UNI

T-1
I
ntr
oduct
ion:
Mar ketingresear chi sthef uncti
ont hatli
nksthecustomer,consumer ,andpubl i
ctot hemar ket
er
through i nformation – i nf
ormat i
on used toidenti
fyand def ine mar keti
ng oppor t
unities and
probl ems;gener ate,r ef
ine,andev al
uatemarketi
ngact i
ons;moni tormar keti
ngper for
mance;and
i
mpr oveunder st
andi ngofmar ketingasapr ocess.Marketi
ngr esearchspeci fi
est heinformat i
on
tor equiredt oaddr esst heseissues,designsthemet hodforcollecti
ngi nfor
mat i
on,managesand
i
mpl ement sthedat acollecti
onpr ocess,anal
yzestheresul
ts,andcommuni catesthefindingsand
theirimpl i
cations(Amer icanMar keti
ngAssociati
on)
Market
ingresear
chi
stheplanni
ng,col
l
ecti
on,andanal
ysi
sofdat
arel
evantt
omar
ket
ingdeci
sion
makingandthecommunicat
ionoft
heresul
tsofthi
sanaly
sist
omanagement
.

TheMar
ket
ingResear
chPr
ocess.
Mar
ket
ingr
esear
chi
sgat
her
edusi
ngasy
stemat
icappr
oach.Anexampl
eofonef
oll
ows:
1.Definethepr oblem.Nev erconductresear chf ort
hingsthatyouwoul d‘li
ke’t
oknow.Makesur e
thatyour eally‘need’toknow somet hi
ng.Obj ecti
vesguidether esearcherindev elopi
nggood,
usefulresearch,andtheyhelptheclientev aluatethecompletedproject
.Obj ect
ivesrangefrom t he
verygener al,suchaspr ofi
tmaxi mization,t ot hehighl
yspecific,suchasmeasur i
ngmar ket
i
nterestinanew pr oduct.Itisraret hatt heobj ecti
vesarewel lexplainedtot her esearcher.
Howev er,theresearcherneedstotaket hei nit
iat
ivetodevelopaclearstatementofobj ecti
ves.
2.METHODOFI NQUI RY:Mar ketresear cherslookt othescienti
fi
cmet hodast hesour ceoftheir
i
nvest i
gati
vemet hods.Ev enthought hi
smet hodi snottheonlyoneused,itisthest andar dagainst
whichot herinvestigati
vemet hodsar emeasur ed.Thesci enti
fi
cmet hodmakesgr eatuseof
exi
stingknowledgebot hasast art
ingpoi ntf orinvesti
gati
onandasacheckont her esultsoft he
i
nvest i
gati
ons(i.e.,a testofv alidity
).I t
smostdi sti
ncti
ve char
acteri
sticisi tst ot all
ackof
subjecti
vi
ty.The sci enti
fic method has ev ol
ved objecti
ve and ri
gid procedures f orv eri
fying
hypothesesorev al
uat i
ngev i
dence.I tisanaly ti
calinit
sprocessesandisinvestigatorindependent .
Thegoalofasci
enti
fi
cmethodol
ogist
,al
socall
edanobj ecti
vi
st,i
stor
unahy
pot
hesi
stestusi
ng
publ
i
clyst
atedpr
ocedurest
hatar
einvest
igat
or-
independent
.

 For
mul
ateapr
obl
em

 Dev
elopahy
pot
hesi
s

 Makepr
edi
cti
onsbasedont
hehy
pot
hesi
s

 Dev
iseat
estoft
hehy
pot
hesi
s

 Conductt
het
est

 Anal
yset
her
esul
ts

3.RESEARCHMETHOD.Doweusear
andom sampl
e,st
rat
if
iedsampl
e,orcl
ust
ersampl
e?
Whetherapar
ti
cul
armethodofinquiryi
sappropri
atef
oraresearchprobl
em dependsinlar
gepart
onthenatur
eoftheproblem i
tsel
fandt heextentorl
evelofexist
ingknowledge.Inaddi
tiont
o
sel
ecti
ngamethodofi
nquiry
,theresear
chplannermustal
soselectaresear
chmet hod.
4.RESEARCH DESI GN:Researchdesignisdefi
nedast hespecif
icmet hodsandprocedur
esfor
acquir
ingthei
nformationneeded.Iti
saplanororgani
zati
onalf
ramewor kfordoi
ngthestudyand
col
lecti
ngthedata.Researchdesignsar
euniquetoamet hodol
ogy.Howwi l
lweanal
yseanydata
col
lected?Whatsoftwarewil
lweuse?Whatdegr eeofaccur
acyisrequi
red?
5.DATACOLLECTI ON TECHNI QUES:Researchdesignbeginstot akeondet ailedfocusasthe
researcherselect
st heparti
culartechni
questobeusedi nsolvi
ngt heprobl
em f ormulat
edandi n
carryi
ngoutt hemet hodselected.Anumberoft echniquesavail
ableforcollectingdatacanbe
used.Somet echniquesareuni quetoamet hodofinquiry.Forexample,manyoft hequali
tat
ive
researchtechniques,suchaspr oj
ecti
vetechni
ques,areusedonl yi
nsubj ect.Decideupona
budgetandat i
meframe.
I
nor dertocollectdataf r
om communi cati
onorobser vati
ontheremustbeameansofr ecor
ding
responsesorbehav iour
.Thus,theprocessofmeasur ementandt hedev el
opmentofmeasur ement
i
nst r
umentar ecloselyconnectedtothedecisionofwhi chdatacollecti
ontechni
que(s)shoul
dbe
used.The r el
ationshipist wo-way.Thati s,the str
ucture and contentoft he measurement
i
nst r
umentcandependont hedat acoll
ect
iont echni
que,andmeasur ementconsi
derati
onsoften
i
nf l
uencetechniqueselecti
on.
6.SAMPLE DESI GN:Rar el
ywi lla mar ket
ing research pr
ojectinvol
ve examining t
he ent
ir
e
populat
ionthati srelev
antt othepr oblem.Fort hemostpar t,pract
icalconsider
ati
ons(e.
g.,
absolut
eresourcesav ai
l
able,costvs.val
ue,et c.
)dict
atethatoneuseasampl e,orsubsetoft
he
rel
evantpopulat
ion.Inotherinst
ances,theuseofasampl eisderi
vedfrom considerat
ionoft
he
rel
evantsyst
emat i
candv ari
ableerr
orsthatmi ghtari
seinaproject
.
I
ndesi
gni
ngt
hesampl
e,t
her
esear
chermustspeci
fyt
hreet
hings:
1.Wher
ethesampl
eist
obesel
ect
ed
2.Thepr
ocessofsel
ect
ion
3.Thesi
zeoft
hesampl
e
Thesampl
edesignmustbeconsi stentwiththerelevantpopul
ati
on,whi
chisusual
l
yspecif
iedin
thepr
obl
em-f
ormulat
ionstageoft her esear
chprocess.Thisallowsthedat
aobtai
nedfrom the
sampl
etobeusedinmakinginf
erencesaboutt helargerpopul
ati
on.
7.DATA COLLECTI ON:Datacol lecti
onbegi nsafterthepr evioussi xstagesoft her esearch
processar ecompl ete.Datacoll
ection,whet herbycommuni cati
onorobser v
ation,requirestheuse
ofdat acol l
ecti
onper sonnelwhi cht henr aisesquest ionsr egarding managi ng t hesepeopl e.
Because dat a collecti
on can be cost l
y,f irms often ut il
ize out side li
mi t
ed-service research
suppli
ers,parti
cularlywhent heext entofi n-houser esearchact ivi
tydoesnotwar rantt hecostof
havingper manentdat acoll
ecti
onper sonnel .Also,projectdesi gnmayr equirespeci ali
zeddat a
coll
ecti
on,whi chmi ghtbestbeobt ainedf rom anout sidesuppl ier.Thewor kingr elati
onship
betweent hedatacol l
ect
ionagency( aso- calledfiel
dserv ice)andt her esearchsupplierorcl i
enti s
amaj orfactoraff
ect ingthequal
ityoff i
eldwor kanddat acol l
ection.
8.ANALYSI SANDI NTERPRETATI ON:Dat at hatar
eobt ai
nedandpr esentedi nthesamef orm as
origi
nall
ycoll
ectedareseldom usef ultoanyone.Datamustbeanal y
sed.Thedat amustbeedi t
ed,
coded,andt abulat
edbef or
eper formingf ormalanaly
sessuchasst ati
sticaltests.Thetypesof
analysesthatcanbepr oper
lyper formeddependupont hesampli
ngpr ocedur es,measur ement
i
nst r
uments,and dat a coll
ecti
on t echniques used.Consequentl
y ,iti si mper at
ivethatt he
techniques ofanal y
sis,associated descr i
pti
ve orpr escr
ipt
iverecommendat i
on types,and
pr
esent
ati
onf
ormat
sbesel
ect
edpr
iort
odat
acol
l
ect
ion.
9.Checkf
orer r
ors.I
tisnotuncommont
ofi
nder
ror
sinsampl
i
ng,dat
acol
l
ect
ionmet
hod,or
anal
yti
cmi
stakes.
10.THERESEARCHREPORT:Thecul mi nationoft her esear chpr ocessi st heresear chr epor t.It
i
ncl udesacl ear,accur at e,andhonestdescr iptionofev ery t
hingt hathasbeendoneandt her esul t
s,
concl usions,and— whenev erpossible—r ecommendat ionsf orcour sesofact ion.Two cr itical
attri
but esoft her epor tar et hati
tprov i
desal ltheinformat ionr eader sneedusi nglanguaget hey
under stand( compl eteness)andt hatitcont ainsselectiv einformationchosenbyt heresear cher
(conci seness).Theseat t
ri
but esareof teni nconf l
ictwi theachot her.Twoappr oachescanbe
takent oensur ethatt hi sconf li
cti
snotapr obl em.Oneappr oachi nvolvespr epari
ngt wor epor t
s: (
1)
at echni calrepor tthatemphasi zesthemet hodsusedandunder ly
ingassumpt i
ons,andpr esent s
thef indingsi nadet ailedmanner ;and( 2)apopul arrepor tthatmi nimizest echnicaldet ai
lsand
emphasi zessi mpl ici
ty .Thesecondappr oachi sconcer nedwi thhowt her eportiscommuni cated.
Becausepeopl ev aryagr eatdeali nhowt heyar eaf f
ect edbydi f
ferentf ormsofcommuni cat ion,
thei dealr eportingpr ocessshoul dtrytoencompassal lmaj orforms.Thus,awr it
tenr epor t,by
i
tsel f
, maybei nadequat eandonl yaninvitationt oinacti
on.
Def
ini
ngt
hemar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
obl
em anddev
elopi
nganappr
oach:
• Defi
ningt
heprobl
em isthemostimport
antst
ep,becauseonl
ywhenaprobl
em hasbeen
cl
earl
yandaccur
atel
yident
if
iedcanar
esear
chproj edpr
ectbeconduct oper
ly.
• Def
ini
ngt
hemar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr em set
obl sthecour
seoft
heent
ir
epr
oject
.
I
mpor
tanceofDef
ini
ngt
hePr
obl
em:
• Probl
em def
ini
ti
oni
nvolesst
v ati
ngt
hegener
almar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr em andi
obl dent
if
ying
i
tsspeci
fi
ccomponents.
• Onl
ywhenmar keti
ngresear
chpr em hasbeencl
obl ear
lydef
inedcanr
esear
chbedesi
gned
andconduct
edproper
ly.
• I
nadequat
epr
obl
em def
ini
ti sal
oni eadi
ngcauseoff
ail
ureofmar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
oject
.
• Bet
tercommunicat
ionandmorei
nvol
vementinprobl
em def
ini
ti
onar
ethemostf
requent
ly
menti
onedwaysofimprov
ingt
heusef
ulnessofr
esear
ch.
TasksI
nvol
vedi
nPr
obl
em Def
ini
ti
on:
• Di
scussi
onswi
thDeci
sionMaker
s
• I
nter
viewswi
thI
ndust
ryExper
ts
• Secondar
yDat
aAnal
ysi
s
• Qual
i
tat
iveResear
ch
Env
ironment
alCont
extoft
hePr
obl
em:
I
npart
icul
ar,theresearcheranalyzest
hef
act
orst
hathav
eani
mpactont
hedef
ini
ti
onoft
he
mar
ket
ingresearchproblem suchas:
• pasti
nfor
mat
ionandf
orecastper
tai
ningt
othei
ndust
ryandt
hef
ir
m;
• r
esour
cesandconst
rai
ntsoft
hef
ir
m;
 • obj
ect
iveoft
hedeci
sionmaker
;
• buy
erbehav
ior
;
• l
egal
env
ironment
;
• economi
cenv
ironment
;and
• mar
ket
ingandt
echnol
ogi
cal
ski
l
lsoft
hef
ir
m.
ManagementDeci
sionPr
obl
em andMar
ket
ingResear
chPr
obl
em:
• Themanagementdeci
sionprobl
em askswhattheDM needst odo,wher
easthemarket
ing
resear
chpr
obl
em askwhatinfor
matoni
i sneededandhowi tcanbestbeobt
ained.
• Resear
chcanpr
ovdet
i henecessar
yinf
ormat
iont
omakeasounddeci
sion.
• Themanagementdecisi
onpr
obl
em i
sact
ionor
ient
ed.I
tisconcer
nedwi
tht
hepossi
ble
act
ionst
heDM coul
dtake.
• Howshoul
dthel
ossofmar
ketshar
ebear
rest
ed?
• Shoul
dthemar
ketbesegment
eddi
ff
erent
ly?
• Themarket
ing r
esear
ch pr
obl
em i
si nf
ormat i
on or
ient
ed.I
twant
sto det
ermi
newhat
i
nfor
mat
ionisneededtomaket
hebestdeci
sion.
• I
tinvoles det
v ermini
ng whatinfor
mat
ion i
sneeded and how t
hati
nfor
mat
ion canbe
obt
ainedef
fect
ivel
yandeff
ici
entl
y.
• Wher
easthemanagementdeci
sionprobl
em f
ocusesonsy
mpt
oms,
themar
ket
ingr
esear
ch
pr
obl
em f
ocusesonunder
lyi
ngcauses.
ManagementDeci
sionPr
obl
em v
ersusMar
ket
ingResear
chPr
obl
em:
Managementdeci
sionpr
obl
em
• Askswhatt
hedeci
sionmakerneedst
odo
• Act
ionor
ient
ed
• Focusesonsy
mpt
oms
Mar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
obl
em
• Askswhati
nfor
mat
ioni
sneededandhowi
tshoul
dbeobt
ained
• I
nfor
mat
ionor
ient
ed
• Focusesont
heunder
lyi
ngcauses
Component
soft
heAppr
oach:
• I
nthepr
ocessofdev
elopi
nganappr
oach,
wemustnotl
osesi
ghtoft
hegoal
-theout
put
s.
• The outputs of t
he appr
oach dev
elopment pr
ocess shoul
dincl
ude t
he f
oll
owi
ng
components:
• Obj
ect
ive/
theor
eti
cal
framewor
k
• Anal
yti
cal
model
s
 • Resear
chQuest
ions
• Hy
pot
heses,
and
• Speci
fi
cat
ionofI
nfor
mat
ionNeeded.
WHATI
SRESEARCHDESI
GNandi
tscl
assi
fi
cat
ion/
for
mul
ati
on:
• A masterplant
hatspeci
fi
est
hemet
hodsandpr
ocedur
esf
orcol
l
ect
ingandanal
yzi
ng
neededinf
ormat
ion.
• A research design encompasses t he met hod and procedur es empl oyed t o conduct
scienti
fi
c resear
ch.Thedesi gnofast udydef inest
hestudyt ype( descripti
ve,corr
elat
ional,
semi -
exper i
mental,experi
ment al,revi
ew)andsub- t
ype( e.
g.,descr i
pti
v e-l
ongit
udinal
 case
study),researchquestion, 
hypotheses, 
independentanddependentv ar
iables, 
experi
ment al
design,and, i
fappli
cable,datacollecti
onmet hodsandast at
isticalanalysisplan.
PROCESSOFRESEARCHDESI
GN
• Pr
obl
em def
ini
ti
on
• Resear
chdesi
gn
• Dat
acol
l
ect
ion
• Dat
aanal
ysi
s
• I
nter
pret
ati
onofr
esul
ts
• Repor
ti
ng
TasksI
nvol
vedI
naResear
chDesi
gn

