally, the product supports the surgeon in his or
her natural posture during both open and minimally invasive procedures while
solving working heightrelated problems of the surgical team. Because of the
simplicity in its design and compactness, the ergonomic body support can easily be
adopted in the current layout of the operating room.
54
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
4.2.1 Introduction
Recently, Albayrak et al. proposed a new design for an ergonomic body support for
surgeons that can be used during open as well as minimally invasive procedures
(Albayrak et al., 2007). An important element in this design is a chest support
meant to reduce lower back pain by minimizing the lower back muscles activity.
During open surgical procedures this muscle activity is caused by surgeons taking a
head- and back-bent posture for long periods of time. Such posture leads to
enhanced muscle activity to keep the upper body in balance (Albayrak et al.,
2006b). This may be regarded as one of the main causes for physical complaints in
the lower back during and after open surgical procedures.
Theoretically, the reduction in the lower back muscles force causing the increased
muscle activity can be described by a biomechanical model (Albayrak et al., 2006b;
Albayrak et al., 2006c). Figure 4.10 shows the details of such a model for bending
forward while leaning against a chest support. The upper body weight (Fg), the
back muscle force (Fm) at the level of L5 (lumbar) and the supporting force
(Fsupport) are included in this biomechanical model. Note that the model is limited to
the sagittal plane and describes a static equilibrium. A cross-section of the trunk is
made at L5-S1 (disc). The mass centre of gravity of the upper body is located near
the axillae (Snijders et al., 2004).
D = L5 S1 (disc)
= forward bending angle
a = distance between the mass centre of
gravity of the upper body and the centre of the disc (D)
b = distance between the back muscles and the centre
of the disc (D)
c = distance between the centre of the chest support
and the centre of the disc (D)
Fg = upper body weight being equal to 65 % of the
total body weight (Snijders et al., 2004)
Fm = back muscle force
Fsupport = supporting force
Figure 4.10 Biomechanical model of bending forward while leaning on a chest support. The reaction
forces (Frg, Frm, and Frs) in the disc are not drawn in this model.
55
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
To investigate the viability of the chest support, a prototype was built and tested
with five participants (Albayrak et al., 2006b; Albayrak et al., 2006c). The
participants were three Dutch females (P5, P50, P95-woman) and two Dutch males
((P50, P95-man), percentiles Dutch population (www.dined.nl, 2004)). The
experimental conditions consisted of two bending angles and two different heights
of the support, both within the area of the chest. The posture of the participants
simulated typical head- and back-bent posture of surgeons during surgical
procedures. The muscle activity (electromyography, EMG-recording) in the lower
back (right side of m. erector spinae) and right leg (m. gastrocnemius and m.
semitendinosus) was measured both with and without using the chest support. The
results averaged across the participants showed that muscle activity increases
proportionally with the bending angle during bending forward without chest
support. The usage of the chest support reduced the muscle activity significantly
with a major impact on the leg muscles. This reduction was found to depend on the
height of the chest support but the resulting Fm appeared almost independent of
the bending angle. According to our biomechanical model the latter would imply
that Fsupport is growing proportionally with bending angle .
56
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
condition without support and (2) muscle force Fm decreases when Fsupport is larger
than zero. This effect is strengthened by increasing height (c) of the chest support.
These conclusions hold for results averaged across subjects. However, the question
rose what happens at the individual level? The model in fact incorporates two
important anthropometric variables, namely body length in parameters a and c and
body weight in parameter Fg. Hence, at individual level an additional prediction can
be formulated, namely muscle activity increases with body length and weight.
Table 4.4 Calculated muscle force and EMG-recordings, both in absolute values and in %MVIC, for
five participants in the condition without support and for two bending angles (15º and 20º). Data have
been taken from Albayrak et al. (Albayrak et al., 2006b).
F = female, M = male
57
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
100
P5 (F)
90 P50 (F)
P95 (F)
80 P50 (M)
P95 (M)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
250 450 650 850 1050
Calculated muscle force (N)
Figure 4.11 Measured EMG-recording, expressed in %MVIC, as a function of muscle force in the
lower back calculated according to the biomechanical model without support (Equation 1) for two
bending angles. The characteristics of the subjects are presented in Table 4.4.
The biomechanical model appears to predict the conditions within subjects correctly
but has some limitations in predicting the observed differences in muscle activity
between subjects. Surprisingly, the measured muscle activity (%MVIC) seems to
decrease with increasing body length and weight (and hence muscle force) for
females as well as males. Interestingly, similar deviations of biomechanical
modelling have been reported by others (Arjmand & Shirazi-Adl, 2005, 2006;
Granata & Marras, 1995). As a possible explanation, Granata and Marras suggested
that appropriate representation of muscle area is essential to the validity and
performance of biomechanical models, because muscle force per unit area is highly
variable between subjects, depending on participant condition and natural ability
(Granata & Marras, 1995). Arjmand and Shirazi-Adl noted that in biomechanical
models of trunk load the balance of net external moments is considered only at one
cross-section rather than along the entire length of the spine (Arjmand & Shirazi-
Adl, 2006). Moreover, the evaluated muscle forces, once applied on the system
along with external loads, may not necessarily generate the same spinal kinematics
under which they were initially calculated (Arjmand & Shirazi-Adl, 2006). Hence,
due to their static and two-dimensional approach, biomechanical models seem to
have some limitations in predicting conditions between subjects. Nevertheless,
biomechanical models are useful to predict conditions within subjects.
58
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
E = m . Fm + n, (Equation 3)
where m and n are constants. Then, the following relation holds for the condition
without support
EWOS = m . Fg .(a/b) + n, (Equation 4)
and the following relation for the condition with support
EWS = m . Fg . (a/b) - Fsupport . (c/b) + n, (Equation 5)
with EWOS and EWS being actual EMG-recordings under similar conditions
(bending angle and height of the support). Then, Fsupport can be estimated by
subtracting eq. 4 from eq. 5 resulting in the following expression
Fsupport = (EWOS - EWS) . b/(m . c) (Equation 6)
59
ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
4.2.2.2 Protocol
A prototype of a chest support was used during the experiment. The chest support
was adjustable in height and bending angle. The chest support was revolving on its
vertical axis (figure 4.12).
Bending adjustment
60
CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
4.2.2.3 EMG-recording
A selected muscle group was examined in the lab by means of EMG-recording. In
order to normalize the data for comparison, also the maximum voluntary isometric
contraction (MVIC) was measured (Kumar & Mital, 1996). MVICs were all obtained
with manually applied resistance. Prior to attaching the electrodes, the skin was
grated and then cleaned with alcohol. A reference electrode was placed on the left
wrist. For the MVIC- and EMG-recordings, a portable physiological measurement
system, type Porti 5-16/ASD of TMS International B.V. (Enschede, The Nederlands)
was used. The Ag/AgCl surface electrodes with recessed pre-gelled (hydrogel)
elements (GE Medical Systems Accessories Europe) were used to collect the MVIC
and EMG signals. The raw EMG signals (DC frequency, ~2 kHz) were processed
electronically with a sample rate of 1000 Hz, and the cut-off frequency was 10 ±
200 Hz.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
4.2.3 Results
4.2.3.1 EMG-recording; general
Figure 4.13 shows the results of the EMG-recording averaged across all participants
as a function of bending angle for each muscle separately.
Figure 4.13 Results of EMG-recording averaged across all participants. Note that scales for muscle
activity differ between muscles.
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CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
Table 4.5 Results of full factorial ANOVA within subjects repeated measures.
Source df df error Mean square F Sig.
Muscle 4.00 60 3175.83 11.49 .000
Height 1.16 17.47 10796.24 44.70 .000
Angle 1.87 28.11 4390.17 79.82 .000
Muscle * Height 2.04 30.62 6011.18 26.12 .000
Muscle * Angle 3.94 59.23 767.07 11.84 .000
Height * Angle 2.95 44.25 204.66 6.98 .001
Main effects
Regarding the main effect muscle, both sides of m. erector spinae show most
muscle activity (right side; 17.51 %MVIC and left side; 15.98 %MVIC). The least
muscle activity was measured at m. rectus abdominis (7.28 %MVIC). The muscle
activity of m. semitendinosus and m. gastrocnemius was 11.42 and 11.60 %MVIC,
respectively. The activity of the lower back muscles differs significantly from that of
the m. rectus abdominis. Regarding the main effect height, the muscle activity
during bending forward without support (17.86 %MVIC) is significantly higher than
with support (height h1 and h2: 10.57 and 9.85 %MVIC respectively). Although, the
muscle activity during bending forward with support on height h2 was
systematically lower than on height h1, this difference was non-significant.
Regarding the main effect angle, the muscle activity increases systematically with
the bending angle: 9.56, 10.76, 13.54 and 17.17 %MVIC at 150, 200, 300 and 400
respectively. The muscle activity at the four angles differs significantly from each
other.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Interaction effects
The interaction between muscle and height is mainly caused by the different ways
the muscles react on the usage of the support. The activity of m. erector spinae at
both sides reduces gradually to a value of 77% of the activity without support; this
value is measured for height h2. Much larger reductions have been found for the leg
muscles towards 37% for m. semitendinosus and 19% for m. gastrocnemius. The
activity of the m. rectus abdominis increased by 25%. The interaction between
muscle and angle can be attributed to the angle at which the different muscles
recruited: both sides of m. erector spinae at 150, the m. semitendinosus at 200
and the m. gastrocnemius at 300. The activity of m. rectus abdominis hardly
changes with the angle. Finally, the interaction between height and angle can be
attributed to increasing difference between muscle activity without support and with
support as a function of angle.
Table 4.6 Results of full factorial ANOVA within subjects repeated measures per muscle.
Source df df error Mean square F Sig.
m. erector spinae (right side)
Height 1.43 21.49 437.19 13.34 .001
Main effect
Angle 1.63 24.48 2178.93 59.7 .000
Interaction Height * Angle 3.58 53.83 25.85 2.82 .038
m. erector spinae (left side)
Height 2 30 337.09 23.57 .000
Main effect
Angle 1.31 19.66 2343.65 49.45 .000
Interaction Height * Angle 6 90 18.65 5.34 .000
m. rectus abdominis
Height 2 30 40.79 7.65 .002
Main effect
Angle 1.57 23.57 19.21 6.01 .012
Interaction Height * Angle 2.35 35.33 5.66 1.66 .201
m. semitendinosus
Height 1.13 16.98 5500.89 28.54 .000
Main effect
Angle 1.66 25.02 2554.54 37.74 .000
Interaction Height * Angle 2.47 37.08 146.99 3.16 .044
m. gastrocnemius
Height 1.03 15.47 16711.36 38.58 .000
Main effect
Angle 1.63 24.56 205.37 2.82 .088
Interaction Height * Angle 2.65 39.84 216.39 4.61 .009
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CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
The measured muscle activity of m. erector spinae at both sides shows a similar
pattern (figure 4.13). The minimal muscle activity at both sides is during relaxed
standing ( 6 %MVIC). The significant interaction effect is caused by the finding
that at 150 the muscle activity without support equals almost the activity with
support at height h1 whereas at the other angles the main reduction in muscle
activity occurred between these two conditions.
The measured activity of m. rectus abdominis remains at the level of relaxed
standing for all angles when no support was used. Contrary to the other muscles,
the activity increases when the support is used. For all angles, the activity at height
h1 is larger than at height h2. There was no interaction effect.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Figure 4.14 EMG-recording of the measured muscles per protocol condition. Left-hand panel:
conditions during relaxed standing (RS). Right-hand panel: conditions using the chest support (WS =
with support). The measurements for the two different heights belonging to the same bending angle
were averaged.
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CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
The main difference between Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 in the condition without
support is the activity of the two leg muscles. In Cluster 1, the activities in these
muscles increase systematically with the bending angle. In Cluster 2, only the m.
gastrocnemius is increasingly active at 150 and 200 and decreases in activity at
300 and 400, while at the same time the activity of m. semitendinosus increases.
Most characteristic aspect of Cluster 3 is the high activity of the two leg muscles
with respect to the relatively low activity of the lower back muscles.
The main difference between Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 in the condition with support
is that the effect of the chest support on the lower back muscle activity is relatively
small in cluster 2. Furthermore, the sudden increase of m. semitendinosus for
Cluster 2 at 300 is remarkable. Finally Cluster 3, all the muscle activities seem
hardly to deviate from that at relaxed standing except for 400.
30
25
20
15
10
Cluster1
5 Cluster2
Cluster3
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Calculated muscle force (N)
Figure 4.15 Measured EMG-recording, expressed in % MVIC, as a function of muscle force in the
lower back calculated according to the biomechanical model without support (Equation 1) for four
bending angles. The data for Cluster 1 and 2 are the averages across participants. The equations for
the fitted regression lines are:
Cluster 1; EMG = 2.8 (SD ± 6.1) + 0.016 Fm (SD ± 0.009) (Adjusted R2 = .99)
Cluster 2; EMG = 13.98 (SD ± 7.53) + 0.017 Fm (SD ± 0.006) (Adjusted R2 = .99)
Cluster 3; EMG = 17.91 + 0.003 Fm (Adjusted R2 = .93).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
In each cluster the averaged data appear to lie on a straight line as conformed by
the linear regressions. Furthermore, figure 6 shows that the data of the different
clusters do not overlap. Data of Cluster 1 and 2 show a parallel shift. The
characteristic for the participant of Cluster 3 is the little variation of muscle activity
with respect to the model prediction. The main suggestion from this figure is that
each overall pattern of muscle activity needed for balancing the body results in a
different relation between measured muscle activity and model prediction for lower
back muscle. The observed linearity on the average level also holds on the
individual level. After analysis of the individual data for Cluster 1, no systematic
effect of P-value (comprising body length) on the relation between muscle activity
and model prediction could be observed contrary to what was found in the previous
study (figure 4.11). Furthermore, the range of measured and predicted values
between individuals was rather small. No systematic differences between males and
females were found.
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CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
120
100
80
Cluster 1 (height 1)
Cluster 1 (height 2)
60 Cluster 2 (height 1)
Cluster 2 (height 2)
Cluster 3 (height 1)
40 Cluster 3 (height 2)
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Figure 4.16 Estimated supporting force per cluster and height at corresponding bending angles
(Equation 6). The equations for the fitted regression lines are:
Cluster 1; Fsupport = 2.92 + 0.28 (Adjusted R2 = .48)
Cluster 2; Fsupport = -15.79 + 0.44 (Adjusted R2 = .51)
Cluster 3; Fsupport = 96.91 - 0.06 (Adjusted R2 = .003)
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
4.2.4 Discussion
During surgical procedures due to work related circumstances such as positioning of
the patient on the operating table and/or equipment in the operating room,
surgeons have an ergonomically poor body posture; head-bent and back-bent
posture. Beside surgeons there are many other professions contending with similar
problems due to poor body posture. Dentists, fruit or flower pickers, and car
mechanics for example have a comparable head-bent and back-bent posture.
Rohlmann et al. indicate that the load of the trunk is significantly increased during
flexion of the upper body (Rohlmann et al., 2001). During flexion of the upper part
of the body while standing, the pressure in the disc increased almost nearly to
216% (the intradiscal pressure was 0.50 MPa on average for standing). This value
was set to 100% and the values for all activities are related to it for 36º between
the thoracolumbar junction and the sacrum (Rohlmann et al., 2001). Maintaining
the poor body posture for long periods of time results in musculoskeletal fatigue
and experience of physical complaints. The results of our study imply that
supporting the body by means of a chest support is effective in reducing muscle
activity in the lower back and especially in leg muscles during bending forward. The
significant interaction between height and angle in the measured muscles except
for m. rectus abdominis shows that both height and angle of the support affects the
muscle activity. Optimal adjustment of height and angle is therefore essential for
the desired effect of the chest support. Providing the chest support in professions
with similar body posture as mentioned above might reduce discomfort.
Considering the results per muscle, the activity of m. erector spinae (both sides)
during all conditions is highest compared with other measured muscles (figure
4.13). This indicates that participants mainly use their lower back muscles during
bending forward. It seems that up to 300 the activity of the lower back muscles is
sufficient to keep the upper body in balance. With increasing bending angle the m.
semitendinosus is recruited to support the lower back muscles. Using the chest
support the muscle activity of m. gastrocnemius is even lower than during relaxed
standing. Despite the different roles the four muscles are playing in balancing the
body, the chest support is effective to reduce the activity of these muscles. An
aberration appears at m. rectus abdominis. The usage of the chest support is
accompanied by increasing muscle activity of m. rectus abdominis. A possible
explanation is that m. rectus abdominis activity counteract hollowing of the lumbar
spine. According to Allison and Henry, the predominant muscle action of the three
most superficial abdominal muscles (the Obliques and Rectus) have been
associated with predominantly trunk flexion activities with or without combined
rotation (Allison & Henry, 2001). In this study, also the role of the co-activation of
the antagonists (three most superficial abdominal muscles) in the spinal stability is
indicated.
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CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
One parameter with the potential to influence spinal mechanics and stability is
intra-abdominal pressure (IAP). IAP has the potential to substantially unload the
spine in standing and flexion tasks, a role that depends directly on the IAP
magnitude and concurrent level of co-activity in abdominal muscles (Arjmand &
Shirazi-Adl, 2005). That is, IAP could indeed even increase the back-muscle forces
when large co-activity is generated in the superficial abdominal muscles (the
Obliques and Rectus) (Arjmand & Shirazi-Adl, 2005). It seems that m. rectus
abdominis is playing a role in the spinal stability. Correspondingly, Juker et al.,
advocated that muscles of the abdominal wall (rectus abdominis, external oblique,
internal oblique, transverse abdominis) and psoas play a fundamental role for the
normal functioning of the lumbar spine (Juker et al., 1998).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
this cluster entirely do not trust the chest support. The negative value of the
estimated supporting force indicates that these two participants of Cluster 2 hardly
made use of the chest support.
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CHAPTER 4: DISCOMFORT DURING SURGERY: PRODUCT SOLUTION AND EVALUATION, STUDY II
the two participants of this cluster hardly made use of the chest support and
adopting the hip strategy since primarily the m. erector spinae is involved for
balancing. Conversely, the participant of Cluster 3, defined as fully-truster,
balances the body using the ankle strategy since mainly the leg muscles are
recruited.
Conclusions
Supporting the body by means of a chest support shows a systematic reduction of
muscle activity in the lower back and leg muscles. Identifying three user groups
with corresponding balance strategies indicate the variety within the pattern of
behaviour of individuals. Measuring the activity of multiply muscles by means of
EMG-recording is needed to identify the pattern of behaviour of users. Although the
experimental conditions were the same, humans tend to follow different balancing
strategies. An advice for product designers is therefore that it is valuable taking the
anthropometry and the conditions of the users into account to meet their specific
needs. However, not only the anthropometric characteristics of individuals during
product development for supporting purposes need to be considered but also the
possibility for altering the posture and preferably avoid constraining the user to a
certain body posture.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the company
Professional Health Design directed by M.A. van Veelen for providing the
prototype of the chest support for this study.
73
This chapter is based on the following articles:
Albayrak A, Casseres YA, de Ridder H, Goossens RHM, Kazemier G, Meijer DW, and Bonjer HJ. Objective and
subjective evaluation of image quality during minimally invasive surgery. Submitted (2008).
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CHAPTER 5 IMAGE QUALITY DURING
LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY
The technology that surgeons use nowadays to perform minimally invasive surgery
(MIS) appears to cause problems for many surgeons resulting in higher
complication rates compared to open surgery. Some of these problems are intrinsic
to laparoscopic viewing that degrade the surgical quality and enhance the
probability of error during surgical procedures such as loss of three-dimensional
depth perception, scaling difficulties caused by the magnification of the operating
field and by definition degraded visual image of the anatomy (compared to the
experience during open surgery). One of the main problems is lack of national
standards for inspection and maintenance of equipment and instruments,
responsible for creating a good and adequate image. In the current study, the focus
will be on the quality of the imaging chain during a specific but representative
type of MIS, namely laparoscopy. This chapter discuss the study of objective and
subjective evaluation of image quality in 36 Dutch hospitals.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) has improved recovery after surgical procedures
because of its many advantages for the patient such as reduced postoperative pain,
fewer wound-related infections, shorter recovery time and better cosmetics results
(Frank et al., 1997). At the same time, MIS has altered the way surgeons interact
with the surgical field and the patient, not only physically but also at a cognitive
level, requiring additional visual motor and learning skills besides the traditional
surgical and medical skills (Berguer, 1999). MIS is more technology-dependent
than open surgery since more equipment is needed to perform the same surgical
procedure. Furthermore, since the introduction of MIS in the mid 80s, the main
focus has been on technology with less concern about ergonomics (Gallagher &
Smith, 2003). The technology that surgeons use nowadays to perform MIS appears
to cause problems for many surgeons resulting in higher complication rates
compared to open surgery. Some of these problems are intrinsic to laparoscopic
viewing that degrade the surgical quality and enhance the probability of error
during surgical procedures such as loss of three-dimensional depth perception,
scaling difficulties caused by the magnification of the operating field and by
definition degraded visual image of the anatomy (compared to the experience
during open surgery) (Gallagher & Smith, 2003). A recently published report by the
Dutch Inspection of Health Services The underestimated risks of minimally
invasive surgery contains a list of potential problems threatening patient safety
(IGZ, 2007). One of the main problems is lack of national standards for inspection
and maintenance of equipment and instruments, responsible for creating a good
and adequate image. In the current study, the focus will be on the quality of the
imaging chain during a specific but representative type of MIS, namely
laparoscopy.
The surgical team observes the operative field indirectly via an image on a monitor.
In order to generate the monitor image two procedures have to be combined.
Firstly, the dark abdominal cavity has to be illuminated. Secondly, the image of the
illuminated abdominal cavity has to be captured, transmitted to, and displayed on
the monitor screen. The system combining these procedures is known as the
imaging chain and consists of the following basic components; (1) light source,
light guide cable and fibre optic channel of the endoscope to illuminate the
abdominal cavity; (2) imaging optics of the endoscope, camera, camera controller
and monitor to display the image of the illuminated abdominal cavity on the
monitor (Swaitzberg, 2001). The imaging optics are positioned in the centre of the
endoscope with optic light fibres located in the periphery (Boppart et al., 1999). To
illuminate the abdominal cavity the light from the light source is transmitted
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CHAPTER 5: IMAGE QUALITY DURING LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY
through the light guide cable and the fibre optic channel of the endoscope. Both
light guide cables and endoscopes contain glass fibres to transmit light. In spite of
the high transmission coefficient of these glass fibres, reduction of loss in light
occurs in the delivery system (light source, light guide cable, and endoscope) due
to:
Differences of diameters on the connection of the light guide cable with the light
source (different brands).
Differences of diameter between the light guide cable and the endoscope.
Surface losses and bulb absorption.
Because of these losses, the light transmission of this part of the imaging channel is
reduced to at most 20 percent in the best imaging system. As a result of all the
losses, a typical system will deliver considerably less then 1 W of visible light from
a 250 W source lamp (Frank et al., 1997).