 Def
inet
heI
nfor
mat
ionNeeded

 Desi
gnt
heExpl
orat
ory
,Descr
ipt
ive,
and/
orCausal
Phasesoft
heResear
ch

 Speci
fyt
heMeasur
ementandScal
i
ngPr
ocedur
es

 Const
ructaQuest
ionnai
re

 Speci
fyt
heSampl
i
ngPr
ocessandt
heSampl
eSi
ze

 Dev
elopaPl
anofDat
aAnal
ysi
s

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMar
ketResear
chDesi
gns
EXPLORATORYRESEARCH:
theobject
iveofexpl
orat
oryresear
chistoexplor
eorsearchthr
oughaprobl
em orsi
tuat
ionto
provi
deinsi
ghtsandunderst
andi
ng(tabl
e3.
2).Expl
orat
oryr
esear
chcoul
dbeusedforanyofthe
fol
lowingpur
poses:
•For
mulateapr oblem ordef i
neapr obl
em mor epreci
sely.
•I
denti
fyalter
nat i
vecoursesofact i
on.
•Devel
ophy potheses.
•I
solat
ekeyv ariablesandrelati
onshipsforf
urtherexaminati
on.
”
•Gai
ninsightsfordev el
opinganappr oachtotheproblem.
•Est
abli
shpr i
oriti
esforfurtherr
esearch
CONCLUSI
VERESEARCH:
• Pr
ovi
despeci
fi
cinf
ormat
iont
hatai
dst
hedeci
sionmakeri
nev
aluat
ingal
ter
nat
ivecour
ses
 ofact
ion
• Soundstat
isti
calmethods& f
ormalr
esear
chmet
hodol
ogi
esar
eusedt
oincr
easet
he
rel
i
abi
li
tyoftheinf
ormati
on
• Dat
asoughtt
endst
obespeci
fi
c&deci
siv
e
• Al
so,
mor
est
ruct
ured&f
ormal
thanexpl
orat
orydat
a
TYPESOFCONCLUSI
VERESEARCH:
• Descr
ipt
iveResear
ch

 Descr
ibesat
ti
tudes,
per
cept
ions,
char
act
eri
sti
cs,
act
ivi
ti
esandsi
tuat
ions.

 Exami
neswho,
what
,when,
wher
e,why
,&howquest
ions

 CommonChar
act
eri
sti
csofDescr
ipt
iveResear
ch

• Bui
l
donpr
evi
ousi
nfor
mat
ion
• Showr
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenv
ari
abl
es
• Repr
esent
ati
vesampl
esr
equi
red
• St
ruct
uredr
esear
chpl
ans
• Requi
resubst
ant
ial
resour
ces
• Concl
usi
vef
indi
ngs
• Causal
Resear
ch

 Pr
ovi
desev
idencet
hatacause-
and-
eff
ectr
elat
ionshi
pexi
stsordoesnotexi
st.

 Premi
se ist hatsomet
hing (and i
ndependentv ar
iabl
e)di
rect
lyi
nfl
uences t
he
behav
iorofsomethi
ngel
se(thedependentvar
iabl
e).

 CommonChar
act
eri
sti
csofCausal
Resear
ch

• Logi
cal
TimeSequence
Forcausal
i
tytoexi
st,t
hecausemustei
therpr
ecedeoroccursi
mul
taneousl
y
wit
htheeffect
• Concomi
tantVar
iat
ion
Ext
entt
owhi
cht
hecauseandef
fectv
aryt
oget
herashy
pot
hesi
zed
• Cont
rol
forOt
herPossi
bleCausal
Fact
ors
Whati
sQual
i
tat
iveResear
ch?
Qualit
ati
veresearch i
s desi
gned tor ev
eala targetaudi ence’
sr ange ofbehav i
ourand the
percepti
onsthatdri
veitwithref
erencetospecif
ict opicsorissues.Itusesin-dept
hst udi
esof
smallgroupsofpeopl etoguideandsuppor ttheconst ructi
onofhy pot
heses.Ther esul
tsof
quali
tati
ver
esearcharedescr
ipt
iverat
herthanpr
edictiv
e.
Qual
i
tat
iver
esear
chi
sat
ypeofsci
ent
if
icr
esear
ch.I
ngener
alt
erms,
sci
ent
if
icr
esear
chconsi
sts
ofani
nvest
igat
iont
hat
:
•seeksanswer
stoaquest
ion
•sy
stemat
ical
l
yusesapr
edef
inedsetofpr
ocedur
est
oanswert
hequest
ion
•col
l
ect
sev
idence
•pr
oducesf
indi
ngst
hatwer
enotdet
ermi
nedi
nadv
ance
•pr
oducesf
indi
ngst
hatar
eappl
i
cabl
ebey
ondt
hei
mmedi
ateboundar
iesoft
hest
udy
Qual
i
tat
iver
esear
chshar
est
hesechar
act
eri
sti
cs.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,i
tseekst
ounder
standagi
ven
r
esear
chpr
obl
em ort
opi
cfr
om t
heper
spect
ivesoft
hel
ocal
popul
ati
oni
tinv
olv
es.Qual
i
tat
ive
r
esear
chi
sespeci
all
yef
fect
ivei
nobt
aini
ngcul
tur
all
yspeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ionaboutt
hev
alues,
opi
nions,
behav
iour
s,andsoci
alcont
ext
sofpar
ti
cul
arpopul
ati
ons.

Themai
nmet
hodsf
orcol
l
ect
ingqual
i
tat
ivedat
aar
e:

1.I
ndivi
dualint
erv
iews
2.Focusgroups
3.Observat
ions
4.Acti
onResearch

I
nter
views:

I
nter
viewscanbe

1.Unstr
uct
ured
1.Canber eferredtoas' dept h'or'
indept h'int
erv
iews
2.Theyhav ev eryli
tt
lestructureatal l
3.Theint er vi
ewermayj ustgowi tht heai m ofdiscussingali
mitednumberoft opics,
somet imesasf ewasj ustoneort wo
4.Thei nt erviewermayf r
amet heinterview questionsbasedont heint
erv
ieweeand
hi
s/herpr ev iousresponse
5.Thisallowst hediscussiont ocov erareasi ngr
eatdet ail
6.Theyi nv olvet heresearcherwant ingtoknoworf i
ndoutmor eaboutaspecifi
ctopic
wit
houtt her ebeingast ructureorapr econceivedpl anorexpectati
onastohowt hey
wil
ldeal wi ththetopic
2.Semistr
uctur ed

1.Semi str
ucturedintervi
ewsar esomet i
mesal socall
edfocusedint
er v
iews
2.Aser i
esofopenendedquest i
onsbasedont hetopicareastheresearcherwantsto
cover
3.A seriesofbr oad questionst o askand mayhav esomepr ompt sto helpthe
i
ntervi
ewee
4.'
Theopen- endednat ureoft hequest i
ondef i
nest hetopicunderinv est
igati
onbut
provi
desoppor t
uniti
esforbot hinterv
iewerandintervi
eweet odiscusssomet opi
cs
i
nmor edetail
'
5.Semist ructured i
nt er
views allow the resear
chert o promptorencour age t
he
i
ntervi
eweei ft heyar elookingf ormorei nf
ormationorf i
ndwhatt heyaresay i
ng
i
nteresti
ng
 6.Thismethodgivesther
esearcherthefr
eedom t
oprobetheinter
vieweet
oelabor
ate
ort
ofoll
owanewl i
neofinqui
ryint
roducedbywhatt
heinter
vieweeissay
ing
7.Wor kbestwhentheint
ervi
ewedhasanumberofar eashe/shewant stobesureto
beaddr
essi
ng
3.St
ruct
ured

1.Theintervi
ewedaskst herespondentthesamequest i
onsinthesameway
2.Atightl
ystructuredschedul
eisused
3.Thequest i
onsmaybephr asedi nordert hatal i
mitedrangeofr esponsesmaybe
giv
en-i .
e.'Doy ourat
eourser v
icesasv erygood, goodorpoor'
4.Ar esear
cherneedst oconsiderwhet heraquest i
onnair
eorst r
ucturedint
ervi
ew i
s
mor eappropri
at e
5.'
Iftheint
erviewscheduleistoot i
ghtl
ystructuredthismaynotenabl ethephenomena
underinvesti
gat i
ontobeexploredintermsofei therbreadthordepth.
'

Focusgr
oups:

Theuseoff
ocusgroupsi
ssomet
imesusedwheni
tisbet
tert
oobt
aini
nfor
mat
ionf
rom agr
oup
rat
hert
hani
ndi
vi
duals.

Gr
oupi
nter
viewscanbeusedwhen:

1.Limit
edr esources(
ti
me,manpower,fi
nances)
2.Thephenomenabei ngresear
chedrequir
esacoll
ect
ivediscussi
oninor
dertounderst
and
thecircumstances,
behavi
ouroropi
nions
3.Greaterinsi
ghtsmaybedev el
opedofthegroupdy
namic-orcauseandconsequence

Char
act
eri
sti
csofaf
ocusgr
oup:

1.Recommendedsi zeoft hesampl egr oupi s6-10peopl eassmal l

ergroupsmayl imi
tt he
potent ialont heamountofi nformat i
oncol lect
ed,andmor emaymakei tdiff
icultforall
participantst opartici
pateandi nteractandf orthei nterv
iewertobeabl etomakesenseof
thei nformat i
ongiven
2.Sev eral f
ocusgr oupsshoul dbeusedi nor dertogetamor eobject
iveandmacr ov i
ewoft he
i
nv estigation.i.
e.f ocussingononegr oupmaygi v ey ouidi
osyncrat
icresult
s.Theuseof
sever algroupswi lladdt ot hebr eadthanddept hofi nfor
mation.Ami ni
mum oft hreefocus
groupsi srecommendedf orbestpr acti
ceappr oaches
3.Member soft hefocusgr oupshoul dhav esomet hingi ncommonwhi chisimportanttot he
i
nv estigation
4.Groupscanei therbeputt oget herorexi sti
nggr oups-i tisalwaysusefultobemi ndfulof
thegr oupdy namicsofbot hsituations

Theai
m oft
hef
ocusgr
oupi
stomakeuseofpar
ti
cipant
s'f
eel
i
ngs,
per
cept
ionsandopi
nions

Thi
smet
hodr
equi
rest
her
esear
chert
ousear
angeofski
l
ls:

1.groupskill
s
2.faci
li
tati
ng
3.moder at
ing
 4.l
ist
ening/obser
ving
5.anal
ysis

Obser
vat
ion:

Obser
vati
oninvol
vesmaytakepl
aceinnat
uralset
ti
ngsandi
nvol
vet
her
esear
chert
aki
ngl
engt
hy
anddescr
ipt
ivenot
esofwhati
shappeni
ng.

I
tisarguedthatt
hereareli
mi t
stothesit
uat
ionsthatcanbeobser
vedint
hei
r'nat
ural
'set
ti
ngsand
t
hatthepresenceoftheresearchmayleadt
opr obl
emswi t
hval
idi
ty.

Li
mit
ati
onswi
thobser
vat
ioni
ncl
ude:

1.Changei npeople'
sbehavi
ourwhent heyknowt heyarebei
ngobserv
ed
2.A'snapshot'viewofawholesituati
on
3.ThinkBigBrother.
..
4.Theresearchermaymi sssomethingwhiletheyarewatchi
ngandtakingnotes
5.Ther esear
chermaymakej udgementsofmakev al
uestat
ementsormi sunder
standwhat
hasbeenobser ved

St
rengt
hsofobser
vat
ion

1.Canoff
erafl
avourforwhatishappening
2.Cangi
veaninsighti
ntothebiggerpi
cture
3.Candemonstr
atesub-gr
oups
4.Canbeusedtoassisti
nt hedesi
gnoft herestoft
her
esear
ch

Someti
mes,theresearcherbecomesorneedst
obecomeaparti
cipantobser
ver
,wher
etheyare
taki
ngpartinthesit
uationinordert
obeacceptedandf
urt
herunderst
andtheworki
ngsofthe
soci
alphenomenon.