Once the light enters the abdominal cavity, the luminance is not constant as a
consequence of differences in the way organs and tissues scatter light. Human
tissues and organs could be categorized on the basis of their luminosity into three
basic groups: high luminous tissues such as fat, the stomach and the bowel;
medium-luminous organs such as diaphragm and gallbladder; and dark, mostly
parenchymatous with high blood contents organs such as the liver and the spleen
(Danis, 1998). Luminous tissue will reflect the light and illuminates the screen
intensely and conversely, dark tissue will absorb the light and reduce the brightness
of the image.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
denotes the colour intensity or saturation (Hanna & Cuschieri, 2001). The monitor
has a vertical and horizontal resolution that quantifies how close lines (alternating
black and white lines) can be to each other and still be visibly resolved. The
standard monitors can resolve 600 lines and the monitor is literally the rate-limiting
step in improving image resolution (Berber & Siperstein, 2001). Additionally, the
vertical resolution is fixed at the number of scanning lines that the system uses,
but the horizontal resolution is changeable, depending on the quality of the camera,
wiring and the monitor (Berber et al., 2002).
5.1.2 Ergonomics
From a perspective of cognitive interaction between the surgeon and the observed
surgical field, there are several factors intrinsic to laparoscopic viewing that may
degrade the surgical quality and enhance the probability of error during surgical
procedures. Since the surgical team observes the surgical field via a monitor, direct
sensory perception and feedback are almost nil. Representation of a three-
dimensional environment on a two-dimensional screen has reduced the depth
perception to a set of only monocular (pictorial) depth cues of the surgical field to
the surgical team (Hanna & Cuschieri, 2001). Despite the reduced depth
perception, the human visual system is still capable of making effective depth
inferences from flat images by using visual cues such as texture gradients and
shadows provided that that abdominal cavity is well illuminated (Frank et al.,
1997). Good illumination will reduce the occurrence of incorrect inferences from the
observed monitor image. For example, when surgeons inspect the gallbladder and
surrounding structures to identify the cystic duct, the surgeons brain seeks a
pattern to match his/her mental model of the biliary anatomy stored in long-term
memory (Way et al., 2003). The match between the mental model and the
observed patterns, which are recorded by the visual system, are simplifications and
the visual perception provides therefore an estimate of reality, not an exact copy.
Way et.al., showed that 97% of the primary cause of error of bile duct injuries
stems principally from a misinterpretation of the anatomy as a result of visual
perceptual illusion (Way et al., 2003). Technical flaws were present in only 3% of
the injuries. They also provide a list with rules of thumb to help prevent bile duct
injuries (Way et al., 2003). Optimizing the image by using a high-quality imaging
system is one of the recommendations. This is essential since the imaging system
connecting the eye of the surgeon to the surgical field during MIS. Hanna et.al.,
showed that task performance of the surgeon is significantly degraded by current
video-endoscopic imaging systems compared to direct binocular vision (like during
open surgery) (Hanna & Cuschieri, 2001). Therefore, high quality image is of
paramount importance to allow safe and effective surgical procedures.
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CHAPTER 5: IMAGE QUALITY DURING LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY
No studies were identified dealing with the subjective and objective image quality in
practice. The studies, which were found, were based on lab-settings and not carried
out in the operating room. Therefore, the aim of this study is to asses the quality of
illumination of the abdominal cavity by examining the transmission characteristics
of light guide cables and endoscopes. The objective measurements are performed
in a representative sample of hospitals in the Netherlands. In addition, the
correlation between illumination of the abdominal cavity and surgeons subjective
experience of this image was established.
In total 65 minimally invasive procedures were attended. The type and number of
attended procedures are representative for the Dutch hospitals (www.nvec.nl,
2004). Figure 5.1 shows the registered national number of surgical procedures in
the Netherlands and the number of attended procedures (www.nvec.nl, 2004).
Lap. Cholecystectomy,
11109
Attended 37 procedures
Figure 5.1 The registered national number of surgical procedures in the Netherlands and the number
of attended procedures (2004).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
5.2.3 Measurements
5.2.3.1 Objective
In this study, two different objective measurements were carried out:
The illuminance (I) by the imaging chain has been measured using a digital
luxmeter (LX-107; LT Lutron, Taiwan) and is expressed in [lux]. The underlying
formula for this measurement is; ITOT = ILS . TE . TLGC. In words, total illuminance
(ITOT) of the imaging chain is a product of the output of the light source and the
light transmission coefficients of the endoscope and the light guide cable.
The resolution (RTOT) of the imaging chain and that of the endoscope (RE) have
been measured using a Borescope Test Chart (Olympus Industrial) and
expressed by lines per mm (l/mm).
5.2.3.2 Subjective
A questionnaire was used to asses the subjective impression of the surgeon of the
displayed image during the procedure. To this end, the surgeon was asked to
judge, immediately after finishing the surgical procedure, the image on the
following items: overall image quality (Q), sharpness (S), contrast (C), brightness
(B), and quality of colour (CL). A numerical scale of 1 to 10 was used to express
the judgments.
5.2.3.3 Setting
The measurements of the imaging chain took place in two settings;
In the operating room immediately after a procedure.
In the sterilization department at an arbitrary moment during the visit.
In the operating room, both objective and subjective measurements took place. In
the sterilization department only objective measurements were done.
Operating room
Immediately after a procedure was finished total illuminance (ITOT) as produced by
the imaging chain during that procedure was measured before the light guide cable
and the endoscope were detached. The endoscope was attached to a digital
luxmeter (LX-107; LT Lutron, Taiwan) (figure 5.2). In addition, the surgeon who
performed the procedure was interviewed about his/her impression of the image
displayed during the procedure. This interview was done immediately after finishing
the procedure since the image was still clear in the memory of the participating
surgeon. A questionnaire was used to asses the subjective impression of the
displayed image.
The resolution of the imaging chain (RTOT) was also measured before the light guide
cable and the endoscope were detached. RTOT was measured using a Borescope
Test Chart (Olympus Industrial). The endoscope was attached to a custom-made
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CHAPTER 5: IMAGE QUALITY DURING LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY
cylinder (see figure 5.2) which positioned and fixed the endoscope at a
standardized distance of 5 cm from the Test Chart (Rosow et al., 1998). The Test
Chart was illuminated by ITOT. The image of the Test Chart was projected on the
monitor. The researchers determined the maximum distinguishable number of lines
on the monitor. This number indicates the RTOT and is expressed by lines per mm
(l/mm).
Sterilization department
The quality of light transmission of the light guide cable and the endoscope was
measured in the sterilization department. Other light guide cables and endoscopes,
which were not used during a procedure, could also be tested in the sterilization
department, except those, which were in the sterilization process or kept back for
acute procedures at the time of measurements.
To standardize the measurements of the light guide cables and endoscopes a set of
reference equipment (figure 5.2) has been used which consists of;
Light source; OES metal halide light source, CLD-S, Olympus Co., LTD. The
illumination level of this light source was adjustable. For standardized
measurements the illumination level was set on 50% (mean 84*103 lux, SD: ±
99*102 lux) .
Light guide cable; Olympus, Ø 5 mm, and 300 cm.
Monocular rigid endoscope; Olympus Ø 10 mm and viewing angle of 0º.
A digital luxmeter (LX-107; LT Lutron, Taiwan).
Custom-made cylinder for positioning and fixating the light guide cable and the
endoscope.
All these equipment were new.
Adjustable illumination level
Custom-made cylinder
Reference endoscope
Photosensor
Digital luxmeter
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
ILGCHOS
.T 1
0 TLGCHOS = I LGCREF
LGCREF (1)
Endoscope
Although endoscopes of different diameters and different angles are used in
minimally invasive surgery, 00 endoscopes with a diameter of 10 mm are most
frequently used in laparoscopy. Therefore, only the endoscopes with this dimension
were selected. For a standardized measurement, one end of the endoscope was
attached to the reference light guide cable (the light guide cable was connected to
the reference light source) and the other hand to a custom-made cylinder which
positioned and fixed the endoscope at a standardized distance of 5 cm to the
photosensor (Rosow et al., 1998). The transmitted light from the reference light
source through the reference light guide cable is measured at the end of the
endoscope indicating the illuminance of the endoscope of the hospital (IEHOS). After
each measurement of IEHOS also the illuminance of the reference endoscope was
measured (IEREF). Since the same reference light source and light guide cable was
used for both measurements, the light transmission coefficient (TEHOS) of IEHOS can
be calculated using the next formula:
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CHAPTER 5: IMAGE QUALITY DURING LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY
The same set-up as described above was used to determine the resolution of the
endoscope. The luxmeter was replaced by the Borescope Test Chart (Olympus
Industrial). The Test Chart was placed at the front of the endoscope at a
standardized distance of 5 cm (Rosow et al., 1998). The resolution of the
endoscope was measured by looking through the endoscope by the researchers.
The maximum distinguishable number on the Test Chart indicates the resolution of
the endoscope (RE) and is expressed by lines per mm (l/mm).
The different measurements are shown in figure 5.3 and table 5.1.
Figure 5.3 The points of objective and subjective measurements of the imaging chain.
OM/Borescope
Hospital Hospital Hospital 2+4 RTOT
Test Chart
OM = Objective measurements
SM = Subjective measurements
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
5.2.3.4 Model
The aim of this study was to assess the quality of light guide cables and endoscopes
by objective measurements and establish the correlation between the illuminance
of the abdominal cavity and surgeons experience of the image. Andersons
functional measurement theory is used as inspiration to understand and evaluate
the correlation between objective and subjective measurements (de Ridder &
Majoor, 1990). This theory provides a framework for efficiently describing the
unobservable, psychological processes underlying the comparison of stimuli. An
essential assumption in functional measurement theory is that sensations evoked
by different, independent stimuli are combined to form an internal or psychological
response. Figure 5.4 illustrates the application of the functional measurement
theory within the scope of this study.
OBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE
RTOT
S
RE
C
Q
ITOT
B
TEHOS C
TLGCH
Figure 5.4 Application of the functional measurement theory within the scope of this study.
The objective measurements RTOT, RE, ITOT, TEHOS, and TLGCHOS form the
independent psychophysical functions of the framework. These independent
psychophysical functions transform stimuli into sensations S, C, B, and CL. These
intermediate sensations are combined to form a psychological response.
Subsequently, this psychological response is transformed into overt response Q by
the judgment function.
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CHAPTER 5: IMAGE QUALITY DURING LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY
In this model, the parameter light source is missing which is an essential part of the
imaging chain. This parameter is not measured directly but can be calculated by the
formula:
ITOT
ILS = (5)
TE . TLGC
SPSS 14.0 for Windows was used for statistical analysis of the results. The level of
significance that is used during all the analysis was, = .05. The next assumptions
were formulated and tested:
Assumption 1: ITOT will differ depending on the kind of hospitals and surgical
procedures.
Assumption 2: There is a correlation between the independent variables,
intermediate variables, and dependent variable (the ILS will be included in the
correlation analysis).
Assumption 3: The output of the light source ILS will be reduced in the course of
time (the reference light source will be used for analysis).
Assumption 4: RE will be higher than RTOT.
Assumption 5: The measured light guide cables and endoscopes will be
systematically lower than the reference equipment.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
5.3 RESULTS
KIND HOSPITAL
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5.3.1 Assumption 1
The averaged ITOT is divided into 3 different kind of surgical procedures
(laparoscopic cholecystectomy (Lap.Chol), laparoscopic hernia repair (Lap.Hernia),
and others) and hospitals and are shown figure 5.5.
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
Lap.Chol
20000 Lap. Hernia
Others
0
Academic Teaching Community
Kind Hospital
Figure 5.5 The averaged ITOT per hospital type, divided into 3 groups (laparoscopic cholecystectomy
(Lap.Chol), laparoscopic hernia repair (Lap.Hernia), and others).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
5.3.2 Assumption 2
The correlation between the independent variables (ILS included), intermediate
variables and dependent variable and the corresponding correlation coefficients are
shown in figure 5.6. The C (contrast) and B (brightness) is put together since the
correlation was high and the double arrows indicating a correlation in both
directions.
r = .34
r = .34 RE RTOT
TLGCHOS
r = .46
r = .81
r = -.36 r = .91
r = -.33 TEHOS ITOT C/B Q
r = .47
r = .74 r = .44
ILS r = .59
r = .36 r = .72
S CL
r = .78
Figure 5.6 The correlation between the independent variables (ILS included), intermediate variables
and dependent variable and the corresponding correlation coefficients.