Act
ionResear
ch:

Act
ionResear
chdoesn'
tj
usti
nvol
veaski
ngabouti
t,i
tinv
olv
esdoi
ngi
t.

Act
ionResear
chi
saf
ramewor
kthati
s:

1.Coll
aborati
v e
2.Therei sapr act
icali nterventi
onmade-i .e.youdo somet hi
ngto makeachangeor
i
nterventi
oni nasi tuationt haty ouresear
ch( i.
e.thewor kthatwedoinvcs.
..
proj
ect
monitori
ngandev al
uat ion..
.useforbids)
3.Theresearcherwi l
lbeact i
velyinvolv
edintheplannedint
erv
enti
on
4.ChecklandsFMAmodel
1.F-f ramewor kofi deas
2.M -met hodologybei ngappl i
ed
3.A-ar eaofconcer n

Et
hnogr
aphy
:

Et
hnogr
aphyhasabackgr
oundi
nant
hropol
ogyandmeans'
por
trai
tofapeopl
e'
.Et
hnogr
aphyi
sa
methodol
ogyf ordescri
pti
vest
udiesofcul
tur
eandpeopl
eandl
ooksatt
hepeopl
e,cul
tur
esand
commonalit
iesofsharedexper
iences.

Et
hnogr
aphi
cresear
chent
ail
sext
ensi
vef
iel
dwor
kbyt
her
esear
cher
.Dat
acol
l
ect
ioni
ncl
udes:

1.formal andi nfor mal i

ntervi
ews
2.ofteni ntervi
ewi ngani ndividual onseveraloccasi
ons
3.participativeobser vati
ons
1.t heref ore,ethnogr aphyi sverytimeconsumi ngandi nvolvestheresearcherspending
agr eatdeal oft i
mei nt hefiel
d
4.analy sisofet hnographi cdat a=' emic'-whi chmeanst her esearcheratt
empt st oint
erpret
dataf r
om t heper spect i
veoft hesampl et hatwasst udied,i.e.tounderstandt hesubjects
themsel vesandt hel anguageandt erminologytheyuse,aswel lasthemeani ngsbehi nd
thi
s
5.ther iskofusi nget hnogr aphicr esearchist hatt
her esearchermaynotf ul
lyunderstandor
bef ami li
arwi t
ht hesoci alnormsoft hoset heyar
er esearchingandt hereforetherei
sr i
skof
misint erpretation

Whati
sQuant
it
ati
ver
esear
ch:

Quant
itat
iver
esear
chisinfl
uencedbyt heempi
ri
cistpar
adi
gm,whi
chmeansthati
tisconcer
ned
wit
hcauseandef fectofsocialphenomenaandusest hedat
a-whichisbasedonempi r
ical
obser
vati
onandthei
rcri
ti
cali
nterpr
etat
ion

Qual
i
tiesofquant
it
ati
ver
esear
ch

1.Deduct
ive
2.Begi
nsfrom t
heor
y-i
.e.i
tisestabl
ishedt
otestt
heory
3.Canbeusedtomakegenerali
sati
onsand/ortotesthypot
heses

I
mpor
tanceofQuant
it
ati
veResear
ch:

1.Mor ereli
ableandobj ecti
ve
2.Canusest at
isti
cstogener ali
seaf i
ndi
ng
3.Oftenreducesandr estr
ucturesacompl expr
obl em t
oalimitednumberofv
ari
ables
4.Looksatr elat
ionshipsbet weenv ari
ablesandcanest abl
ishcauseandeffectinhi ghl
y
control
ledcircumst ances
5.Teststheor i
esorhy potheses
6.Assumessampl eisrepresentat
iveofthepopulati
on
7.Subjecti
vit
yofr esearcherinmet hodol
ogyisrecognisedless
8.Lessdet ai
ledthanqual it
ati
vedat aandmaymi ssadesi r
edresponsefr
om t
heparti
cipant

Ther
e are f
our main types of Quanti
tat
ive resear
ch:
  Descr
ipt
ive,
 
Cor
rel
ati
onal
,Causal
-
Compar
ati
ve/
Quasi
-Exper
iment
al,and 
Exper
imental
Research

Descri
pti
veresearch:seekstodescri
bet hecurrentstatusofani
dentif
iedvari
abl
e.Theseresearch
proj
ectsaredesignedt oprovi
desy stemat i
cinformationaboutaphenomenon.  Theresearcher
doesnotusuallybeginwi t
hanhy pothesis,butislikel
ytodevel
oponeaf tercol
lect
ingdata.
 The
anal
ysisandsy nt
hesisoft hedatapr ovidethet estofthehypothesi
s. Syst
ematiccol
lecti
onof
i
nformati
onr
equi
rescar
efulsel
ect
ionoft
heuni
tsst
udi
edandcar
efulmeasur
ementofeach
v
ariabl
e.

Exampl
esofDescr
ipt
iveResear
ch:

 Adescr
ipt
ionofhowsecond-
gradest
udent
sspendthei
rti
medur
ingsummerv
acat
ion
 Adescr
ipt
ionofthet
obaccousehabi
tsoft
eenager
s

Correlati
onalresearch:att
empt st odeterminet heextentofar el
ationshi
pbet weent woormor e
vari
ablesusingst at
isti
caldata. 
Int hi
stypeofdesi gn,rel
ati
onshipsbet weenandamonganumber
offact saresoughtandi nter
preted.Thist ypeofr esearchwillrecognizetrendsandpat t
ernsin
data,butitdoesnotgosof arinitsanalysistopr ovecausesf ortheseobser vedpatterns.Cause
andef f
ectisnott hebasi soft histypeofobser vati
onalresearch.Thedat a,r
elat
ionships,and
dist
ributi
onsofv ari
ablesarest udiedonly.Var i
ablesarenotmani pulat
ed;theyareonl yidenti
fi
ed
andar estudiedastheyoccuri nanat uralset
t i
ng. 

*
Someti
mescorr
elat
ional
researchisconsi
deredaty
peofdescri
pti
ver
esear
ch,
andnotasi
tsown
t
ypeofr
esear
ch,
asnov ari
ablesaremanipul
atedi
nthest
udy. 

Exampl
esofCor
rel
ati
onalResear
ch:

 Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weeni
ntel
l
igenceandsel
f-
esteem 
 Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weendi
etandanxiet
y 
 Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenanapti
tudet
estandsuccessi
nanal
gebr
acour
se

Causal-
compar ati
ve/quasi-experi
mentalresearch:
attemptstoestabl
ishcause- effectrel
ati
onships
amongt hev ar
iables.
 Theset ypesofdesignar everysi
milart
ot rueexper i
ment s,butwit
hsome
keydifferences. Ani ndependentv ari
abl
ei sidenti
fi
edbutnotmani pulatedbyt heexperi
ment er
,
andef f
ect soft heindependentv ari
ableont hedependentvari
ablear emeasur ed.Theresearcher
doesnotr andoml yassi gngroupsandmustuseonest hatarenat urall
yf ormedorpr e-
exi
sting
groups.Identif
iedcont rolgroupsexposedt othet r
eatmentvari
ablear est udi
edandcompar edt o
groupswhoar enot .
 

Exampl
esofCor
rel
ati
onalResear
ch:

 Theef
fectofpreschool
attendanceonsocial
mat ur
it
yattheendofthef
ir
stgr
ade
 Theef
fectoftaki
ngmultiv
itaminsonastudents’
schoolabsent
eei
sm

Experiment
alr esearch: 
oftencalledt
r ueexperi
mentat i
on,usest hescienti
fi
cmet hodtoest abli
sh
the cause-
effectr elat
ionship among a gr oup ofv ari
ablest hatmake up a st udy. The t rue
experi
mentisof t
ent houghtofasal abor at
orystudy,butthi si
snotal wayst hecase;alabor at
ory
setti
nghasnot hingtodowi t
hi t
. Atr
ueexper i
mentisanyst udywhereanef forti
smadet oi denti
fy
andimposecont roloverallothervar
iablesexceptone. Ani ndependentvari
ableismanipulat edto
determine the ef fects on t he dependent v ari
ables.  Subjects are r
andoml y assigned to
experi
mental t
reatment sratherthanidenti
fi
edinnaturall
yoccur ri
nggroups

Exampl
esofExper
iment
alResear
ch:
 

 Theef
fectofanewtreat
mentplanonbreastcancer
 Theef
fectofposi
ti
verei
nfor
cementonatti
tudetowardschool
Quant
it
ati
veObser
vat
ion:

Obser
vat
ioncanal
sobecar
ri
edouti
naquant
it
ati
vecont
extandmayi
nvol
ve:

1.Count
ingtheuseofservi
ces
2.Numberofpeopleaccessi
ngser
vices
3.Ascer
tai
nbusy/qui
etti
mes

Sur
vey
s:

Thr
eet
ypesofsur
vey
:

1.Factual surveys:
usedtocoll
ectdescripti
veinformati
on,i
.e.thegover
nmentcensus
2.Atti
tude sur veys -i.
e.an opini
on pol l-r atherthan att
empting t
o gat
herdescr i
pti
ve
i
nformat i
on,anat t
it
udesurveywillattemptt ocoll
ectandmeasur epeopl
e'
sat t
it
udesand
opinions, i
.e.4outof5peoplebeli
eve..
.
3.Explanat or
ysur vey-goesbey ondt hecollectionofdataandai mstotesttheori
esand
hypot hesesand/ort oproducenewt heory.

Researchersusual
lyusequest
ionnai
resorsurv
eysinorderthatt
heycanmakegener
ali
sat
ions,
ther
efore,t
hesurveysar
eusual
lybasedoncaref
ull
ysel
ectedsampl
es.

Quest
ionnai
rescanbe:

1.Fi
ll
edinbythepart
ici
pant
2.Askedinastr
uctur
edandfor
mal
waybyani
nter
viewer

o Int
erviewerbiasmustbeconsider
edwhendoneinthi
sway,however,
anadv antageof
thi
smet hodov erapar
ti
cipantfi
l
li
nginaquesti
onnair
eisthattheint
erviewermay
assistifther
ear eanyambiguousquest
ionsori
fthepart
ici
pantisconfusedi nany
way

3.Postalquest i
onnairecanbeused,wher ebyaquesti
onnai
reispostedtothesamplegroup
andr etur
nedt other esearcherbyaspecifi
edti
meanddate
4.Admi nist
rati
onofaquest ionnair
etoagr oupi
sanoption-i.
e.atcentr
e,schoolorgr
oup.
Ther esearcherneedst oconsi deri
fthegroupwil
laff
ecteachother'
sresponsesandthe
concent r
ati
onl evelsetcwhenunder taki
ngthi
sappr
oach
5.Telephonequest ionnaire
6.Emai lquesti
onnai r
e

whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenQual
i
tat
iveResear
chandQuant
it
ati
veResear
ch?
Qual
i
tat
iveResear
ch:
1.Quali
tat
iveResear
chisprimari
lyexpl
oratoryresear
ch.I
tisusedt
ogai
nanunder
standi
ngof
underl
yi
ngreasons,opi
nions,
andmot i
v at
ions.
2.I
tprovi
desinsight
si nt
othepr
obl
em orhel
pst
odev
elopi
deasorhy
pot
hesesf
orpot
ent
ial
quant
it
ati
veresearch.
 3.Quali
tat
iveResearchisal
sousedt
ouncov
ert
rendsi
nthoughtandopi
nions,anddi
ve
deeperi
ntotheprobl
em.
4.Qual
i
tat
ivedat
acol
l
ect
ionmet
hodsv
aryusi
ngunst
ruct
uredorsemi
-st
ruct
uredt
echni
ques.
5.Somecommonmet hodsincludefocusgr
oups(gr
oupdiscussi
ons),i
ndi
vi
dualint
erv
iews,
andpart
ici
pat
ion/observat
ions.Thesamplesi
zeistypi
call
ysmal l
,andrespondent
sare
sel
ect
edtoful
fil
agi venquota.
Quant
it
ati
veResear
ch:
1.Quant
it
ati
veResear
chisusedt
oquanti
fytheprobl
em bywayofgener
ati
ngnumer
icaldat
a
ordat
athatcanbetr
ansf
ormedi
ntouseabl
estati
sti
cs.
2.I
tisusedtoquanti
fyatt
it
udes,opi
nions,behaviour
s,andot
herdef
inedv
ari
abl
es– and
gener
ali
zer
esul
tsf
rom al
argersampl
epopulation.
3.Quant
it
ati
veResear
chusesmeasur
abl
edat
atof
ormul
atef
act
sanduncov
erpat
ter
nsi
n
r
esear
ch.
4.Quanti
tat
ivedatacoll
ect
ion met
hodsar
emuch mor
est
ruct
ured t
han Qual
i
tat
ivedat
a
col
lect
ionmethods.
5.Quanti
tat
ive data col l
ect
ion methods incl
ude v
arious f
orms of surveys – onli
ne
surv
eys, 
paper sur veys,
 
mobil
e sur veys and ki osk sur veys, f ace-
to-
face
i
ntervi
ews, 
tel
ephoneinterv
iews,
longi
tudi
nalst
udi
es,websi
tei
nter
cept
ors,onl
inepoll
s,and
syst
emat i
cobservat
ions.
UNI
T-2

Col
l
ect
ionofdat
a:

Pr
imar
yandSecondar
ySour
ces

Researcher
sneedt oconsiderthesour
cesonwhi chtobaseandconf i
rmthei
rresear
chand
fi
ndings.Theyhaveachoicebetweenpr
imarydataandsecondar
ysour
cesandtheuseofboth,
whichistermedtr
iangul
ati
on,ordual
met
hodology
.

Pr
imar
ydat
aist
hedat
acol
l
ect
edbyt
her
esear
chert
hemsel
ves,
i.
e.

1.i
nterview
2.observ ati
on
3.acti
onr esearch
4.casest udies
5.l
ifehistor i
es
6.questionnai r
es
7.ethnogr aphicresear
ch
8.l
ongitudi nalstudi
es

Adv
ant
ages:

Thei
nvest
igat
orcol
l
ect
sdat
aspeci
fi
ctot
hepr
obl
em underst
udy
.

1.Ther
eisnodoubtaboutt
hequal
i
tyoft
hedat
acol
l
ect
ed(
fort
hei
nvest
igat
or)
.
 2.I
frequi
red,
itmaybepossi
blet
oobt
ainaddi
ti
onal
dat
adur
ingt
hest
udyper
iod.

Di
sadv
ant
ages:

1.Thei
nvest
igat
orhast
ocont
endwi
thal
lthehassl
esofdat
acol
l
ect
ion-
 

 deci
dingwhy,what,how,whent ocoll
ect
 gett
ingthedatacoll
ect
ed( per
sonall
yorthroughother
s)
 gett
ingfundi
nganddeal i
ngwithfundi
ngagencies
 ethi
calconsi
derat
ions(consent
,permissi
ons,etc.
)

2. Ensur
ingt
hedat
acol
l
ect
edi
sofahi
ghst
andar
d-

 alldesi
reddataisobtai
nedaccur
atel
y,andinthef
ormati
tisr
equi
redi
n
 thereisnofake/cookedupdata
 unnecessary/usel
essdatahasnotbeenincl
uded

3. Costofobt
aini
ngt
hedat
aisof
tent
hemaj
orexpensei
nst
udi
es

Secondar
ysour
cesar
edat
athatal
readyexi
sts

1.Previ
ousr esearch
2.Offi
cialst
atist
ics
3.Massmedi aproducts
4.Diar
ies
5.Lett
ers
6.Governmentr eport
s
7.Webi nfor
mat i
on
8.Hist
or i
caldataandinfor
mat
ion

Examples:Censusdat
abei
ngusedt
oanal
yset
hei
mpactofeducat
iononcar
eerchoi
ceand
earni
ng.
Adv
ant
ages:
1.Thedat
a’sal
readyt
her
e-nohassl
esofdat
acol
l
ect
ion
2.I
tisl
essexpensi
ve
3.Thei
nvest
igat
ori
snotper
sonal
l
yresponsi
blef
ort
hequal
i
tyofdat
a(“
Idi
dn’
tdoi
t”
)
Di
sadv
ant
ages:
1.Theinv esti
gatorcannotdeci
dewhati
scol
l
ect
ed(
ifspeci
fi
cdat
aaboutsomet
hingi
s
requi
red,forinst
ance)
.
2.Onecanonl
yhopet
hatt
hedat
aisofgoodqual
i
ty
3.Obtai
ningaddi
ti
onaldat
a(orev
encl
ari
fi
cat
ion)aboutsomet
hingi
snotpossi
ble(
most
of
ten)
Measur
ementandscal
i
ng:
Measur
ement
:assi
gni
ngnumber
sorot
hersy
mbol
stochar
act
eri
sti
csofobj
ect
saccor
dingt
o
cer
tai
npr
e-speci
fi
edr
ules
Scal
i
ng:
gener
ati
ngacont
inuum uponwhi
chmeasur
edobj
ect
sar
elocat
ed
Pr
imar
yscal
esofMeasur
ement
:
a)NOMI
NALSCALE

• Leastr
est
ri
cti
veofal
lscal
es.Doesnotpossessor
der
,di
stanceoror
igi
n

• Number
sassi
gnedser
veonl
yasal
abel
ort
agsf
ori
dent
if
yingobj
ect
s,pr
oper
ti
esorev
ent
s

• Exampl
e

East
:1 West
:2
Nor
th:
3 Sout
h:4

• Permissi
ble mat
hemat
ical oper
ati
ons: per
cent
age, f
requency
, mode, cont
ingency
coeff
ici
ents
b)ORDI
NALSCALE

• Possessor
derbutnotdi
stanceoror
igi
n

• Number
sassi
gnedpreser
vetheorderrel
ati
onshi
p(rank)andt
heabi
l
ityt
odi
sti
ngui
sh
bet
weenel
ement
saccordi
ngt
oasingleatt
ri
but
e&element

• Permissi
blemathemati
cal
operat
ions:
(+)medi
an,per
centi
l
e,rankcorr
elat
ion,
signt
estand
runtestI
nter
val
scale,
Range,
mean, st
andar
d,ANOVA,regr
ession,
fact
oranalysi
s
c)I
NTERVALSCALE

• Possesst
hechar
act
eri
sti
cofor
deranddi
stance

• DOESNOTpossessor
igi
n

• Number
sar
eassi
gnedi
nsuchawayt
hatt
heypr
eser
vebot
htheor
der

 anddi
stancebutdonothav
eauni
quest
art
ingpoi
nt

• Exampl
e:t
emper
atur
escal
e-

50oFi
stwi
ceaswar
m as25oF
10oCi
snott
wiceaswar
m as-
3.9oC

• Per
missi
blemat
hemat
ical
oper
ati
ons

• (
+)Mean,
aver
agedev
iat
ion,
standar
ddev
iat
ion,
cor
rel
ati
on,
tF

Scal
i
ngt
echni
ques
d)RATI
OSCALE

• Possesst
hechar
act
eri
sti
cofor
derdi
stanceandor
igi
n

• Number
sar
eassi
gnedi
nsuchawayt
hatt
heypr
eser
vebot
htheor
derdi
stanceandor
igi
n

• Exampl
e:l
engt
h(KM scal
e),
wei
ght(
KGscal
e)
 50KGi
stwi
ceasheav
yas25KG
110.
24poundi
stwi
ceasheav
yas55.
12pound

• Per
missi
blemat
hemat
ical
oper
ati
ons:
ALL

Scal
i
ngTechni
ques:

a)Compar
ati
vescal
es
Compar
ati
vescalesinvol
vethedir
ectcompar
isonofsti
mulusobject
s.Compar ati
vescal
e
dat
amustbeint
erpret
edinrel
ati
veter
msandhav eonl
yor
dinal
orrankorderpr
opert
ies.
Adv
ant
ages:

 Smal
ldi
ff
erencesbet
weenst
imul
usobj
ect
scanbedet
ect
ed.

 Sameknownr
efer
encepoi
ntsf
oral
lrespondent
s.

 Easi
l
yunder
stoodandcanbeappl
i
ed.

 I
nvol
vef
ewert
heor
eti
cal
assumpt
ions.

 Tendt
oreducehal
oorcar
ryov
eref
fect
sfr
om onej
udgmentt
oanot
her
.

 Mostwi
del
yusedscal
i
ngt
echni
queusedi
nmar
ket
ingr
esear
ch

Comparat
iveScali
ngTechni
ques
Pai
redComparison:
Themostcommonmet hodoftast
et est
ingi
spai
redcompari
son.Theconsumeri
saskedto
sampl
etwodi
ff
erentpr
oduct
sandselectt
heonewi
ththemostappeal
i
ngtast
e.Thet
esti
sdone
i
npri
vateandami ni
mum of1,000r esponsesisconsi
deredanadequatesampl
e.Ablindt
ast
etest
f
orasoftdri
nk,whereimager
y ,self
-percept
ionandbrandreput
ationarev
eryi
mportantf
act
orsin
t
he consumer’
s purchasi
ng decision,may notbe a good i ndicat
orofperf
ormance i
nt he
mar
ketpl
ace.
RankOr
derScal
i
ng:
• Respondentsarepresent
edwi t
hsever
alobj
ect
ssi
mul
taneousl
yandaskedt
oor
derorr
ank
them accor
dingtosomecr i
ter
ion.
• I
tispossi
blet
hatt
her
espondentmaydi
sli
ket
hebr
andr
anked1i
nanabsol
utesense.
• Fur
ther
mor
e,r
ankor
derscal
i
ngal
sor
esul
tsi
nor
dinal
dat
a.
• Onl
y(n-1)scal
i
ngdeci
sionsneedbemadei
nrankor
derscal
i
ng.

Const
antSum Scal
i
ng:
• Respondentsal
locat
eaconstantsum ofuni
ts,
suchas100poi
ntst
oat
tr
ibut
esofapr
oduct
toref
lectt
heiri
mportance.
• I
fanat
tri
but
eisuni
mpor
tant
,ther
espondentassi
gnsi
tzer
opoi
nts.
• I
fanat tr
ibut
eist
wiceasi
mpor
tantassomeot
herat
tr
ibut
e,i
trecei
vest
wiceasmany
poi
nts.
Thesum ofal
lthepoi
ntsi
s100.Hence,
thenameoft
hescal
e
b)Non-
compar
ati
vescal
es
Innoncomparati
vescal
es,eachobjecti
sscal
edindependentl
yoftheother
sint
hest
imul
us
set
.Ther esul
ti
ngdataar
egeneral
lyassumedtobeinter
valorrat
ioscal
ed.

 Eachst
imul
usobj
ecti
sscal
edi
ndependent
lyofot
her
s

 I
nter
val
orr
ati
oscal
es

 Cont
inuousr
ati
ngsori
temi
zedr
ati
ngscal
es

Non-
compar
ati
vescal
i
ngt
echni
ques
• Respondent
sev aluat
eonlyoneobjectatat i
me,andf
ort
hisr
easonnon-
compar
ati
ve
scal
esareoftenrefer
redt
oasmonadicscal
es.
• Non-
compar
ati
vet
echni
quesconsi
stofcont
inuousandi
temi
zedr
ati
ngscal
es.
Cont
inuousRat
ingScal
e
Respondent
srat
etheobject
sbyplaci
ngamarkatt
heappr
opr
iat
eposi
ti
ononal
i
net
hatr
unsf
rom
oneextr
emeofthecri
ter
ionvar
iabl
etotheot
her
.
Thef
orm oft
hecont
inuousscal
emayv
aryconsi
der
abl
y.
Howwoul
dyour
ateWal
Mar
tasadepar
tmentst
ore?
Ver
sion1
Pr
obabl
ythewor
st-------
I----------------------Pr
obabl
ythebest
Ver
sion2
Pr
obabl
ythewor
st-------
I----------------------
-Pr
obabl
ythebest
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ver
sion3
Ver
ybad Nei
thergood Ver
ygood
norbad
Pr
obabl
ythewor
st-------
I---------------------
--
Probabl
ythebest
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
I
temi
zedRat
ingScal
es
• The respondent
s are provi
ded wi
th a scal
ethathas a numberorbr
iefdescr
ipt
ion
associ
atedwitheachcategory.
• Thecat
egori
esareor
deredintermsofscaleposit
ion,andt herespondent
sar
erequi
redt
o
sel
ectt
hespeci
fi
edcat
egorythatbestdescr
ibest
heobj ectbeingrat
ed.
• Thecommonl
yusedi
temi
zedr
ati
ngscal
esar
etheLi
ker
t,semant
icdi
ff
erent
ial
,andSt
apel
scal
es.
a)Li
ker
tScal
e
TheLi
ker
tscal
erequi
rest
her
espondent
stoi
ndi
cat
eadegr
eeofagr
eementor
di
sagr
eementwi
theachofaser
iesofst
atement
saboutt
hest
imul
usobj
ect
s.

St
rongly Di
sagr
ee Nei
ther Agr
ee Str
ongly
di
sagree Agr
ee nor agree
di
sagree

Sear
s sel l
s 1 2 3 4 5
hi
gh-qual
it
y
merchandi
se.

Sears has 2 3 5 1 4
poori n-
stor
e
serv
ice.

Ili
ketoshop 1 4 5 2 3
atSear
s.

• Theanal
ysi
scanbeconduct edonani
tem-
by-
it
em basi
s(pr
ofi
l
eanal
ysi
s),orat
otal
(summat
ed)scor
ecanbecal
culat
ed.
• Whenarri
vi
ngatatot
alscor
e,t
hecategor
iesassi
gnedt
othenegat
ivest
atement
sbyt
he
r
espondent
sshoul
dbescor
edbyrev
ersi
ngthescal
e.
b)Semant
icDi
ff
erent
ial
Scal
e
Thesemant
icdi
ff
erent
iali
sasev
en-
poi
ntr
ati
ngscal
ewi
thendpoi
ntsassoci
atedwi
thbi
pol
ar
l
abel
sthathav
esemant
icmeani
ng.
SEARSI
S:
Power
ful
XWeak
Unr
eli
abl
eXRel
i
abl
e
Moder
nXOl
d-f
ashi
oned
• Thenegat
iveadjecti
veorphr
asesomet
imesappear
satt
hel
eftsi
deoft
hescal
eand
somet
imesattheright
.
• Thi
scontr
olsthetendencyofsomer espondent
s,par
ti
cul
arl
ythosewithver
ypositi
veor
ver
ynegat
iveat
ti
tudes,t
omarkther
ight-orlef
t-
handsi
deswit
houtreadi
ngt
helabel
s.
• I
ndiv
iduali
temsonasemant
icdi
ff
erent
ialscal
emaybescor
edonei
thera-
3to+3ora1t
o
7scale.
c)St
apel
Scal
e
TheStapelscaleisaunipol
arrat
ingscal
ewi t
htencat
egor
iesnumber
edf
rom -
5to+5,wi
thouta
neut
ralpoi
nt(zero).Thi
sscalei
susuall
ypresent
edver
ti
cal
l
y.
 