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5.3.3 Assumption 3
The reference light source was used to analyze the effect of ageing on the level of
illuminance (figure 5.7).
120000
110000
100000
90000
80000
70000
60000
10-12-02 28-02-03 19-05-03 7-08-03 26-10-03 14-01-04 3-04-04
Date of visit
Figure 5.7 The reduction of the output of the reference light source in the course of time.
5.3.4 Assumption 4
The resolution of the monitor was 5.34 ± 0.89 lines per mm (l/mm) and that of the
endoscope was 7.13 ± 0.65 lines per mm (l/mm).
5.3.5 Assumption 5
In total 252 light guide cables of different length and diameter have been tested.
The majority, 70% (175) of the total (252) measured light guide cables had a
diameter of Ø 4.8 or Ø 5 mm. These cables are selected as the most frequently
used ones in different hospitals. Since the reference light guide cable has the
diameter of Ø 5 mm, a selection of the measured light guide cables is made with a
diameter of Ø 4.8 and Ø 5 mm to compare with the reference light guide cable.
The illuminance of the reference light guide cable on average was 83*103 ± 12*103
lux. The results of the illuminance of the selected light guide cables show that 93%
of the measured light guide cables had an illuminance less than the reference light
guide cable.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
In total, 166 endoscopes have been tested. The illuminance of the reference
endoscope on average was 56*103 lux. The results of the illuminance of the
measured endoscopes show that 91% of the measured endoscopes had an
illuminance less than the reference endoscope.
5.4 DISCUSSION
The advanced technology that surgeons use nowadays during MIS has become
complex and has altered the interaction between the surgeon and the equipment.
Frequently, this interaction is unnatural and cause problems contributing to the
medical errors rates (Verdaasdonk et al., 2007). Some of these errors during
surgery are influenced by or related to several factors intrinsic to laparoscopic
viewing. Laparoscopic viewing is only possible by the imaging chain and the
image displayed on the monitor will be as good as the imaging chains weakest
component (Swaitzberg, 2001). This image is the critical source of information to
the surgeon. From this perspective, a subjective and objective evaluation of the
image quality in practice is essential.
The results of the objective measurements of this study show that total illuminance
of the imaging chain (ITOT) differ systematically between the different types of
hospitals. This indicates a diversity of the imaging chain systems used in the
hospitals. In general, each hospital prefers a certain brand to purchase, but in
practice it is likely to use different brands of light source, light guide cable and
endoscope as one system. While using different brands of equipment as one system
it should be considered that these components have to fit properly to each other to
prevent light loss due to differences in diameters (Frank et al., 1997).
Further evaluation of ITOT shows that ITOT during Lap. Cholecystectomy differs
significantly between the three kinds of hospitals. The descending trend of ITOT from
academic to community shows that surgeons working at academic hospitals may
prefer higher light intensities during surgical procedures.
A remarkable finding was that the total illuminance during Lap. Cholecystectomy
was significantly higher than during Lap. Hernia repair. According to Danis there are
differences in the way that organs and tissues scatter light and makes herein a
division of high luminous tissues such as fat, the stomach and the bowel; medium-
luminous organs such as diaphragm and gallbladder; and dark, mostly
parenchymatous organs such as the liver and the spleen (Danis, 1998). During Lap.
Cholecystectomy mainly the gallbladder (medium-luminous organ) and the liver
(dark organ) are in sight and during Lap. Hernia mainly the fat and the bowel are in
view. The intensity of light reflected by the gallbladder and liver is lower than fat
and bowel. This means that under same ITOT conditions the image during Lap.
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Cholecystectomy will be less bright than during Lap. Hernia repair. It seems that
surgeons adjusting the light intensity intuitively depending on the kind of organs
and tissues which are visible during the surgical procedure.
In most of the hospitals, it was observed that the light guide cables and endoscopes
were packed separately. Before a surgical procedure starts the necessary
instruments and equipment was selected and putted ready for use. It seems that
the selection of the light guide cables and endoscopes occurs independently since
no correlation was found between these two components. However, a significant
correlation between the ITOT and the light transmission coefficients of the
endoscope (TEHOS) and light guide cable (TLGCHOS) was found indicating that ITOT is a
product of the transmission of the light guide cable and endoscope, and output of
the light source (Albayrak et al., 2006a). The total illuminance depends on the light
transmission quality of the light guide cable and endoscope. Although, there was no
correlation between the light guide cable and the endoscope the TEHOS was
systematically lower than the TLGCHOS. Both light guide cables and endoscopes
contain glass fibres to transmit light but the amount of glass fibres in the light
guide cables are more than that of the endoscope. In addition, the transmission
coefficient of the endoscope is determined at the end of the imaging chain, which
means that a reduction of loss in light was occurred in the delivery system.
A well-known phenomenon during minimally invasive procedures is that the
surgeon is confronted with a suboptimal-lighted image. In a situation like this the
surgical team have the tendency to turn the knob of the light source to a higher
light intensity, mostly up to 100%. This observed phenomenon is in line with the
findings of this study. The negative correlation between the illuminance of the light
source and transmission coefficient of the light guide cable indicates when a light
guide cable have a poor light transmission quality the light intensity of the light
source is increased to compensate the light loss. Frequently, this situation results in
an overexposed image. However, the results of a previous study show that the 40%
of hyper illuminated area can be thus appreciated as the critical limit of hyper
illumination (Danis, 1998). Hyper illumination has to be avoided to prevent damage
on the fibres of the light guide cable and endoscope due to heat development.
In this study, the image quality was assessed by asking the participating surgeon to
judge the displayed image in terms of: overall image quality (Q), sharpness (S),
contrast (C), brightness (B), and quality of colour (CL). According to Hanna et.al.,
the image quality is determined by three major parameters; image resolution,
luminance and chroma (Hanna & Cuschieri, 2001). The resolution determines the
visibility of details in the image and refers to the sharpness and contrast of the
image and the luminance refers to the brightness (Hanna & Cuschieri, 2001). The
results show that each parameter was correlated to each other and with the overall
image quality judgment (Q). The high correlation between the contrast and
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
The quality judgment of the surgeons was influenced by the total illuminance
measured during surgical procedure. This is not surprising since ITOT is the amount
of light entering the abdominal cavity and the judgment of the surgeon is actually
based on the image wherein this amount of light is reflected/absorbed by the
surrounding organs and tissues. The negative correlation between ITOT, Q, C and B
indicates that surgeons do not appreciate high levels of illuminance as a
consequence of hyper illumination of the image.
The output of the reference light source is reduced in the course of time. This could
be caused by ageing of the light source, surface losses and/or bulb absorption. The
surgical team should be aware of this phenomenon. Regularly inspection and
maintenance of the light source and replacement of the bulb on time could prevent
unnecessary light loss during surgery.
The resolution of the monitor was systematically lower than the resolution of the
endoscope. This is in line with the findings of Berber, which states that the monitor
is the rate-limiting step in improving the image resolution (Berber & Siperstein,
2001). However, it seems that the resolution of the endoscope (RE) can be
improved by a higher ITOT and a light guide cable with a high light transmission
coefficient since a positive correlation was found between RE, ITOT and TLGCHOS. By
improving the resolution of the endoscope, also the resolution of the monitor will be
slightly improved since these two are correlated to each other.
Furthermore, the illuminance of the measured light guide cables and endoscopes
were systematically lower than the reference equipment. During the time of visits,
it was observed that the hospitals did not have the equipment to test these
components.
All components of the imaging chain gradually deteriorate during the lifetime.
Therefore, regularly inspection and maintenance of these components is essential
for quality assurance of the system. Hence implementation of guidelines for
inspection, maintenance and replacement of laparoscopic instruments and related
equipment is necessary in each hospital to improve patient safety (IGZ, 2007).
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Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the participated hospitals
to this study.
93
This chapter is based on the following studies:
Albayrak A, and Snijders CJ. (2007). Ergonomy in the OR. In JB Trimbos & GCM Trimbos Kemper (Eds.), Basics of
surgery: Tools, techniques and expertise (pp. 151-169). Maarssen: Elsevier gezondheidszorg.
Bonjer HJ, Albayrak A, Stassen LPS, Casseres YA, Meijer DA. Improving the endoscopic image: tips and tricks.
Submitted (2008).
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CHAPTER 6 PRACTICAL ERGONOMIC
SOLUTIONS FOR THE SURGICAL TEAM
In chapter 2, the ergonomic problems of the surgical team were discussed. In this
chapter an overview of practical solutions regarding the encountered problems in
Chapter 2, are given. The emphasis is on the application of the solutions in daily
practice. These solutions will be discussed along the three domains of ergonomics;
physical, sensorial and cognitive. The physical ergonomics will be restricted to the
strain of musculoskeletal system which is relevant for neck, shoulder, arm, hand
problems, lower back, pelvis and foot. As most of the sensorial and cognitive
problems are seen during laparoscopy this two sections will be focusing on
laparoscopic procedures.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
6.1.1 Neck
6.1.1.1 Open surgery
Problem: Uncomfortable body posture
Solution
An ergonomic work environment requires unobstructed line of vision in neutral
standing posture with a natural viewing angle between 10º and 25º below the
horizontal in the sagittal plane and 30º to left and right (figure 6.1) (Gerbrands et
al., 2004).
Another solution to prevent physical discomfort in the neck due to obstructed line of
vision is the use of an adjustable body support. In addition, problems arising from a
non-optimal working height will also solved since the body support is adjustable in
height and suitable for users with different body height (figure 6.2).
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6.1.1.2 Laparoscopy
Problem: Limited number and incorrect positioning of monitors results in physical
discomfort in the neck (flexion, extension, and rotation).
Solution
The members of the surgical team stand on both sides of the operating table in the
majority of the procedures. Assessing the position of the surgical team from an
ergonomic point of view, each member of the surgical team should have an
unobstructed line of vision without neck torsion. Figure 6.3 shows the ergonomically
optimal positioning of the surgical team and the corresponding number of monitors
with respect to positioning of the surgical team (Albayrak et al., 2004).
Figure 6.3 Ergonomically optimal positioning of the surgical team and number of monitors.
6.1.2 Shoulder/Arm
6.1.2.1 Open surgery
Problem: Due to the position and depth of the incision during open surgery,
surgeons have fixed work posture, tending to work with arms abducted and
unsupported. A high static load is imposed on the shoulder-neck region and
shoulder joint by this posture.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Solution
Optimal positioning of the operating table in height (approximately at the height of
umbilicus of the surgeon) as well as in axis (e.g. head-down or head-up, tilt) with
respect to the altering body posture of the surgeon during the procedure.
6.1.2.2 Laparoscopy
Problem: Manipulating problems of laparoscopic instruments and wearing heavy
lead aprons.
Solution
Lowering the height of the operating table to counterbalance the increased length
of the instruments is a practical solution. The operating table should be adjusted in
height regarding the tallest person present in the surgical team (shorter persons
can use a footstool) to reduce strain on the shoulders. Creating an optimal working
height for the surgical team will also decrease manipulation problem of the
instruments. The discomfort and difficulty ratings were lowest when instruments
handles were positioned at elbow height (Berguer et al., 2002). Regarding the
guideline of positioning the instruments at elbow height the ergonomically
operating surface height (defined as the navel height of the patient, lying on the
operating table while the abdomen is filled with CO2 gas) lies between 0.7 and 0.8
of the elbow height of the surgeon/resident (van Veelen et al., 2002b) (figure 6.4).