SEARS
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HI
GHQUALI
TY POORSERVI
CE
-
1 -
1
-
2 -
2
-
3 -
3
-
4X -
4
-
5 -
5
Thedataobtained byusi
ng aSt
apelscal
ecanbeanal
yzed i
nthesamewayassemant
ic
di
ff
erent
ial
data.
Quest
ionnai
reDesi
gn
Thequestionnair
eisast r
uctur
edt echniquef
orcoll
ecti
ngprimarydatainamarketingsurvey
.Iti
s
aseri
esofwr it
tenorverbalquest
ionsf orwhi
chtherespondentprov
idesanswers.Awell-
desi
gned
quest
ionnair
emot iv
atestherespondentt opr
ovi
decompl et
eandaccur at
einf
ormation.
Thesurveyquest
ionnair
eshoul
dnotbev i
ewedasast and-
alonet
ool.Al
ongwitht
hequest
ionnai
re
ther
eisf i
eld work,rewar
dsforther espondents,and communicati
onaids,al
lofwhi chare
i
mpor t
antcomponentsofthequest
ionnai
reprocess.
St
epst
oDev
elopi
ngaQuest
ionnai
re
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
est
epst
odev
elopi
ngaquest
ionnai
re-t
heexactor
dermayv
arysomewhat
.

 Det
ermi
newhi
chi
nfor
mat
ioni
sbei
ngsought
.

 Chooseaquest
ionty
pe( st
ruct
ureandamountofdisgui
se)andmethodofadmi ni
str
ati
on
(f
orexampl
e,wr
itt
enfor
m, emailorwebf
orm,
tel
ephoneinter
view,
ver
bali
nter
view).

 Det
ermi
net
hegener
alquest
ioncont
entneededt
oobt
aint
hedesi
redi
nfor
mat
ion.

 Det
ermi
net
hef
orm ofr
esponse.

 Chooset
heexactquest
ionwor
ding.

 Ar
ranget
hequest
ionsi
ntoanef
fect
ivesequence.

 Speci
fythephysi
calchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hequest
ionnai
re(
papert
ype,numberofquest
ions
perpage,et
c.)

 Testt
hequest
ionnai
reandr
evi
sei
tasneeded.

Requi
redI
nfor
mat
ion
Todet
ermi
neexact
lywhi
chi
nfor
mat
ioni
sneeded,i
tisusef
ult
oconst
ructt
abl
esi
ntowhi
cht
he
dat
awil
lbeplacedoncei
tiscol
l
ect
ed.Thet
abl
eswi
l
lhel
ptodef
inewhatdat
aisneededandwhat
i
snotneeded.
Quest
ionTy
peandAdmi
nist
rat
ionMet
hod
Somequest
iont
ypesi
ncl
udef
ixedal
ter
nat
ive,
openended,
andpr
oject
ive:

 Fi
xed-
alt
ernati
vequesti
onsprovi
demul
ti
ple-
choi
ceanswers.Thesetypesofquest
ionsar
e
goodwhent hepossi
bler
epl
iesaref
ewandclear
-cut
,suchasage,carowner
shi
p,et
c.

 Open-
ended</ b>questi
onsal l
owtherespondenttobetterexpresshis/
heranswer,butar
e
moredif
ficul
tt oadmini
sterandanal
yse.Oft
en,open-endedquest i
onsareadmini
ster
edina
dept
hintervi
ew.Thistechniqueismostappropr
iat
eforexplorat
oryresearch.

 Pr
ojecti
vemet
hods</b>useavaguequest
ionorst
imul
usandat
temptt
opr
ojectaper
son'
s
at
ti
tudesfr
om t
heresponse.
Thequest
ionnai
recoul
duset
echni
quessuchaswor
dassoci
ati
onsandf
il
l-
in-
the-
blanksent
ences.
Proj
ecti
vemethodsarediff
icul
ttoanal
yseandar
ebet
tersui
tedf
orexpl
orat
oryr
esear
cht
hanf
or
descr
ipt
iveorcausal
resear
ch.
Ther
ear
ethr
eecommonl
yusedr
ati
ngscal
es:
graphi
c,i
temi
zed,
andcompar
ati
ve.

 Graphic-si
mplyali
neonwhichonemarksanXanywher
ebet
weent
heext
remeswi
than
i
nfini
tenumberofpl
aceswher
etheXcanbepl
aced.

 I
temized-si
mil
art
ogr
aphi
cexceptt
her
ear
eal
i
mit
ednumberofcat
egor
iest
hatcanbe
marked.

 Comparati
ve-t
herespondentcomparesoneattr
ibut
et oother
s.Examplesi
ncl
udetheQ-
sor
ttechni
queandtheconstantsum met
hod,whi
chr equi
resonetodiv
ideafi
xednumber
ofpoi
ntsamongtheal
ter
nati
v es.
Quest
ionnai
restypi
cal
lyareadminist
eredv
iaapersonalort
elephonei
nter
view orv
iaamai
l
quest
ionnai
re.Newermet
hodsincl
udee-mai
landt
heWeb.
Quest
ionCont
ent
:
Eachquesti
onshouldhav easpecifi
cpurposeorshoul
dnotbei ncl
udedi
nthequesti
onnai
re.The
goalofthequesti
onsi stoobt ai
ntherequi
redinf
ormati
on.Thisisnott
osaythatallquesti
ons
di
rect
lymustaskf orthedesir
eddata.I
nsomecases, questi
onscanbeusedtoestabl
ishrappor
t
wit
htherespondent,especi
all
ywhensensiti
vei
nfor
mationisbei
ngsought
.
Sensi
ti
vequesti
onscanbeposedinwayst
oincr
easer
esponsel
i
kel
i
hoodandt
ofaci
l
itat
emor
e
honestr
esponses.Somet
echni
quesar
e:

 Pl
acet
hequest
ioni
naser
iesofl
essper
sonal
quest
ions.

 St
atet
hatt
hebehav
iourorat
ti
tudei
snotsounusual
.

 Phr
aset
hequest
ioni
nter
msofot
herpeopl
e,nott
her
espondent
.

 Pr
ovi
der
esponsechoi
cest
hatspeci
fyr
anges,
notexactnumber
s.

 Use a r
andomized r
esponse modelgi
vi
ng the r
espondentpai
rs ofquest
ions wi
tha
randoml
yassignedonet oanswer.Theint
ervi
ewerdoesnotknow whichquestionthe
 person i
s answer
ing,butthe over
allpercent
age ofpeopl
e assi
gned t
othe sensi
ti
ve
questi
onisknownandstat
isti
cscanbecalculat
ed.
For
m ofQuest
ionResponse
Quest
ionscanbedesi
gnedf
oropen-
ended,
dichot
omous,
orMul
ti
chot
omousr
esponses.

 Open-ended:responsesaredi
ffi
cul
ttoevaluat
e,butar
eusef
ulear
lyi
nther
esear
chpr
ocess
fordeter
miningthepossibl
erangeofresponses.

 Di
chot
omousquest
ionshav
etwopossi
bleopposi
ngr
esponses,f
orexampl
e,"
Yes"and
"
No".

 Mul
ti
chot
omous:
quest
ionshav
ear
angeofr
esponsesasi
namul
ti
ple-
choi
cet
est
.

Thequesti
onnai
redesignershoul
dconsi
dert
hatr
espondent
smaynotbeabl
etoanswersome
quest
ionsaccur
atel
y.
Twot
ypesofer
rorar
etel
escopi
nger
rorandr
ecal
ll
oss.

 Telescopi
nger
rorisanerrorr
esul
ti
ngfr
om thet
endencyofpeopl
etor
ememberev
ent
sas
occurri
ngmorerecent
lyt
hantheyact
ual
lydi
d.

 Recalll
ossoccurswhenpeopl
efor
getthataneventevenoccur
red.Forrecentevents,
tel
escopinger
rordominat
es;f
orev
entsthathappenedinthedist
antpast,recal
lloss
dominates.
Quest
ionWor
ding:
(Q-
Wor
ding)
Thequesti
onsshoul
dbewor dedsot hattheyareunambi guousandeasi
lyunderstood.The
wordi
ngshoul
dconsi
derthefullcont
extoft
her espondent
'ssit
uat
ion.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,considert
he
who,what
,when,
where,
why,andhowdi mensionsofthequesti
on.
Forexampl
e,t
hequest
ion,
"
Whi
chbr
andoft
oot
hpast
edoy
ouuse?
"
mightseem clearatfi
rst.However,therespondentmayconsider"y
ou"tobethefami
lyasawhole
ratherthanheorsheper sonal
ly
.Iftherespondentrecentl
ychangedbrands,
the"
when"dimensi
on
oft hequestionmayber el
evant.Ifther espondentusesadi ff
erent,morecompacttubeof
toothpastewhentrav
eling,t
he"where"aspectoft hequest
ionwil
lmatter
.
Abet
terwor
dingoft
hequest
ionmi
ghtbe,
“Whichbr
andoftoot
hpast
ehavey ouusedpersonall
yathomedur
ingt
hepast6mont
hs?I
fyou
haveusedmor
ethanonebrand,
pleasel
isteachofthem.
"
Whenaski
ngaboutthefrequencyofuse,t hequest
ionsshoul
davoidambi
guouswordssuchas
"
someti
mes","
occasi
onall
y",
or"regul
arl
y”.Rather
,morespeci
fi
cter
mssuchas"onceperday
"and
"
2-3t
imesperweek"shoul
dbeused.
Sequencet
heQuest
ions:
Someneut r
alquest
ionsshoul
dbepl acedatt hebeginni
ngofthequestionnai
rei
nordert
o
establ
ishrappor
tandputt
herespondentatease.Eff
ect
iveopeni
ngquest
ionsaresi
mpl
eandnon-
thr
eatening.
Whensequenci
ngt
hequest
ions,
keepi
nmi
ndt
hatt
hei
ror
dercanaf
fectt
her
esponse.Onewayt
o
cor
rectf
orthiseff
ecti
stodi
str
ibut
ehal
foft
hequest
ionnai
reswi
thoneor
der
,andt
heot
herhal
f
wit
hanotherorder
.
Phy
sical
Char
act
eri
sti
csoft
heQuest
ionnai
re:
Physi
calaspectssuchast hepagelayout,fontty
peandsi ze,questionspacing,andtypeofpaper
shouldbeconsidered.Inordertoelimi
natet heneedt ofli
pbackandf orthbetweenpages,t he
l
ayoutshouldbedesi gnedsot hataquest i
onatthebot tom oft hepagedoesnotneedt obe
conti
nuedont othenextpage.Thef ontshouldber eadablebyr espondent swhohav eless-
than-
perf
ectv i
sualacuity
.Thepaperst ockshoul dbegoodqual it
yt opr ojecttheimaget hatt he
questi
onnair
eisi mport
antenoughtowar ranttherespondents'time.Eachquest i
onnair
eshoul d
haveauniquenumberi nordert
obetteraccountforitandtoknowi fanyhav ebeenlost
.
TestandRev
iset
heQuest
ionnai
re:
Thequest i
onnair
eshouldbepr e-
test
edi nt wostagesbef or
edist
ributing.Inthefir
ststage,it
shouldbeadmi nist
eredusingpersonalintervi
ewsinor dertogetbetterf eedbackonproblems
suchasambi guousquestions.Then,i
tshoul dbetestedinthesamewayi twil
lbeadmini
stered.
Thedat afr
om thetestshouldbeanalysedt hesamewayt headmi
nistereddat aist
obeanaly sed
i
nor dertouncoveranyunanti
cipat
edshortcomings.
Dif
ferentrespondents wil
lanswert he same questi
onnair
e diff
erentl
y.One hopes t
hatt
he
dif
ferencesareduetor ealdi
fferencesi
nt hemeasuredcharacteri
sti
cs,butt
hatofteni
snott
he
case.Somesour cesofthedif
ferencesbetweenscoresofdif
ferentr
espondent
sare:

 Tr
uedi
ff
erencesi
nthechar
act
eri
sti
cbei
ngmeasur
ed

 Di
ff
erencesi
not
herchar
act
eri
sti
cssuchasr
esponsest
yles.

 Di
ff
erencesi
ntr
ansi
entper
sonal
fact
orssuchasf
ati
gue,
etc

 Di
ff
erencesi
nsi
tuat
ion,
suchaswhet
herspousei
spr
esent

 Di
ff
erencesi
ntheadmi
nist
rat
ion,
suchasi
nter
viewert
oneofv
oice

 Di
ff
erencesresul
ti
ng f
rom sampl
i
ng ofi
temsr
elev
antt
owar
dthechar
act
eri
sti
cbei
ng
measured.

 Di
ffer
encesresul
ti
ngf
rom l
ackofcl
ari
tyoft
hequest
ion-maymeandi
ff
erentt
hingst
o
di
ff
erentpeopl
e.

 Di
ff
erencescausedbymechani
calf
act
orssuchasspacet
oanswer
,inadv
ert
entcheck
marks,
etc.
PROCESSI
NGOFDATA-
-EDI
TING,
CODI
NG,
CLASSI
FICATI
ONANDTABULATI
ON
Af
tercol
lect
ingdata,
themethodofconvert
ingrawdat
aintomeaningf
ulst
atement
;incl
udesdat
a
pr
ocessi
ng,dataanal
ysi
s,anddat
aint
erpret
ati
onandpresent
ati
on.
Datar educti
onorprocessi
ngmainl
yi nvol
vesv ar
iousmanipul
ati
onsnecessaryforprepar
ingthe
dataf oranal
ysi
s.Theprocess(
ofmani pul
ati
on)couldbemanualorelect
roni
c.Itinv
olvesedi
ti
ng,
categorizi
ngtheopen-endedquest
ions,coding,computer
izat
ionandpreparati
onoft abl
esand
diagrams.
Edi
ti
ngdat
a:
I
nfor
mat
iongat
her
eddur
ingdat
acol
l
ect
ionmayl
ackuni
for
mit
y.Exampl
e:Dat
acol
l
ect
edt
hrough
questi
onnai
reandschedul
esmayhav eanswerswhichmaynotbet ickedatpr operplaces,or
somequest i
onsmaybeleftunanswered.Someti
mesinfor
mat i
onmaybegi v
eni naf orm which
needsreconst
ruct
ioni
nacategorydesi
gnedforanal
ysi
s,e.
g.,conv
erti
ngdail
y/mont hl
yincomei n
annuali
ncomeandsoon.Ther esear
cherhastot
akeadecisi
onast ohowt oediti
t.
Edit
ingalsoneedsthatdat
aarer el
evantandappropriat
eanderror
saremodi
fi
ed.Occasional
ly,
theinvesti
gat
ormakesami st
akeandr ecordsandimpossibl
eanswer.“
Howmuchredchiliesdo
youusei namonth”Theansweriswri
ttenas“4kil
os”.Canafami
lyofthr
eemember
susef ourkil
o
chil
i
esi namonth?Thecorr
ectanswercouldbe“0.4kil
o”.
Care should be taken i
n edit
ing (r
e-arr
anging)answer st o open-
ended quest
ions.Exampl e:
Somet i
mes“ don’tknow”answeri seditedas“ noresponse”.Thisiswrong.“Don’
tknow”means
thatther espondentisnotsur eandi sinadoubl emi ndabouthi sreact
ionorconsi der
st he
questi
onsper sonalanddoesnotwantt oansweri t
.“Nor esponse”meansthattherespondentis
notfamili
arwiththesit
uati
on/object
/event/i
ndivi
dualaboutwhichheisasked.

Codi
ngofdat
a:
Coding istr
ansl
ati
ng answersint
o numericalv alues orassi
gning numberstot he v
ari
ous
categori
esofavari
abletobeusedindataanal ysi
s.Codingisdonebyusi ngacodebook,code
sheet,andacomputercar
d.Codi
ngisdoneont hebasi soft
heinst
ruct
ionsgiveni
nthecodebook.
Thecodebookgivesanumer i
cal
codeforeachv ari
able.
Now- a-days, codes ar e assigned bef or
e going to t he fiel
d while constr
ucti
ng t he
questionnair
e/schedule.Pose data coll
ecti
on;pre-
coded i
tems ar efed t
othe comput erfor
processingandanal ysis.Foropen-endedquesti
ons,however,post-
codi
ngisnecessary
.Insuch
cases,al lanswerst o open-ended quest
ionsareplaced in cat
egori
esand each categor
yi s
assignedacode.
Manual pr
ocessi
ngisemployedwhenqual
it
ati
vemethodsareusedorwheninquanti
tat
ivestudi
es,
asmal lsampleisused,orwhenthequest
ionnai
re/
schedulehasalar
genumberofopen- ended
quest
ions,orwhenaccessi
bil
it
ytocomput
ersisdi
ffi
cul
torinappr
opr
iat
e.However
,codingisdone
i
nmanual pr
ocessi
ngalso.
Dat
acl
assi
fi
cat
ion/
dist
ri
but
ion:
Def
inesdist
ri
but
ion ofdata asa form ofclassifi
cat
ion ofscoresobt
ained f
ort
he v
ari
ous
cat
egor
iesorapart
icul
arv
ari
able.Ther
earefourtypesofdist
ri
buti
ons:
a.Fr
equencydi
str
ibut
ion
b.Per
cent
agedi
str
ibut
ion
c.Cumul
ati
vedi
str
ibut
ion
d.St
ati
sti
cal
dist
ri
but
ions
a)Fr
equencydi
str
ibut
ion:
I
nsocialsciencer
esear
ch,frequencydi
str
ibut
ioni
sv er
ycommon.Itpr
esent
sthef
requencyof
occur
rencesofcer
tai
ncategori
es.Thi
sdi
stri
buti
onappear
sint
wofor
ms:

 Ungr
ouped:Her
e,t
hescor
esar
enotcoll
apsedi
ntocategor
ies,e.
g.,di
str
ibut
ionofagesof
thest
udentsofaBJ( MC)cl
ass,eachageval
ue( e.
g.,18,19,20,andsoon)wi llbe
 pr
esent
edsepar
atel
yint
hedi
str
ibut
ion.

 Grouped:Her
e,t
hescoresarecol
lapsedint
ocategor
ies,
sothat2or3scor
esarepresent
ed
toget
herasagroup.Forexampl
e,intheaboveagedi
stri
but
iongr
oupsli
ke18-
20,21-22et
c.,
canbef or
med)
b)Per
cent
agedi
str
ibut
ion:
Iti
salsopossi
blet
ogi vefrequenci
esnotinabsolut
enumbersbutinpercentages.Fori
nst
ance,
i
nsteadofsayi
ng200r espondentsoft
otal2000hadamont hl
yincomeofl essthanRs.500,we
cansay10%oftherespondentshaveamont hl
yincomeofl
essthanRs.500.
c)Cumul
ati
vedi
str
ibut
ion:
I
ttel
lshowof
tent
hev
alueoft
her
andom v
ari
abl
eisl
esst
hanorequalt
oapar
ti
cul
arr
efer
ence
v
alue.
d)St
ati
sti
cal
dat
adi
str
ibut
ion:
I
nt hi
st y
peofdat adistri
buti
on, somemeasur eofaveragei
sfoundoutofasampl eofrespondents.
Severalkindsofav eragesareav ai
lable(mean,medi an,mode)andt heresearchermustdeci de
whichismostsui tabletohispur pose.Oncet heaveragehasbeencalculat
ed,thequestionari
ses:
howr epresentat
iveaf i
gureitis,i.
e.,howcl osel
ytheanswersarebunchedar oundit.Aremostof
them veryclosetoitoristhereawi der angeofvari
ati
on?
Tabul
ati
onofdat
a:
Aft
eredit
ing,whichensuresthattheinf
ormat
ionontheschedul
eisaccur
ateandcategor
izedi
na
sui
tabl
eform, t
hedat aar
eputt oget
herinsomekindsoft
ablesandmayalsounder
gosomeot her
for
msofst at
isti
calanal
ysis.
Tablecanbepr eparedmanuall
yand/orbycomput er
s.Forasmal lst
udyof100t o200persons,
theremaybel it
tl
epoi nti
ntabulat
ingbycomput ersincethi
snecessitat
esputtingthedataon
punchedcards.Butf orasur
veyanalysi
sinvolv
ingal argenumberofr espondentsandrequi
ri
ng
crosstabul
ati
oninvolvi
ngmorethantwov ar
iables,handtabul
ati
onwillbeinappropr
iat
eandtime
consuming.
Usef
ulnessoft
abl
es:
Tabl
esar
eusef
ult
other
esear
cher
sandt
her
eader
sint
hreeway
s:
1.Thepr
esentanov
eral
lvi
ewoff
indi
ngsi
nasi
mpl
erway
.
2.Theyi
dent
if
ytr
ends.
3.Theydi
spl
ayr
elat
ionshi
psi
nacompar
abl
ewaybet
weenpar
tsoft
hef
indi
ngs.
Byconv
enti
on,
thedependentv
ari
abl
eispr
esent
edi
nther
owsandt
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
eint
he
col
umns.
Fr
equencyDi
str
ibut
ion
Now thaty ou’
vegatheredandpr epar
edyoursurveydata,whatnext ?Agoodf i
rststepi
nyour
analy
sisistoconveni
ent l
ysummar i
zethedat
abycount i
ngther esponsesforeachlev
elofagi
ven
vari
able.Thesecounts,orfrequenci
es,ar
ecall
edt hefrequencydi st
ribut
ionandarecommonly
accompaniedbytheper cent
agesandcumulati
vepercent
agesaswel l.
Af
requencydi
str
ibut
ioncanqui
ckl
yrev
eal
:
  t
henumberofnonr
esponsesormi
ssi
ngv
alues
 out
li
ersandext
remev
alues
 t
hecent
ral
tendency
,var
iabi
l
ityandshapeoft
hedi
str
ibut
ion.
Supposeapetadoptionandr escueagencywantstofi
ndoutwhet herdogsorcat
saremore
popul
arinacer
tai
nlocat
ion.Toanswerthi
squesti
on,wesurv
eyarandom sampl
eof100l
ocal
pet
ownerstof
indouti
fdogsaremor epopul
arthancat
s,orv
icever
sa.
Whenthesur
veyiscompl
ete,
wecr
eat
eaf
requencydi
str
ibut
ionwi
thMi
nit
abusi
ngSt
at>Tabl
es>
Tal
l
yIndi
vi
dualVari
abl
es.

Thefr
equencydist
ri
but
ionr
eveal
sthatt
hepercent
agesf
orbothcat
sanddogsar enearl
y50%,
i
ndi
cati
ngthatt
heremaynotbeastr
ongl
ocal
prefer
encef
oronety
peofpetov
eranother
.
Weal socansummar i
zet hedat ausingdescri
pti
vestat i
sti
cs.Thiscanbev er
yhelpfulwhen
l
ookingatconti
nuousvari
abl esthatmighthaveabroadr ange,suchast heagewhenpeoplegot
thei
rfi
rstdogorcat.Stat
isticsi
ncludi
ngthemean,medi an,mode,r ange,andst
andarddevi
ati
on
canallbecomputedinMinitabusingStat>Basi
cStati
sti
cs>Di splayDescri
pti
veSt
ati
sti
cs.
Cr
ossTabul
ati
onAnal
ysi
s
Cross-tabul
ati
oni soneofthemostusefulanaly
ticaltool
sandi samai n-
stayofthemar ket
researchindustr
y.Oneest
imatei
sthatsingl
ev ari
ablefrequencyanal
ysi
sandcross-
tabul
ati
on
analysisaccountf
ormoret
han90%ofal
lresearchanalyses.
Cross-t
abulat
ionanal
ysi
s,al
soknownascontingencytabl
eanalysis,
ismostof t
enusedtoanalyse
categori
cal(nominalmeasurementscal
e)data.Cr oss-
tabul
ati
onanal ysi
shasi t
sownuni que
l
anguage, usi
ngtermssuchas“banner
s”,
“st
ubs”,“Chi-
SquareStat
ist
ic”and“Expect
edValues.
”
• Cross-
t abul
ati
on is a stati
sti
caltechni
que that descri
bes two or morevari
abl
es
simult
aneouslyandr esult
sint abl
esthatrefl
ectthejointdistr
ibut
ionoft
wo ormore
vari
ablesthathav
eal i
mitednumberofcategor
iesordi
stinctval
ues.
• Ithel
psustounderst
andhowonev
ari
abl
esuchasbr
andl
oyal
tyr
elat
est
oanot
herv
ari
abl
e
suchasageorincomeorsex.
• Thest
ati
sti
calsi
gni
fi
canceoft heobserv
edassoci
ati
onofcr
oss-
tabul
atedv
ari
abl
esi
s
commonl
ymeasuredbythechi
-squar
estat
ist
ic.
• Thestrengt
hoftheassoci at
ionofcr oss-
tabul
atedvar
iabl
escanbemeasuredbyphi
cor
rel
ati
oncoef
fi
cient
,theconti
ngencycoeff
ici
ent,
Cramer’
sVandthel
ambdacoef
fi
cient
.
Hy
pot
hesi
stest
ing:
Thef
oll
owi
ngst
epsar
einv
olv
edi
nhy
pot
hesi
stest
ing:
1)For
mul
atet
henul
lhy
pot
hesi
sH0andt
heal
ter
nat
ivehy
pot
hesi
sH1
 2)Sel
ectanappr
opr
iat
est
ati
sti
cal
techni
queandt
hecor
respondi
ngt
estst
ati
sti
c.
3)Chooset
hel
evel
ofsi
gni
fi
cance,
α.
4)Det
ermi
net
hesampl
esi
zeandcol
l
ectt
hedat
a.Cal
cul
atet
hev
alueoft
het
estst
ati
sti
c.
5)Deter
minet heprobabi
li
tyassociatedwiththeteststati
sti
cunderthenullhypot
hesis,
using
thesamplingdistri
buti
onoft het eststat
ist
ic.Alter
nati
vely
,deter
mi nethecrit
icalval
ues
associ
atedwiththetestst
ati
sticthatdiv
idethereject
ionandnonrejecti
onregi
on.
6)Comparethepr obabil
it
yassociat
edwit
hthet
estst
ati
sti
cwit
ht helevelofsi
gni
fi
cance
speci
fi
ed.Alt
ernati
vel
y,det
erminewhet
hert
het
estst
ati
sti
chasfal
lenint
otherej
ect
ionor
thenon-
rej
ecti
onregion.
7)Maket
hest
ati
sti
cal
deci
siont
orej
ectornotr
ejectt
henul
lhy
pot
hesi
s.
8)Expr
esst
hest
ati
sti
cal
deci
sioni
nter
msoft
hemar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
obl
em.

TESTSOFASSOCI
ATI
ON
• Chi
-Squarestat
ist
ici
susedt
otestt
hest
ati
sti
calsi
gni
fi
canceoft
heobser
vedassoci
ati
on
i
nacr oss-
tabul
ati
on.
• Thephicoef
fi
cienti
susedasameasur
eoft
hest
rengthofassoci
ati
oni
nthespeci
alcase
ofatabl
ewit
htwor owsandt
wocol
umns(a2x2tabl
e).
• Cont
ingencyCoef
fi
cient(
C)i
sameasur
eofst
rengt
hofassoci
ati
oni
nat
abl
eofanysi
ze.
• Cramer
’sVisamodi
fi
edv
ersi
onofphicor
rel
ati
oncoef
fi
cient
,andi
susedi
ntabl
esl
arger
than2x2.
TESTSOFDI
FFERENCES:
• Hypothesi
stest
ingprocedur
escanbebroadlycl
assi
fi
edaspar
amet
ri
cornon-
par
amet
ri
c
basedonthemeasurementscal
eofthev
ariabl
esinv
olved.
• Parametr
ict
est
sassumet
hatt
hev
ari
abl
esofi
nter
estar
emeasur
edonani
nter
valorr
ati
o
scale.
• Paramet
rict
est
spr
ovi
dei
nfer
encesf
ormaki
ngst
atement
saboutt
hemeansofpar
ent
popul
ati
ons.
• Non-
Par
amet
ri
ctest
sassumet
hatt
hev
ari
abl
esar
emeasur
edonanomi
nal
oror
dinal
scal
e.