In practice, this means for laparoscopy adjusting the operating table on pubic
height of the tallest person in the surgical team.
Most of the lead aprons, which are currently in use, consist of one part. Replacing
these by a lead vest and lead skirt will reduce the weight on the shoulder.
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6.1.3 Hand
6.1.3.1 Open surgery
Problem: Grasping and manipulating problems (unintended use) of instruments by
using these differently than the way they are originally designed for.
Solution
Avoid unintended use of instruments.
6.1.3.2 Laparoscopy
Problem: Grasping and manipulating problems due to the complexity and
inefficient mechanical properties of instruments.
Solution
Based on an ergonomic approach the new action criteria for laparoscopic
instruments are summarized in Table 6.1 (van Veelen, 2003).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
The second solution is supporting the body by means of an ergonomic body support
(Albayrak et al., 2006b, 2007) (figure 6.5).
Chest support
Semi-standing support
In height adjustable
platform
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6.1.4.2 Laparoscopy
Problem: Limited body movement and static upright posture.
Solution
The two solutions that are discussed in the open surgery section are also valid for
laparoscopic surgery. Rest by stretching the upper body upright during the
procedure and the use of an ergonomic body support.
6.1.5 Pelvis
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
6.1.6 Foot
6.1.6.1 Open surgery
During open surgery, the diathermy is activated by pressing a button on the
instrument. Due to manual control of this equipment a pedal is unnecessary.
6.1.6.2 Laparoscopy
Problem: Positioning problems due to losing contact with the pedal and the risk of
accidentally activating the wrong function (left or right) of the pedal because of lack
of vision.
Solution
A new pedal is designed in the form of a flat round disc (figure 6.10) (van Veelen,
2003).
Pedal control is based on endo- and exo-rotation of the foot. The switch is activated
by positioning the foot on the disc and by rotation of the foot (leg): right rotation
activates the coagulation function, and left rotation activates the cutting function.
Since the disc is flat and thin, the user can stand on the disc during surgery with
the weight spread evenly over both feet. The advantage is that no enduring dorsal
flexion of the ankle is needed to control the switch. In addition, the pedal does not
obstruct the freedom of movements because the user will not erroneously push the
wrong switch (Van Veelen et al., 2003c).
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Problem: Alignment problems of the monitor with the hands and instruments.
Solution
Adopting the optimal/ergonomically viewing guidelines in the operating room will
reduce overburdening the surgeon (figure 6.8) (Matern et al., 2005; Van Veelen et
al., 2002a; van Veelen et al., 2002b).
Figure 6.8 Ergonomic viewing guidelines. Combination of semi-standing support of the buttocks and
platform adjustable in height.
Additional to this solution it is also being advised to adopt the solution described in
section 6.1.1.2.
Problem: Degradation of monocular depth cues due to anti-cues arising from the
monitor. These are caused by the monitor frame and the glare and reflection from
the glass of the monitor.
Solution
Performing the surgery with dimmed environmental light and correct alignment of
the visual axis with the monitor will reduce the glare and reflection from the glass
of the monitor.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Problem: There are several factors intrinsic to laparoscopic viewing that degrade
the surgical quality and enhance the probability of error during surgical procedures.
Many of the related problems are due to the perceptual and spatial factors.
Representation of the three-dimensional surgical field on a two-dimensional
screen reduce depth perception.
Scaling difficulties caused by magnification and impaired visual image of the
anatomy in comparison to the experience of an open procedure.
The various spatial difficulties encountered during laparoscopy result in problems
with cognitive mapping and hand-eye coordination.
The surgeon has no direct control over the position or orientation of the
endoscope. Instead, the surgeon must rely on the assistant to maintain an
optimal position; however, frequently unintentional camera rotation occurs that
can lead to disorientation and misinterpretation of position of the organs.
One of the problems limiting the surgeons acquisition of skill and degrading the
surgical quality is due to the fulcrum effect.
Solution
Surgeons are trained to deal with the problems as described above. In general, the
model of Rasmussen can be used to describe human behaviour. In this model three
different levels can be distinguished: skills-, rule-, and knowledge based behaviour.
Skill based behaviour is the human behaviour whereby the task execution is highly
automated. This behaviour can be trained by means of a training in for instance a
surgical simulator, pelvitrainer and animal models (Wentink et al., 2003). Factors
that improve skill-based behaviour are active or passive feedback of the
instruments forces and increasing the number of degrees of freedom comparable
to the functions available during open surgery (Stassen et al., 2001).
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al., 2003) and best strategy is selected, by means of mental processing and the
appropriate actions are taken. Knowledge based behaviour can be trained during
actual procedures in the OR or via living animal models outside the OR (Wentink et
al., 2003).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Figure 6.9 Schematic view of broken fibres of the light guide cable.
6.3.1.3 Endoscope
The next step is checking the endoscope. The eyepiece of the endoscope should be
inspected for obscuring spots. Glancing through the endoscope will reveal distortion
of the image or blurred spots, which require repair of the endoscope. The resolution
and distortion characteristics of the endoscope can be measured by using a test
chart. A simple rough method for determining broken or melted fibres of the
endoscope is to hold the distal tip of the endoscope in the direction of a ceiling or
operating lamp. As in the light guide cable, broken or melted fibres will be visible as
black dots at the connector for the light guide cable at the proximal part of the
endoscope (figure 6.10). The larger the diameter of the cable, the more it heats the
endoscope and thereby the more fibres will melt.
6.3.1.4 Camera
When proper functioning of the light source, light guide cable, and endoscope has
been confirmed, the camera system needs to be tested. The heart and soul of the
endoscopic image is the camera system, consisting of chip camera and camera unit.
The chip camera is exposed to repetitive mechanical injury by storing it in the
endoscopic working unit or by dropping it. Proper functioning of the chip camera
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CHAPTER 6: PRACTICAL ERGONOMIC SOLUTIONS FOR THE SURGICAL TEAM
can be assessed by employing a test chart (Berber et al., 2002). When such a test
chart is not available, the quality of the chip camera and the camera unit can be
determined by focusing the camera while not attached to the endoscope on an
object with coloured details in the operating room. When these details are not
projected with sufficient acuity on the endoscopic screen, another chip camera
should be attached to the camera unit to rule out malfunction of the chip camera. If
the poor image persists upon attachment of another chip camera, the camera unit
requires resetting or overhaul. The setting of the camera unit requires regularly
review by technicians.
6.3.1.5 Monitor
The monitor displays the final image. In general, the monitor is not subjected to as
much wear and tear as the other components of the imaging chain. The most
common problem is the manipulation of the monitor controls. Poor adjustments of
these controls can degrade an excellent quality input (Schwaitzberg, 2001). The
monitor can be easily calibrated by using the reset button on the remote control.
Newer monitors have auto calibration programs whereby the colour bars are
displayed from the camera and the calibration program properly adjusts the
brightness/contrast.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Various agents are available to clean the tip of the endoscope. Most of these agents
contain a detergent, which decreases the surface tension of fluid on the lens of the
endoscope.
The surface of the liver can be used as well to clean the tip of the endoscope unlike
other intraperitoneal structures. The nature of the cleaning capacity of the liver
surface is unknown.
6.3.1.7 Sterilization
Cleaning and sterilization of the endoscope deserves special attention. In a
crossover, clinical study performed by the Departments of Surgery of the Erasmus
University Medical Centre Rotterdam and the Reinier de Graaf Gasthuis in Delft the
impact of cleaning of endoscopes was investigated. At the hospital in Rotterdam
fogging was rarely encountered while fogging was common at the hospital in Delft.
Endoscopes were exchanged between hospitals and subjected to local cleaning and
sterilization standards. After 3 to 5 cleaning and sterilization cycles in Rotterdam,
fogging of endoscopes from Delft disappeared while the opposite occurred in Delft
with the endoscopes from Rotterdam. Studying the cleaning procedures in both
hospitals revealed that endoscopes were cleaned with methylalcohol and acetone in
Delft. The endoscopes in Rotterdam were cleaned with ethylalcohol and after
sterilization, a layer of silicone was sprayed on the endoscopes. Therefore, the
cleaning process of endoscopes appears of importance. Silicone application can
prevent fogging. This is in line with the observation that the tip of the endoscope
can also rather effectively be cleaned by rubbing the tip against the surgeons glove
with contains silicone.
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Blurry image
Components Solution
Endoscope Clean the tip of the endoscope (with warm water)
Try the use of anti-fogging agents
Camera White balance the camera
Fine tune the camera
Monitor Correct adjustment of the monitor controls
Heat generation
Check the diameters of the connectors between light source, light guide cable and
endoscope
109
This chapter is based on the following book chapter:
Albayrak A, Wauben LSGL, and Goossens RHM. Ergonomics in the Operating Room Design framework. (2008).
Accepted as book chapter in Ergonomics: Design, Integration and Implementation by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
110
CHAPTER 7 DESIGN FRAMEWORK FOR
DESIGNERS: CASE STUDIES
In this chapter three cases will be discussed which describes medical product
solutions in the three domains of ergonomics; sensorial, cognitive and physical
ergonomics. In Case 1, the design of an abdominal wall tension measurement
device will be discussed followed by the second case which shows how the
ergonomics of minimally invasive surgery can be improved by means of an
integrated surgical suite. Finally, within the physical domain, the design of a curved
instrument for minimally invasive surgery to improve surgeons body postures will
be illustrated. All the cases will be discussed along the different phases of the basic
design cycle according to Roozenburg & Eekels (Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Before discussing the structure of a design process, the term design has to be
defined. The focus is on designing material products and therefore design is
defined as to conceive the idea for some artifact or system and/or to express the
idea in an embodiable form (Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995).
Roozenburg and Eekels describe designing as a special form of problem solving and
reasoning which takes place from goal (the function) to means (the design)
(Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995). As in problem-solving in general, in designing many
means can realize the goal and it is initially uncertain what means is (the most)
effective. It therefore needs no further explanation that design is in essence a trial-
and-error process that consists of a sequence of empirical cycles, in which the
knowledge of the problem as well as the solution increases spirally. The basic
design cycle is illustrated in figure 7.1
Figure 7.1 Basic design cycle according to Roozenburg and Eekels (Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995).
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CHAPTER 7: DESIGN FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGNERS: CASE STUDIES
As illustrated in figure 7.1 the design cycle consist of different stages. The stages in
the gray boxes have a divergent character, which means that the designer should
look very broadly to the content. Conversely, the white boxes have a convergent
character and define the focus of the content for the next step. The design process
is iterative and it comprises a sequence of reductive steps and deductive step
(Roozenburg & Eekels, 1995). The designer compares the so far attained results
and the desired results between these two steps. The different stages will be
discussed briefly.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
7.1.1.5 Decision
The expected and desired properties will always differ from each other but it is
important to decide if those differences are acceptable or have to be redefined.
Since the design cycle is iterative the design team can return to the synthesis
phase, for example to generate a better design proposal or to define different
design specifications which fit better or formulate recommendations to approve the
design proposal.
The basic design cycle as illustrated in figure 7.1 is the most fundamental model of
designing and it can be perfectly used with different kind of methodologies.
7.1.2 Methodology
The medical specialists are professional users with their specific needs, work
conditions, language, culture and work environment. When designing products for
professional users their involvement in the design process is crucial since designers
can use their input to improve the design proposal. A methodology, which can be
used from this perspective, is Participatory Design which actively involves the
user into the design process, leading to the designed product that meets the users
specific needs.
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CHAPTER 7: DESIGN FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGNERS: CASE STUDIES
Hereafter three cases will be discussed regarding the three domains of ergonomics
and the phases of the design cycle.