Cor
rel
ati
onandRegr
essi
on 
Anal
ysi
s

Regr
essi
onanal
ysi
s

• Ref
erst
o st
ati
sti
calt
echni
ques f
ormeasur
ing t
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween a dependent

v
ari
abl
eandoneormor
eindependentv
ari
abl
es.Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
wov
ari
abl
esi
s

char
act
eri
zedbyhow t
heyv
aryt
oget
her
. Gi
venpai
rsofX and Y v
ari
abl
es,r
egr
essi
on

anal
ysi
smeasur
est
hedi
rect
ion(
posi
ti
veornegat
ive)andr
ateofchange(
sl nYasX
ope)i

changes,
orv
icev
ersa.Usi
ngt
hev
aluesoft
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
e,i
tat
tempt
stopr
edi
ct

t
hev
aluesofani
nter
val
-orr
ati
o-scal
eddependentv
ari
abl
e.
• Der
iveanequat
ion,cal
l her
edt egr
essi
onequat
ion,andal
i
ner
epr
esent
ingt
heequat
iont
o

descr
ibet
heshapeoft
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hev
ari
abl
es.Ther
egr
essi
onl
i
nei
sthel
i
ne

dr
awnt
hroughascat
terdi
agr
am t
hat“
bestf
it
s”t
hedat
apoi
ntsandaccur
atel
ydescr
ibes

t
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
het
wov
ari
abl
es. Theequat
ionandi
tsl
i
nemaybel
i
nearor

cur
vil
i
near
.

• Est
imat
ethe dependentv
ari
abl
e(Y)f
r he i
om t ndependentv
ari
abl
e(X)
,based ont
he

r
elat
ionshi
pdescr
ibedbyt
her
egr
essi
onequat
ion.

Cor
rel
ati
onAnal
ysi
s:

• St
ati
sti
cal
techni
quesf
ormeasur
ingt
hecl
osenessoft
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenv
ari
abl
es.

• I
tmeasur
est
hedegr
eet
owhi
chchangesi
nonev
ari
abl
ear
eassoci
atedwi
thchangesi
n

anot
her
.

• I
tcanonl
yindi
cat
ethedegr
eeofassoci
ati
onorcov
ari
ancebet
weenv
ari
abl
es.Cov
ari
ance

i
sameasur
eoft
heext
entt
owhi
cht
wov
ari
abl
esar
erel
ated.

• Regr
essi
onandcor
rel
ati
onanal
ysi
smaybeei
thersi
mpl
eormul
ti
ple.Si
mpl
eanal
ysi
suses

onl
ytwov
ari
abl
es,
onedependentandonei
ndependent
.Mul
ti
pleanal
ysi
sdeal
swi
tht
hree

ormor
evar
iabl
es,
onedependentandt
woormor
eindependent
.

Regr
essi
onEquat
ionandLi
ne:

Resear
cher
sest
imat
ether
egr
essi
onl
i
neusi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngequat
ion:

Y=0+1Xi
+I

0=t
heYi
nter
ceptwhenXequal
szer
o

1=t
hesl
opeoft
her
egr
essi
onl
i
ne,
whi
chi
sthei
ncr
easeordecr
easei
nYf
oreachchangeof

oneuni
tofX

Xi=agi
venv
alueoft
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
e

i=t
heobser
vat
ionnumber

i=t
heer
rort
erm associ
atedwi
t hei
ht thobser
vat
ion

Themodeli
nvol
vespar
amet
erst
hatar 0 and1)butcanbeest
eunknown( imat
edf
rom

sampl
edat
a.Theer
rort
erm,
i,
ref
err
edt
oas“
eta,
”isal
sounobser
vabl
e,butcanbeest
imat
ed

f
rom sampl
edat
a.

Cor
rel
ati
onCoef
fi
cient
:

2
• Thesquar
erootofr,i
sfr
equent
lycomput
edt
oindi
cat
ethedi
rect
ionoft
her
elat
ionshi
pin

addi
ti
ont
oindi
cat
ingt
hedegr
eeoft
her
elat
ionshi
p.

• I
tist
hecor
rel
ati
onbet
weent
heobser
vedandpr
edi
ctedv
aluesoft
hedependentv
ari
abl
e.

2
• Si
ncet angeofr
her isf
rom 0t
o1,
thecoef
fi
cientofcor
rel
atonrwi
i l
lvar
ywi
thi
nther
ange

off
rom 0t
o1.

gnofrwi
• The+si l
lmeananegat
ivecor
rel
ati gnofri
on.Thesi sthesameast gnofb
hesi

(
thesl
ope)i
nther
egr
essi
onequat
ion.

Cal
cul
ati
ngRegr
essi
onsUsi
ngComput
ers:

• Tor
unt
hecal
cul
ati
onsusi
ngSPSS

– Cl
i
ckon“
Stat
ist
ics”

– Thencl
i
ckon“
Regr
essi
on”and“
Linear
”

– Thesecommandsdesi
gnat
ethest
ati
sti
cal
testt
ober
un

• Tor
uncal
cul
ati
onsusi
ngExcel

– Cl
i
ckon“
Tool
s”and“
Dat
aAnal
ysi
s”

– Thencl
i
ckon“
Regr
essi
on.
”

Mul
ti
pleRegr
essi
onAnal
ysi
s:

• Thi
stest wi
l
ldet
ermi
ne t
he associ
ati
on or r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween dependent and
 i
ndependentv
ari
abl
es.

• I
nmul
ti
pler
egr
essi
onanal
ysi
s,mor
ethant
wov
ari
abl
esar
eincl
udedi
ntheexami
nat
ion.

Whi
l
ethedependentv
ari
abl
esi
sst
il
lrepr edbyY,t
esent hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
esar
e

r
epr edbyX1,
esent X2,
X3,
...andsoon

• Cal
cul
ati
ngMul
ti
pleRegr
essi
onUsi
ngComput
ers

• Toper
for
mthecomput
ati
onsusi
ngSPSSf
orWi
ndows

• Cl
i
ckon“
Stat
ist
ics”

• Thencl
i
ckon“
Regr
essi
on”and“
Linear
”

• Thesecommandsdesi
gnat
ethest
ati
sti
cal
testt
ober
un

• Tor
unt
hecal
cul
ati
onsusi
ngExcel

• Cl
i
ckon“
Tool
s”and“
Dat
aAnal
ysi
s”

• Thencl
i
ckon“
Regr
essi
on.
”

UNI
T-3

Di
scr
imi
nantanal
ysi
s:

• Di
scr
imi
nantanal
ysi
sisa br
anch ofmul
ti
var
iat
e st
ati
sti
cs.I
tisa r
egr
essi
on  
based

st
ati
sti
calt
echni
queusedi
ndet
ermi
ningwhi
chpar
ti
cul
arcl
assi
fi
cat
ionorgr
oupani
tem

of
 dat
a oran 
obj
ect
 bel
ongst
o,ont
hebasi
sofi
ts 
char
act
eri
sti
csoressent
ial
 
feat
ures.

• Di
scr
imi
nantAnal
ysi
sisamul
ti
var
iat
est
ati
sti
calt
echni
queusedwhent
hedependent

v
ari
abl
eiscat
egor
ical
andt
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
esar
equant
it
ati
ve.

• Di
scr
imi
nantFunct
ionAnal
ysi
s(DA)under
takest
hesamet
askasmul
ti
plel
i
nearr
egr
essi
on

bypr
edi
cti
nganout
come.
 • I
n manycases,t
hedependentv
ari
abl
econsi
stsoft
wo gr
oupsorcl
assi
fi
cat
ions,f
or

exampl
e,mal
ever
susf
emal
e,hi
ghv
ersusl
ow orgoodcr
edi
tri
skv
ersusbadcr
edi
tri
sk,

t
her
efor
etocl
assi
fybet
weent
hem weuseLi
nearDi
scr
imi
nantAnal
ysi
s(LDA)
.

• Twogr
oupsonl
y,t
husasi
ngl
edi
scr
imi
nat
ingv
al di
ue( scr
imi
nat
ingscor
e)

• Foreachr
espondent
,ascor
eiscomput
edusi
ngt
heest
imat
edl
i
nearcombi
nat
ionof

t
hepr
edi
ctor
s(hedi
t scr
imi
nantf
unct
ion)

• Respondent
swi
thascor
eabov
ethedi
scr
imi
nat
ingv
aluear
eexpect
edt
obel
ongt
o

onegr
oup,
thosebel
owt
otheot
hergr
oup.

• Whent
hedi
scr
imi
nantscor
eisst
andar
dizedt
ohav
ezer
omeananduni
tyv
ari
ancei
t

i edZscor
scal
l e

• DAal
sopr
ovi
desi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hedi
scr
imi
nat
ingpowerofeachoft
heor
igi
nal

pr
edi
ctor
s

• Whent
hreeormor
ecl
assi
fi
cat
ionsar
ether
efornat
ural
l
yoccur
ri
nggr
oupssuchasl
ow,

medi
um andhi
gh,di
ff
erentl
ocat
ions,t
hist
echni
quei
sref
err
edt
oasMul
ti
pleDi
scr
imi
nant

Anal
ysi
s(MDA)
.

• Di
scr
imi
nantanal
ysi
smayi
nvol
vemor
ethant
wogr
oups,i
nwhi
chcasei
tist
ermed

mul
ti
pledi
scr
imi
nantanal
ysi
s(MDA)
.

• Exampl
efr
om t
heTr
ustdat
a-set

• Dependentv
ari
abl
e:Ty
peofchi
ckenpur
chased‘
i
nat
ypi
calweek’
,choosi
ngamong

f
ourcat
egor
i v
es:al
ue(
goodv
aluef
ormoney
),st
andar
d,or
gani
candl
uxur
y

• Pr
edi
ctor
s:age(
q50)
,st
atedr
elev
anceoft
ast
e(q24a)
,val
uef
ormoney(
q24b)and

ani
mal
wel
far
e(q24k)
,pl
usani
ndi
cat
orofi
ncome(
q60)

Adv
ant
ages:

• Di
scr
imi
nat
ionofdi
ff
erentgr
oups
 • Accur
acyofcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofgr
oupscanbedet
ermi
ned

• Hel
psf
orcat
egor
ical
regr
essi
onanal
ysi
s

• Vi
sualgr
aphi
cs makes cl
ear under
standi
ng f
or t
he t
wo or mor
e cat
egor
ies wi
th

comput
ati
onal
logi
cs.

Di
sadv
ant
ages:

• Li
neardi
scr
imi
nat
ioncannotbeusedwhensubgr
oupsar
est
ronger
.

• Thesel
ect
ionoft
hepr
edi
ctorv
ari
abl
esar
enotst
rongunt
ilast
rongcl
assi
fi
cat
ionexi
sts.

• I
tcannotbeusedwhent
her
eisi
nsuf
fi
cientdat
atodef
inesampl
emeans

• I
fthenumberofobser
vat
ionsar
eless,
thedi
scr
imi
nat
ionmet
hodcannotbeused.

Appl
i
cat
ions:

• Wi
despr
eadappl
i
cat
ioni
nsi
tuat
ionswher
ethepr
imar
yobj
ect
ivei
sident
if
yingt
hegr
oupt
o

whi
chanobj
ectbel
ongs

• Agr
icul
tur
e-Fi
sher
ies,
Cropst
udi
es,
yiel
dst
udi
es,
Geoi
nfor
mat
ics,
Bioi
nfor
mat
ics

• Soci
o-economi
csandBehav
ior
alst
udi
esofFi
sher
mencommuni
ti
es

• Mor
phomet
ri
canal
ysi
sandt
axonomi
cinv
est
igat
ion

• Bankr
upt
cypr
edi
cti
onbasedonaccount
ingr
ati
osandot
herf
inanci
alv
ari
abl
es(
LDA)

• Facer
ecogni
ti
on(
Comput
eri
zed)

• Mar
ket
ing–Di
ff
erentt
ypesofcust
omer
sandpr
oduct
sbasedonsur
vey
s.

Assumpt
ions:

• Theobser
vat
ionsshoul
dbef
rom t
her
andom sampl
e.

• Eachpr
edi
ctorv
ari
abl
eisnor
mal
l
ydi
str
ibut
ed.
 • Ther
emustbeatl
eastt
wogr
oupsorcat
egor
ies.

• Eachgr
ouporcat
egor
ymustbewel
ldef
ined,
clear
lydi
ff
erent
iat
edf
rom anyot
hergr
oup(
s).

• I
tdeal
slar
gedat
aset
sonl
yandi
nvar
iabl
esampl
esi
zeal
so.

Cont
rol
l
ingPr
edi
cti
veEr
ror
:

• Anal
yzi
ngt
hepr
edi
cti
vet
heor
yagai
nstact
ualr
esul
tscr
eat
esat
hir
dobj
ect
ive,i
mpr
ovi
ng

t
hepr
edi
cti
vemodelf
ort
hef
utur
e.Usi
ngy
ouranal
ysi
s,y
oucanshowwhi
chv
ari
abl
eswer
e

mostr
elev
antt
osuccess.

Di
scr
imi
nantAnal
ysi
sCl
assi
fi
cat
ion

Pr
iorPr
obabi
l
iti
es.
 Thi
sopt
iondet
ermi
neswhet
hert
hecl
assi
fi
cat
ioncoef
fi
cient
sar
eadj
ust
edf
or

apr
ior
iknowl
edgeofgr
oupmember
shi
p.

 Al
lgr
oupsequal
. 
Equalpr
iorpr
obabi
l
iti
esar
eassumedf
oral
lgr
oups;t
hishasnoef
fecton

t
hecoef
fi
ci
ent
s.

 Comput
efr
om gr
oupsi
zes.
 Theobser
vedgr
oupsi
zesi
nyoursampl
edet
ermi
net
hepr
ior

pr
obabi
l
iti
esofgr
oupmember
shi
p.Forexampl
e,i
f50%oft
heobser
vat
ionsi
ncl
udedi
nthe

anal
ysi
sfal
lint
othef
ir
stgr
oup,25%i
nthesecond,and25%i
nthet
hir
d,t
hecl
assi
fi
cat
ion

coef
fi
cient
sar
eadj
ust
edt
oincr
easet
hel
i
kel
i
hoodofmember
shi
pint
hef
ir
stgr
oupr
elat
ive

t
otheot
hert
wo.