Text is based on and drawings are derived from the master thesis of N.A. Alvarez. Graduation project
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering. (Alvarez, 2006).
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
As mentioned before, muscles and IAP are directly related to each other (changes
in posture and actions that involve abdominal muscles activation have an effect on
the IAP). When IAP is measured in healthy non-obese adults during 13 different
actions, the highest IAP was generated while coughing and jumping. It was also
found that IAP correlated with the Body Mass Index (BMI) (Cobb et al., 2005).
7.2.1.2 Palpation
There are different methods of physical examination of the abdomen: observation
(inspection), percussion, auscultation (listening to the internal sounds of the body)
and palpation. During superficial palpation the specialist assesses the abdominal
area by evaluating with his/her hand the tension (tonus), tenderness and soreness
of the abdominal wall as well as the presence of superficially localized resistances.
The quality of the examination depends on specialists experience and the
cooperation of the patient during this examination (figure 7.3).
For research purposes the abdominal wall tension can be calculated through
mathematical models. In practice it is estimated qualitatively by means of palpation
but there are no quantitative measurements done in patients yet.
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necessary to find if there is a relation between the abdominal wall tension and the
development of incisional hernias (or any other abdominal condition), the design of
a device to measure such tension could be an initial step in that direction.
The aim of this project was to design a device that measures the abdominal wall
tension non-invasively.
In addition, both specialists were interviewed before and after the examination.
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Technical requirements were derived from the technical research and were
complemented with those necessary to enable the usage of the tool in a clinical
research setting. Grouped in Input, Data processing and Output, these
requirements were addressed mainly to software qualities, although the inclusion of
the position measurement involved usage qualities with impact either on the
hardware and/or the software.
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The prototype could transport the recorded values of force and distance correctly to
the PC. The prototype was used without any problems.
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Text is based on and drawings are derived from the master thesis of G. Scheepens, graduation project
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering (Scheepens, 2007).
The aim of this project was to improve patient safety by enhancing the working
environment of the surgeon, creating an ergonomically sound workspace for the
surgical team, focusing on the positioning of surgical monitors, where correct
positioning is defined as compliance with the ergonomic guidelines. Many other
factors influence the working environment, ranging from the design of instrument
handles to the illumination of the operating room.
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To solve the problem, its sub-problems have been divided over the seven
characteristics of good interaction design to provide focus points during the
synthesis (Saffer, 2007). The characteristics are of equal importance.
1) Trustworthy
The product should prove that it is capable of helping the circulating nurse the
monitors, it will be likely that there will be surgeons that demand a different
setting than the optimal.
Availability of the product is essential, it should always work and be present and
not be especially be switched on or fetched from afar.
To get the surgical team to trust the product, results are essential, on short term
in the form of feeling of working in an environment adapted to them and in long
term as decrease of physical complaints.
2) Appropriate
The product should fit with the OR environment and work within its boundaries.
Its communication should be innovative, inviting and effective; it should not take
away attention from more important informational devices.
The boundaries of OR1 should also be respected (not hinder other functionalities
of OR1).
Although the product should somewhat force its use on the users, it should allow
its users to have the freedom to do what they like.
The desire to use the product should be directed at the surgical team and the
circulating nurse, while the how of the use should be directed towards the
circulating nurse.
The product should be self-explanatory.
3) Smart
The product should support its users in doing that what can be difficult in the
demanding OR environment, remembering to position monitors, guidance in
where monitors should be placed and propagate the need for positioning the
monitors.
The positions for the monitors are not absolute and need to be adjusted to the
surgeon, specific procedures and to other equipment. Not always is the most
ideal position the most optimal position. It is up to the product to direct towards
preferred positions and prevent incorrect positioning.
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There are many skills that are better developed in humans than in machines and
the products responsibilities should not try to replace those skills.
4) Responsive
The product should communicate incorrect positions as well as correct positions,
without annoying users by creating saturated feedback in which important
changes are difficult to detect.
5) Clever
Using the product should ease workload, by taking away confusion and
disagreement about what the correct positions of the equipment are. Taking
away confusion about how settings relate to the human body and who has set
specific preferences and what these are as well.
6) Lucid (playfulness)
Making errors in positioning monitors should be made difficult instead of
displaying warnings. The opportunity to undo and redo actions is also important,
so the users cannot get the feeling that pressing a button can get them trapped
in a part of the system they do not need to visit. Confirming key actions comforts
the users and reassures them that accidentally pressing a wrong button cannot
lead to serious consequences. This last option gives them the opportunity to use
and learn the system by browsing around, without it having serious
consequences.
7) Pleasurable
There are two sides to pleasure in using products: aesthetic and functional.
People are more easily content with the performance of a beautiful product,
products that look good are more pleasurable in use and will be used more and
better (Tractinsky et al., 2000). Not neglecting this quality needs to be combined
with the product functioning properly, obviously improper functionality leads to
frustration and irritation in product use.
The product does not need to fit the visual aesthetics of OR1s software since
these are about to change drastically in the near future.
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Figure 7.7 First-phase ideas: Eight ideas meeting the requirements and evaluated (rating in stars) on
four aspects: Awareness, Feedback, Continuity and Viability. The italics lines capture the reasons for
the particular ratings in a single line.
Figure 7.7 provides a quick assessment of all the ideas pros and cons, but some
influence the choice for a particular idea more than others. Awareness, feedback
and continuity are equally important, but a high score on viability is essential for
the successful implementation of an idea on short term. A low-tech solution has the
most potential at the moment. The first-phase ideas (figure 7.7) are technically
quite complex and will be difficult to prototype and are more future solutions. Of
the first-phase ideas, ideas 5 and 8 seem to be the most promising. Idea 7 does
not comply with the need to be an add-on for the integrated suite and advice is a
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Figure 7.8 Second-phase ideas: Evaluation on eight aspects of two promising design directions.
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There are several points of attention that emerged from the user research. Most
importantly, distance assessment needs to be improved. The reaction of the
surgical team towards the product (or at least towards someone looking into this
matter) is favourable. This can also be concluded from the fact that 21 subjects
participated in just a few hours and the fact that in the afternoon people started to
come in after hearing about the user research from colleagues.
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and are most likely to welcome it. This feedback on the LCD is available during the
entire procedure; the LCDs are mounted to the monitors backs and their
illumination is therefore directed away from the surgical team.
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Text is based on and drawings are derived from the master thesis of F. Hoolhorst, graduation project
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering (Hoolhorst, 2005).
The current curved instruments still introduce many problems in the field of
physical and cognitive ergonomics. Van Veelen states that problems in this field
may lead to higher muscle-activity of the surgeon, resulting in fatigue and
discomfort for the surgeon, excessive pressure on sensitive areas of the hand and
fingers causing nerve injuries (van Veelen, 2003). The aim of this project was to
improve the handle of a curved instrument, paying extra attention to ergonomic
problems of the current handles.
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performed A set of requirements for the new handle was formulated. The most
important requirements are described below.
Functional requirements
The handle allows one-handed use.
The handle can be used with an existing shaft.
The handle allows force grip and precision grip.
The handle incorporates opening and closing of the tip.
The handle allows for fixation of the tip.
The relation between force exercised on the handle for opening a closing of the
tip and the force on the tip is between 1:5 and 1:7.
Based on these requirements different ideas were generated. Several product ideas
were based on a bar shaped grip (figure 7.12). Other ideas were based on pistol
handles (figure 7.13) and finally mouse handles were sketched (figure 7.14).
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Based on these ideas two concepts for a new handle were introduced. The handles
shape was based on different clay models and technical principles for opening,
closing, and fixation of the instruments were made (figures 7.15 and 7.16).
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The final design was based on the grip of a ball of Ø50 mm. This ball shape has two
asymmetric surfaces, which provide the surgeon a more stable grip. Also by doing
so, the grip provides the surgeon feedback on the orientation of the tip. The shape
of the buttons has been optimized in order to improve the control. Figure 7.17
shows the final product design.
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During execution of the user research, the body posture was recorded with two
cameras. After the user research, the posture was visually inspected every ten
seconds during the task and the following joint angles were measured:
Angle of the elbow.
Flexion and extension of the wrist.
Horizontal flexion of the shoulder.
Pronation and supination of the forearm.
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The results of the user research are shown in figure 7.20. The results are based on
a comparison, which was made with an existing straight instrument. The circle
diagrams give insight into the subjects body posture during the user research.
These show how long a certain posture was adopted. The green parts show how
long a body posture was adopted regarding the ergonomics guidelines. Practically,
no differences could be found in the elbows posture. For both instruments, the
angle between the upper arm and forearm was almost constantly held in the green
zone. It seems that instruments handles do not only influence the posture of the
elbow. Elbow posture is mainly influenced by the height and the angle of the
instruments tip. The main difference in body posture could be found in the flexion
and extension of the wrist. With the prototype, the wrist was adopted in an
ergonomic posture for 85% of the time. The horizontal flexion of the shoulder was
always within the ergonomic zones. There was a slightly difference in the pronation
and supination of the forearm. The posture using the prototype was 20% of the
time not in the ergonomic zone and for the curved instrument this was 26%.
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7.5 CONCLUSION
This chapter showed the several disciplines of ergonomics and its related problems.
All of projects are developed and researched by means of the basic design cycle of
Roozenburg and Eekels as a design framework. Within each design cycle all
domains of ergonomics are included. However, the focus is different. In addition,
the problem statement and the amount of available information in analysis phase
influences the outcome of other phases. For example, in case of product redesign
information on working principles, material, production, and usage are already
available. These can be used as valuable input for the synthesis phase. In case of a
new innovative product no information is available. This has to be researched in the
analysis phase, reducing the amount of time to be spent in other phases such as
evaluation by means of user research.
This shift of focus is reflected in the three described cases. The differences are
discussed briefly.
The starting point of this case was rather hypothetical. The assumption was that
the abdominal wall tension was probably associated with development of incisional
hernia. There was no quantitative method available to measure the abdominal wall
tension directly on patients abdomen which means that questions as: What to
measure? How to measure? and Where to measure? arise.
The hypothesis that abnormalities in the abdominal wall tension were associated
with development of incisional hernia was an answer to the question What to
measure?. By measuring the abdominal wall tension an indication of a potential
development of incisional hernia was obtained. The next question was How to
measure?. The performed observational research and interviews with the
specialists gained insight into which factors are relevant to formulate a prognosis.
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From this research it has concluded that the level of force exerted needed to indent
the fingers was a valuable feedback for the specialist. An existing force
measurement device was used to evaluate this principle. Since the abdominal wall
has different structures it was important to assess, which points will provide reliable
data. As should be clear the design team had a lack of knowledge and therefore
from a very early phase in the design process input from research and feedback
from the user was needed. The adjusted design cycle for this case is illustrated in
figure 7.21.
Input from
observational
research and
interviews
Input from technical
research performed
with an existing force
measurement device
The outcome of this project was a working prototype. With this working prototype
user research was performed to evaluate the design proposal. Because of the
extensive analysis phase, which was time-consuming, the user research was only
superficial. However, the design proved to be a good starting point for further
product development.
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using the already existing functionality and second how to convince them to use the
functionalities. After an observational study, it became clear that the positioning of
supporting equipment was a major source of physical inconvenience for the surgical
team. The focus was on positioning the surgical monitors. Anticipating on future
developments, OR aesthetics and usage, the design had to be an interface.
Therefore, approach from the interaction design was chosen as a starting point.
Seven characteristics of a good interaction design, which were already evaluated by
other experts, were used during synthesis phase to convince the surgical team
about its benefits. As should be clear the design team already knew in an early
phase of the design process what to design and therefore the project focused on
how to design. The adjusted design cycle for this case is illustrated in figure 7.22.
Results of user
research led to
improvements of the
design proposal
The outcome of this project was a detailed simulation. The performed user research
with this simulation was in-depth resulting in an improvement of the design
proposal.
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there were differences with Case I. In this case, there was an existing curved
instrument, which had limitations that had to be improved. This well-defined and
focused starting point of the process increases the level of elaboration in the next
phase of the design cycle. In the synthesis phase next to the drawings, early
models (i.e. clay models) were used to evaluate the shape and some technical
principles. This gives the design team the advantage of anticipating on the future
use of the product. With the knowledge gathered from the first user research the
quality of the final design proposal was improved. The adjusted design cycle for this
case is shown in figure 7.23.
Knowledge gathered
from existing
curved instrument
In-depth user
research by
comparing the
existing curved
instruments with
the prototype
The outcome of this project was a detailed prototype. With this prototype, a user
research was performed whereby the existing straight instrument was compared
with the prototype of the design proposal. The results of this user research were
sufficient to evaluate the design proposal objectively.
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CHAPTER 8 DISCUSSION
The transition from open to image-based surgery has changed surgical practice in
many perspectives as a consequence of application of advanced high technology in
the operating room. The increasing dependency on technology to perform surgical
procedures has introduced ergonomic problems for the surgical team (Berguer,
1999). From this perspective it is not surprising that most of the errors in
healthcare are related to surgical procedures (Kohn et al., 2000; Moorthy et al.,
2004; Verdaasdonk et al., 2007). Therefore there is a societal motive to improve
patient safety by reducing medical error rates (IGZ, 2007). Hence both the surgical
environment and the human-product interaction have to be analyzed and improved
(Cuschieri, 2000; Verdaasdonk et al., 2007).
Patient safety and surgical quality are two notions, which are related to each other.
Patient safety can be improved by enhancing surgical quality. Surgical quality can
be influenced by a variety of organizational and social aspects such as time
pressure and inadequate team work but also by human-error due to poor
ergonomic conditions such as excessive workload, fatigue, poor human-product
interaction, etc (Moorthy et al., 2003a; Reyes et al., 2006). Improvement of
surgical quality requests a multi-disciplinary approach, focusing on technology-
driven trends and on the other side on societal motive and ergonomics. This
includes designs aimed at satisfying human needs and extending possibilities for
the medical staff, like nurses, medical specialists and for patients. Besides involving
the problems of human-product interaction and the development of new
technologies, multi-disciplinary approach also guard the improved opportunities and
working conditions of specialists.
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For the Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering (IDE) it means that it will have to
educate designers capable of translating the practical needs of the healthcare
sector into products specially designed for medical applications in low-tech as well
as high-tech applications. In this way, they can contribute to the diagnosis,
treatment and prevention of disease and disorders (Goossens et al., 2007).
8.1.1 Methodology
At the start of a design process the design team often knows little about the user
group, the context and the interaction between the user and their environment.
When a design team is involved in the development of a healthcare system they
need to gain a total overview that often goes beyond their own knowledge (Kersten
et al., 2007). The medical specialists are professional users with specific needs,
work conditions, language, culture and work environment. For a design team the
first step to understand the problems of the user is gaining insight into the
profession of the user group. A design team will get familiar with their profession
and problems by literature study, observations, and interviews. The obtained
information from practice will be a good start for the design team in the design
process. Especially when the user group and their context are unknown for the
design team, field research is a suitable method to explore and obtain information
from the first hand (Babbie, 2004). Field research has a high ecological validity
since all restrictions and conditions from practice are involved in the research.
However, field research has its restrictions. Compared with experimental study,
field research measurements generally have more validity but less reliability. Also,
field research is generally not appropriate for statistical analysis (Babbie, 2004) but
the results of a field research are necessary to make assumptions regarding
observed problems. These assumptions can further be tested in an experimental
research. In this controlled research environment the design team can study the
relationship between independent and dependent variables (Graziano & Raulin,
2000). Experiments are suitable for the controlled testing of causal processes
(Babbie, 2004). The primary weakness of an experiment is artificiality. The results
of an experiment may not reflect the real world (external invalidity) (Babbie, 2004).
In this PhD-research both field research and experimental research is applied
(figure 8.1).
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In Chapter 5 the study on image quality is discussed. This study was explorative of
character and is conducted in the operating room. During this study it was hard to
control the research set-up. Between two procedures there was limited time to do
measurements and simultaneously the patient had to be transported and the
operating room had to be cleaned and prepared for the next procedure. Collecting
data in this atmosphere was challenging. The measurements were standardized as
far as possible and therefore gain good insight into the practice. However, by
analyzing the data it became clear that some assumptions, such as the surgeons
subjective experience of the displayed image, could not be verified. Since this
research was conducted in field there were restrictions to control the research
setting. It might be interesting to study surgeons subjective experience of the
displayed image in a controlled experimental setting.
The cases discussed in Chapter 7 show examples how user research is integrated
into the design process. These cases also show that the problem statement and the
amount of available information in the analysis phase influence the outcome of the
next phases. For example, in case of redesign, information on working principles,
material, production, and usage are already available for valuable input for the
synthesis phase. In case of innovative products no or little information is available
which has to be researched in the analysis phase, reducing the amount of time to
be spent in next phases such as evaluation by means of user research.
A hypothetical start like in Case I, extends the analysis phase. Due to lack of
existing or similar products, it is time-consuming to collect the relevant information.
Because of time constraints of the project the user research in the end of the
process could only be carried on a small amount of data. The outcome was a good
starting point for further product development.
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A start whereby the preconditions of the design proposal are already defined but
ergonomic possibilities of the design proposal are not used to its full potential like
Case II asks for a different approach. The design team already knew in an early
phase of the design process what to design and therefore the project focused on
how to design. The outcome of this project was a detailed simulation and the user
research was in-depth resulting in an improvement of the design proposal.
In a redesign project like Case III the starting point was hypothetical but there was
an existing product, which had limitations to improve. This well-defined and focused
starting point of the process increases the level of elaboration in the next phase of
the design cycle. In the synthesis phase next to the sketches, early models (i.e.
clay models) were used to evaluate the shape and some technical principles. This
gives the design team the advantage of anticipating on the future use of the
product. With the knowledge gathered from the first user research the quality of
the final design proposal was improved. The outcome of this project was a detailed
prototype. With this prototype, a user research was performed whereby an existing
laparoscopic instrument was compared with the prototype of the design proposal.
The results of this user research were sufficient to evaluate the design proposal.
The products designed at IDE include user research in different phases of the
design cycle, in which the intended end-users are actively involved. However, this
research sometimes has to be conducted in an experimental setting. Especially
when designing products for the OR, it is difficult to test these in the sterile field.
From an ergonomic point of view the surgical quality can be defined as; the level
of efficiency, safety and comfort of a surgical procedure (van Veelen, 2003).
Efficiency was defined as the coefficient between effort and benefit. In this
definition effort also implies product life span and learning and understanding the
use of the product (e.g. it can take several months to learn how to perform a task
without errors). Safety deals with the wellbeing of the user (in the case of
minimally invasive surgery also the wellbeing of the patient) and the prevention of
injury. Comfort was defined as a physical and mental state in which one is not
aware of any discomfort.
In this PhD-thesis the relationship between the three notions of surgical quality is
interpreted as; By creating a comfortable working environment for the surgical
team the efficiency of the procedure may increase since less effort is needed to
achieve the same result. Because of the increased comfort and efficiency, patient
safety may improve since the surgical team may concentrate more undisturbed on
their primary task, namely performing a surgical procedure (figure 8.2).
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The study on image quality was a large-scaled research in which 36 Dutch hospitals
participated. The number of the involved hospitals makes the findings
representative. In spite of the societal motive to improve patient safety it was
surprisingly to discover that at the time of visits almost none of the visited hospitals
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CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION
tested the components of the imaging chain regularly and components were only
tested in case of malfunctioning. The results of this study shows a variety of
imaging systems used in hospitals and that a large number of endoscopes and light
guide cables had insufficient light transmission qualities. The findings of this study
have lead to the realization and the importance of introduction of a quality control
program. After the visits already some of the hospitals introduce the quality control
program in their hospital. Furthermore, a recently published report by the Dutch
Inspection of Health Services The underestimated risks of minimally invasive
surgery refers to the first publication of this study and pleads for introduction of
quality control program on national level. Since most of the errors in healthcare are
related to surgical procedures, regularly controlling the equipment is not a
redundant action and will reduce the product related problems.
During this PhD-thesis research has been done on the ergonomics in the operating
room. During the PhD-project, new research areas have been defined. The result of
the study discussed in Chapter 4 shows that users adapting different balancing
strategies while using the same product in the same context. This leads to the
question of which aspects define the intra-individual differences. A research on this
topic may gain insight into the considerations, which a user makes while using a
product. The study in Chapter 5 discusses surgeons subjective experience of the
displayed image. More research on this topic seems interesting to discover the
relation between the quality judgment of the surgeon and the arguments of making
a judgment. Finally, another interesting research area is on the applied
methodology when designing for professional. The research on this topic may lead
to improvements of design methodology for development of products for the
operating room.
147
148
SUMMARY
The first step of a laparoscopic cholecystectomy starts with inflating the abdomen
of the patient with carbon dioxide. By several small incisions, laparoscopic
instruments with which the surgeon performs the procedure are inserted into the
abdomen cavity. The dark abdominal cavity becomes illuminated by a light guide
cable, which is connected to one end with a light source and at the other end with
the endoscope, which is positioned in the abdomen. The endoscope transmits the
image of the abdomen of the patient by means of a camera to a monitor. The
surgeon performs the procedure based on this image. Concerning the sterility, the
required equipment is positioned on a trolley, which stands outside the range of the
surgical team.
In spite of the fact that surgical principles are the same for open and laparoscopic
procedures, laparoscopy has changed the way of interaction between the surgical
team and the operating field in many ways. These changes however have not led to
the required adaptations in the operation room to improve the surgical quality and
to optimize the work conditions of the surgical team. In this respect, ergonomics
can play a role to fit the work environment to the user and improve the surgical
quality accordingly.
The aim of this thesis is to improve the surgical quality by applying ergonomics
(physical, sensory and cognitive) in the operating room.
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The topics discussed in the previous chapters create an overview of the daily
ergonomic problems, which the surgical team experiences as well as the
possibilities, and insights of improving the surgical quality and work conditions of
the surgical team.
150
SUMMARY
The physical complaints and the discomfort that the surgical team experiences
during open and laparoscopic procedures has to do with uncomfortable posture,
incorrect working height, fatigue due to static body posture and raised muscle
activity to balance the body. In chapter 4, a product solution is proposed and the
evaluation of this solution is discussed. The product solution, which is discussed in
part 1 of chapter 4, is a body-support that supports surgeons at both open and
laparoscopic procedures in their natural posture. The design process is described by
means of the design cycle. A working prototype shows that the product solution
meets the requirements of compactness, mobility, adjustability and is suitable for
surgeons with different body statures. The first evaluation takes place with the
surgeons in the operating room. In part 2 of chapter 4 the biomechanics, as
underlying theory for the product solution, is deeper discussed. A research is done
on the reduction of muscle activity by product use.
Chapter 5 aims at the sensory and cognitive aspects of laparoscopic procedures and
in particular at image quality during laparoscopic surgery. This study consists of
objective and subjective measurements in thirty-six Dutch hospitals. The collected
data did show that the quality of the components of the imaging chain was not
optimal and that most hospitals did not have the equipment to test these
components. There were large differences in light intensity of the image chain
between the different hospitals and several types of surgical procedures.
Chapter 6 reflects on the problems, which are described in chapter 2, and raises
applicable practical ergonomic solutions. This chapter has been in particular
intended for surgeons who want to tackle the problems, which appear during the
procedures.
Chapter 7 on the other hand, has been intended for the designers and describes the
steps of the design cycle in a number of cases. These cases are subdivided in
physical, sensory, and cognitive ergonomics and are related to the medical product
development.
151
152
SAMENVATTING
Bij verschillende specialisaties worden naast open chirurgie steeds vaker minimaal
invasieve ingrepen uitgevoerd. Laparoscopie is een minimaal invasieve techniek die
in de buikholte wordt uitgevoerd. De eerste laparoscopische galblaas verwijdering
werd in 1985 door chirurg Eric Mühe in Duitsland uitgevoerd en sindsdien wordt dit
type operaties wereldwijd steeds vaker toegepast. Deze populaire techniek is de
gold standard voor galblaas verwijdering geworden en kent vele voordelen voor
de patiënt.
De eerste stap van een laparoscopische galblaas operatie begint met het opblazen
van de buik van de patiënt met koolstofdioxide. Door kleine incisies worden
laparoscopische instrumenten in de buikholte gebracht waarmee de chirurg de
operatie uitvoert. De donkere buikholte wordt verlicht door een lichtkabel die met
het ene uiteinde verbonden is met de lichtbron en het andere uiteinde met de
endoscoop die zich in de buikholte bevindt. De endoscoop brengt het beeld via een
camera over naar een monitor waarop het inwendige van de patiënt te zien is. De
chirurg opereert aan de hand van dit beeld. De benodigde apparatuur staat op een
trolley die buiten het bereik van het chirurgisch team staat in verband met de
steriliteit.
Ondanks het feit dat de chirurgische principes hetzelfde zijn voor open en
laparoscopische ingrepen, heeft laparoscopie de manier van interactie tussen het
chirurgische team en het operatiegebied op vele manieren veranderd. Deze
veranderingen zijn echter niet gepaard gegaan met de benodigde aanpassingen in
de operatiekamer om de kwaliteit van een chirurgische ingreep te verbeteren en de
werkomstandigheden van het chirurgisch team te optimaliseren. In dit opzicht kan
ergonomie een rol spelen om de werkomgeving aan te passen aan de eisen van de
gebruiker en daarbij de kwaliteit van de operaties te verbeteren.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Het doel van dit proefschrift is om de kwaliteit van de operatie te verbeteren door
het toepassen van ergonomie (fysieke, sensorische en cognitieve ergonomie) in de
operatiekamer.
154
SAMENVATTING
De fysieke klachten en het discomfort dat het chirurgisch team tijdens open en
laparoscopische ingrepen ervaart heeft te maken met oncomfortabele houding,
verkeerde werkhoogte, statische belasting en verhoogde spieractiviteit om het
lichaam te balanceren. In hoofdstuk 4 wordt een productoplossing aangedragen en
de evaluatie van deze oplossing besproken. De productoplossing die in deel 1 van
hoofdstuk 4 wordt besproken is een lichaamsondersteunend product dat de
chirurgen bij zowel open als bij laparoscopische ingrepen ondersteund in hun
natuurlijke werkhouding. Het ontwerp wordt procesmatig beschreven aan de hand
van de ontwerpcyclus. Een werkend prototype laat zien dat de productoplossing
voldoet aan de eisen van compactheid, mobiliteit, instelbaarheid en geschiktheid
voor chirurgen met verschillende lichaamsbouw. De eerste evaluatie vindt plaats
met de chirurgen in de operatiekamer. In deel 2 van hoofdstuk 4 wordt dieper
ingegaan op de biomechanica als onderliggende theorie voor de productoplossing.
Een uitgebreid onderzoek wordt gedaan naar de reductie van spieractiviteit door
het productgebruik.
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156
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162
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisors Huib de Ridder and Jaap Bonjer for
their guidance and support during my PhD-research. Dear Huib, I have learned a lot
from your scientific character, critical and valuable feedback. You have introduced
me in the world of statistics and yes, I believe that a nice graph can tell more then
just a thousand numbers. Dear Jaap, your critical and open-minded attitude
regarding research in the medical field inspired me a lot. Nevertheless, I was the
only engineer in your research group when started my PhD-research in Erasmus MC
and from the first day, I had the feeling that I was a member of great medical
family.
My dear mentor Chris Snijders. You were the first person who introduced me in the
academic world. You took my hand and said, you can do it, go Arma an. I always
have the feeling that I can count on you in difficult times. This has encouraged me
to keep going. Thanks for being there and for your valuable support.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
My dear mentor Geert Kazemier. I want to thank you for initiating my PhD-research
and for your support throughout the whole process. You were a mentor who was
challenging me and stimulating me to look further than the obvious facts.
My dear collegues from Erasmus MC. I had a great time with you when I was
working at the Z-gebouw. You have included me in your group and taught me to
speak your language. The congresses that we visited together were always a
great experience! I will never forget you guys!
I would like to thank the Erasmus Medical Centre for facilitating and financing the
first two years of my PhD-research. The first year was financed by the Department
of Surgery, by my supervisor Jaap Boner and the second year by the Department of
Operating Room, by Geert Kazemier. I would also thank the employees of Erasmus
Medical Centre for their contribution to my PhD-research.
Dear Dirk Meijer. I would like to thank you for your contribution and support.
I would thank the hospitals, who participated in the studies, for their contribution
and hospitality. Their contribution was essential to collect the valuable data.
I would like to acknowledge the companies for providing me the equipment and
tools, which I have used during my studies.
Dear Sacha Silvester and Linda Roos from DDI. When I was came back to the
faculty in 2004, my first workplace was in DDI. DDI is a place where the openness,
warmness, and multidisciplinary approach of Industrial Design meet each other. It
is open because of the construction, it is warm because of the people who are
working there and it is multidisciplinary because the harmony between the different
specialisms. I had a wonderful time in DDI. Thanks for everything!
Dear Linda. In the course of time, we got closer and now you are more a friend
than a colleague for me. Our belly dance and aqua aerobics courses were a
pleasant activity during our hectic PhD-research. Our conversations were
sometimes emotional, sometimes funny and sometimes work related. We cried and
laughed together but the most important for me was that you were always there to
support me! Thanks!
Dear Sonja. I can remember our first meeting in DDI before you start with your
PhD. My first impression was, what an enthusiastic and inquisitive person. These
164
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
characteristics made our talks never dull and we had many common issues to
discuss. Thanks for your reliable friendship!
My dear roommate Marijke. When I was employed for my new job, our ways have
met in room 3B-11. In my first year as UD, you were always there to share your
experience and gave me tips and tricks regarding the educational responsibilities. I
have discovered that you have a strong intuition on personal and professional level,
which provides me with different insights on different topics. You are the cool
mom of Elissa and I am very glad to share a room with you. Thanks for
everything!
Dear Stella and Annelise. You have warmly welcomed me in your group and the
door of your room was always open for me. You were always prepared to listen and
think along with me. You have made the difficult times easier to pass. Thanks!
Dear Martine van Veelen. I would like to thank you for your support and
contribution to my PhD-research. With your thesis, you have created a valuable
basis on which I built on.
Dear Johan, Rick, Arnold, Marijke, Iemkje and Adinda. I would like to thank you for
the nice talks that did brighten me up and provided me with new energy to go on.
Dear Daan. I am very glad to be a member of your team Applied Ergonomics and
Design. I am looking forward for to coming years because there are many
opportunities to explore together.
Dear Mirjam, Daphne, Amanda, and Monique. Our lovely secretaries of Department
ID. I would like to thank you for your support and assistance throughout the whole
project. The warmness and the smiles on your faces make you special!
Dear PhDs of the faculty. The different cultures and researches among the PhDs in
our faculty have enriched my perception in many ways. Thanks for the interesting
discussions and for the nice social events, we had. It is always fun to be with you!
My dear paranimfs, Elif and Mano. These two persons represented with their
profession, the two worlds of my PhD-research. On the one hand a designer and on
the other hand a medical specialist. These two persons are also representing a
unique friendship. Elif you are my kader arkada m. We have many familiarities
like our roots, which are in Turkey, but also like our future, which is here in
Holland, in the faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, where we are so proud of.
You are a lovely friend. Mano thanks for providing me with knowledge about the
medical world and, thanks for being my friend and my paranimf.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
A special thanks in Turkish for my lovely parents. Canm annem ve babam. Sizin
bana olan büyük deste iniz ve ba araca ma olan inanciniz benim bu günlere
gelmemi sa lad. Sizin kznz oldu um için gurur duyuyorum. Her ey için
te ekkürler!
Dear Metin, Rina, Yasmin, Kirsten and my parents in law. It is great to have you on
my site. The difficult times would not have passed easily without your
encouragements and warm support. Thanks for everything!
My dear husband René. As none other person, you experienced the more
unpleasant side effects of being married with someone who was finishing her PhD.
Regardless of my moods, changing from emotional, stressful, bad-tempered, etc.,
you always succeed in relaxing me and gave me the comfortable feeling again. You
were always standing behind me, which makes me confident in what I was doing.
A km, thanks for being there today and in the future!
166
CURRICULUM VITEA
Arma an Albayrak was born in Ankara, Turkey on December 16th 1975. In 1993,
she finished her high school education in Izmir, Turkey. The same year she came to
Holland and did her entrance examination for a study on Delft University of
Technology. In 1994, she started with her study Industrial Design Engineering at
the Delft University of Technology. In 2002, she received her master degree at this
faculty. The same year she started with her PhD-research titled Ergonomics in the
operating room: transition from open to image-based surgery. Her PhD-research
was in cooperation with the Erasmus Medical Centre (EMC) in Rotterdam. In the
first two years of her PhD-research she was situated in EMC.
In 2004, she came back to the faculty Industrial Design to finish her PhD. Since
July 2007, she has been employed as an Assistant Professor at the department
Industrial Design, section Applied Ergonomics and Design. Her responsibilities
include both research and teaching in the field of ergonomics, medisign, usage
evaluation methodology and biomechanics.
167
168
OVERVIEW PAPERS
Albayrak A, Wauben LSGL, and Goossens RHM. Ergonomics in the Operating Room
Design framework. (2008). Accepted as book chapter on Ergonomics: Design,
Integration and Implementation by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Wauben LSGL, Albayrak A, and Goossens RHM. Ergonomics in the Operating Room
An overview. (2008). Accepted as book chapter on Ergonomics: Design,
Integration and Implementation by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Albayrak A, and Snijders CJ. (2007). Ergonomy in the OR. In JB Trimbos & GCM
Trimbos Kemper (Eds.), Basics of surgery: Tools, techniques and expertise (pp.
151-169). Maarssen: Elsevier gezondheidszorg.
Albayrak A, van Veelen MA, Prins JF, Snijders CJ, de Ridder H, and Kazemier G.
(2007). A newly designed ergonomic body support for surgeons. Surgical
endoscopy and other interventional techniques, 21(10), 1835-1840.
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ERGONOMICS IN THE OPERATING ROOM: TRANSITION FROM OPEN TO IMAGE-BASED SURGERY
Albayrak A, van Veelen MA, Prins JF, Snijders CJ, de Ridder H., Kazemier G. (2006).
Rugbelasting bij chirurgen tijdens operaties: Het effect van lichaamsondersteuning.
Tijdschrift voor Ergonomie 31 (1): 10-19.
Albayrak A, van Veelen MA, Prins JF, Snijders CJ, de Ridder H., Kazemier G. (2006).
Reducing muscle activity of the surgeon during surgical procedures. In Proceedings
of the 16th World Congress on Ergonomics, Maastricht, The Netherlands:
International Ergonomics Association.
Casseres YA, Albayrak A, Schot C, Grimbergen CA, Bonjer HJ, and Meijer DW.
(2003). Kwaliteit van endoscopische apparatuur en instrumentarium: een
voorlopige rapportage. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Heelkunde, 12(5), 171-174.
170
G L O SSAR Y
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172
GLOSSARY
173