Di
spl
ay.
 Av
ail
abl
e di
spl
ay opt
ions ar
e casewi
se r
esul
ts,summar
ytabl
e,and l
eav
e-one-
out

cl
assi
fi
cat
ion.

 Casewi
ser
esul
ts.
 Codesf
oract
ualgr
oup,pr
edi
cted gr
oup,post
eri
orpr
obabi
l
iti
es,and

di
scr
imi
nantscor
esar
edi
spl
ayedf
oreachcase.

 Summar
ytabl
e. 
Thenumberofcasescor
rect
lyandi
ncor
rect
lyassi
gnedt
oeachoft
he

gr
oupsbasedont
hedi
scr
imi
nantanal
ysi
s.Somet
imescal
l
edt
he"
Conf
usi
onMat
ri
x."

 Leav
e-one-
outcl
assi
fi
cat
ion.
 Eachcasei
ntheanal
ysi
siscl
assi
fi
edbyt
hef
unct
ionsder
ived

f
rom al
lcasesot
hert
hant
hatcase.I
tisal
soknownast
he"
U-met
hod.
"
FACTORANALYSI
S:

Adat
areduct
iont
echni
quedesi
gnedt
orepr
esentawi
der
angeofat
tr
ibut
esonasmal
l
er

numberofdi
mensi
ons.

DEFI
NITI
ON

“
Ast
ati
sti
calappr
oacht
hatcanbeusedt
oanal
yzei
nter
rel
ati
onshi
pamongal
argenumberof

v
ari
abl
esandaexpl
aint
hesev
ari
abl
esi
nter
msoft
hei
rcommonunder
lyi
ngdi
mensi
on(
fact
or)
”

 Fact
oranal
ysi
sisagener
alnamedenot
ingacl
assofPr
ocedur
espr
imar
il
yusedf
ordat
a

r
educt
ionandsummar
izat
ion.

 Var
iabl
esar
enotcl
assi
fi
edasei
therdependentori
ndependent
.Inst
ead,
thewhol
esetof

i
nter
dependentr
elat
ionshi
psamongv
ari
abl
esi
sexami
nedi
nor
dert
o def
ineasetof

commondi
mensi
onscal
l
edFact
ors.

Pur
poseofFact
orAnal
ysi
s:

 Toi
dent
if
yunder
lyi
ngdi
mensi
onscal
l
edFact
ors,
thatexpl
aint
hecor
rel
ati
onsamongaset

ofv
ari
abl
es.

 l
i
fest
yle st
atement
s may be used t
o measur
ethe psy
chogr
aphi
c pr
ofi
l
e of

consumer
s.

 Toi
dent
if
yanew,smal
l
ersetofuncor
rel
atedv
ari
abl
est
orepl
acet
heor
igi
nalsetof

cor
rel
atedv
ari
abl
esf
orsubsequentanal
ysi
ssuchasRegr
essi
onorDi
scr
imi
nantAnal
ysi
s.

 psy
chogr
aphi
cfact
ors may be used as i
ndependentv
ari
abl
es t
o expl
aint
he

di
ff
erencebet
weenl
oyal
andnon-
loy
alcust
omer
s.

Ty
pesofFact
oranal
ysi
s:

Expl
orat
oryFA

Summar
izi
ngdat
abygr
oupi
ngcor
rel
atedv
ari
abl
es

I
nvest
igat
ingset
sofmeasur
edv
ari
abl
esr
elat
edt
otheor
eti
cal
const
ruct
s
 Usual
l
ydoneneart
heonsetofr
esear
ch

Conf
ir
mat
oryFA

Mor
eadv
ancedt
echni
que

Whenf
act
orst
ruct
urei
sknownoratl
eastt
heor
ized

Test
inggener
ali
zat
ionoff
act
orst
ruct
uret
onewdat
a,et
c.

Assumpt
ions:

 Model
sar
eusual
l
ybasedonl
i
nearr
elat
ionshi
ps

 Model
sassumet
hatt
hedat
acol
l
ect
edar
eint
erv
alscal
ed

 Mul
ti
col
l
inear
it
yint
hedat
aisdesi
rabl
ebecauset
heobj
ect
ivei
stoi
dent
if
yint
err
elat
edset

ofv
ari
abl
es.

 Thedat
ashoul
dbeamenabl
eforf
act
oranal
ysi
s.I
tshoul
dnotbesucht
hatav
ari
abl
eis

onl
ycor
rel
atedwi
thi
tsel
fandnocor
rel
ati
onexi
stswi
thanyot
herv
ari
abl
es.Thi
sisl
i
kean

I
dent
it
yMat
ri
x.Fact
oranal
ysi
scannotbedoneonsuchdat
a.

CLUSTERANALYSI
SforMARKETSEGMENTATI
ON:

CLUSTERANALYSI
S

I
tisacl
assoft
echni
quesusedt
ocl
assi
fycasesi
ntogr
oupst
hatar
e-

• r
elat
ivel
yhomogeneouswi
thi
nthemsel
vesand

• het
erogeneousbet
weeneachot
her

• Homogenei
ty(
simi
l
ari
ty)and het
erogenei
ty(
dissi
mil
ari
ty)ar
emeasur
ed on t
he

basi
sofadef
inedsetofv
ari
abl
es

Thesegr
oupsar edcl
ecal
l ust
ers.

The nat
ure ofCl
ust
erAnal
ysi
sis dat
a expl
orat
ion t
hatconduct
ed i
nrepet
it
ivef
ashi
on.
Cl
ust
eri
zat
ioni
snotasi
ngl
egr
oupi
ng,butt
hepr
ocessofget
ti
ngwel
lint
erpr
etabl
egr
oupsof

obj
ect
sunderconsi
der
ati
on.

MARKETSEGMENTATI
ON:

– Mar
ketsegment
ati
oni
soneoft
hemostf
undament
alst
rat
egi
cmar
ket
ingconcept
s:

• gr
oupi
ngpeopl
e(wi
tht
hewi
l
li
ngness,pur
chasi
ngpower
,andt
heaut
hor
it
ytobuy
)

accor
ding t
othei
rsi
mil
ari
tyi
n sev
eraldi
mensi
ons r
elat
ed t
o a pr
oductunder

consi
der
ati
on.

• Mar
ket
scanbesegment
edbasedon:

 Demogr
aphi
cs

 Psy
chogr
aphi
cs

 Geogr
aphi
cs

 Pr
oductBenef
it
s

 Behav
ior
alSegment
ati
on

Mar
ketsegment
ati
onandcl
ust
eranal
ysi
s:

Cl
ust
eranal
ysi
sisespeci
all
yusef
ulf
ormar
ketsegment
ati
on.

Segment
ingamar
ketmeansdi
vi
dingi
tspot
ent
ial
consumer
sint
osepar
atesub-
set
swher
e

• Consumer
sint
he same gr
oup ar
e si
mil
arwi
thr
espectt
o a gi
ven setof

char
act
eri
sti
cs

• Consumer
sbel
ongi
ngt
odi
ff
erentgr
oupsar
edi
ssi
mil
arwi
thr
espectt
othesameset

ofchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Thi
sal
l
owsonet
ocal
i
brat
ethemar
ket
ingmi
xdi
ff
erent
lyaccor
dingt
othet
argetconsumergr
oup.

• Hel
p mar
ket
ers di
scov
erdi
sti
nctgr
oups i
nthei
rcust
omerbases,and t
hen use t
his
 knowl
edget
odev
elopt
arget
edmar
ket
ingpr
ogr
ams

• The under
lyi
ng def
ini
ti
on ofcl
ust
eranal
ysi
s pr
ocedur
es mi
mict
he goal
s ofmar
ket

segment
ati
on:

- t
oident
if
ygr
oupsofr
espondent
sthatmi
nimi
zesdi
ff
erencesamongmember
soft
he

samegr
oup

• hi
ghl
yint
ernal
l
yhomogeneousgr
oups

- whi
l
emaxi
mizi
ngdi
ff
erencesbet
weendi
ff
erentgr
oups

• hi
ghl
yext
ernal
l
yhet
erogeneousgr
oups

• Mar
ketSegment
ati
onsol
uti
ondependsonv
ari
abl
esusedt
osegmentt
hemar
ketmet
hod

usedt
oar
ri
veatacer
tai
nsegment
ati
on

Ot
herusesofcl
ust
eranal
ysi
s:

• Pr
oductchar
act
eri
sti
csandt
hei
dent
if
icat
ionofnewpr
oductoppor
tuni
ti
es.

• Cl
ust
eri
ngofsi
mil
arbr
andsorpr
oduct
saccor
dingt
othei
rchar
act
eri
sti
csal
l
ow onet
o

i
dent
if
ycompet
it
ors,
pot
ent
ial
mar
ketoppor
tuni
ti
esandav
ail
abl
eni
ches

• Dat
areduct
ion

o Fact
oranal
ysi
sandpr
inci
palcomponentanal
ysi
sal
l
ow t
oreducet
henumberof

v
ari
abl
es.

o Cl
ust
eranal
ysi
sal
l
owst
oreducet
henumberofobser
vat
ions,
bygr
oupi
ngt
hem i
nto

homogeneouscl
ust
ers.

• Maps pr
ofi
l
ing si
mul
taneousl
y consumer
s and pr
oduct
s,mar
ket oppor
tuni
ti
es and

pr
efer npr
encesasi efer
enceorper
cept
ualmappi
ngs.

St
epst
oconductacl
ust
eranal
ysi
s:

• Sel
ectadi
stancemeasur
e
 • Sel
ectacl
ust
eri
ngal
gor
it
hm

• Def
inet
hedi
stancebet
weent
wocl
ust
ers

• Det
ermi
net
henumberofcl
ust
ers

• Val
i
dat
etheanal
ysi
s

Di
stancemeasur
es:

esi
• Tomeasur mil
ari
tybet
weent
woobser
vat
ionsadi
stancemeasur
eisneeded

• Wi
thasi
ngl
evar
iabl
e,si
mil
ari
tyi
sst
rai
ght
for
war
d

• Exampl
e:i
ncome–t
woi
ndi
vi
dual
sar
esi
mil
ari
fthei
rincomel
eveli
ssi
mil
arandt
he

l
evel
ofdi
ssi
mil
ari
tyi
ncr
easesast
hei
ncomegapi
ncr
eases

• Mul
ti
plev
ari
abl
esr
equi
reanaggr
egat
edi
stancemeasur
e

• Manychar
act
eri
sti
cs(
e.g.i
ncome,age,consumpt
ionhabi
ts,f
ami
l
ycomposi
ti
on,

owni
ngacar
,educat
ionl
evel
,job…)
,itbecomesmor
edi
ff
icul
ttodef
inesi
mil
ari
ty

wi
thasi
ngl
eval
ue

• Themostknownmeasur
eofdi
stancei
stheEucl
i
deandi
stance,whi
chi
stheconceptwe

usei
nev
ery
dayl
i
fef
orspat
ial
coor
dinat
es.

Cl
ust
eri
ngpr
ocedur
es:

• Hi
erar
chi
cal
procedur
es

• Aggl
omer
ati
ve(
star
tfom ncl
r ust
erst o1cl
ogett ust
er)

henobser
• Eachoft vat
ionsconst
it
utesasepar
atecl
ust
er

• Thet
wocl
ust
erst
hatar
emor
esi
mil
araccor
dingt
osamedi
stancer
ulear
e

aggr
egat
ed,
sot
hati
nst
ep1t
her en-
ear 1cl
ust
ers

• I
nthesecondst
epanot
hercl
ust
eri
sfor n-
med( 2cl
ust
ers)
,bynest
ingt
het
wo
 cl
ust
erst
hatar
emor
esi
mil
ar,
andsoon

• Ther
eisamer
gingi
neachst
epunt
ilal
lobser
vat
ionsendupi
nasi
ngl
ecl
ust
er

i
nthef
inal
step.

• Di
vi
siv
e(st
artf
rom 1cl
ust
ert oncl
ogett ust
ers)

• Al
lobser
vat
ionsar
eini
ti
all
yassumedt
obel
ongt
oasi
ngl
ecl
ust
er

• Themostdi
ssi
mil
arobser
vat
ioni
sext
ract
edt
ofor
m asepar
atecl
ust
er

• I
nst
ep1t
her
ewi
l
lbe2cl
ust
ers,i
nthesecondst
ept
hreecl
ust
ersandsoon,

unt
ilt
he f
inalst
ep wi
l
lpr
oduce as many cl
ust
ers as t
he numberof

obser
vat
ions.

• Thenumberofcl
ust
ersdet
ermi
nest
hest
oppi
ngr
ulef
ort
heal
gor
it
hms

• Nonhi
erar
chi
cal
procedur
es

• Theseal
gor
it
hmsdonotf
oll
owahi
erar
chyandpr
oduceasi
ngl
epar
ti
ti
on

• Knowl
edgeoft
henumberofcl
ust
er c)i
s( srequi
red

• I
nthef
ir
stst
ep,i
nit
ialcl
ust
ercent
res(
theseeds)ar
edet
ermi
nedf hec
oreachoft

cl
ust
ers,
eit
herbyt
her
esear
cherorbyt
hesof
twar
e(usual
l
ythef
istcobser
r vat
ionor

obser
vat
ionsar
echosenr
andoml
y)

• Eachi
ter
ati
onal
l
ocat
esobser
vat
ionst he c cl
o eachoft ust
ers,based ont
hei
r

di
stancef
rom t
hecl
ust
ercent
res

• Cl
ust
ercent
resar
ecomput
edagai
nandobser
vat
ionsmayber
eal
l
ocat
edt
othe

near
estcl
ust
eri
nthenexti
ter
ati
on

• Whennoobser
vat
ionscanber
eal
l
ocat
edorast
oppi
ngr
ulei
smet
,thepr
ocess

st
ops

• K-
meanscl
ust
eri
ng
 • Gi
venk,
thek-
meansal
gor
it
hm i
simpl
ement
edi
nfourst
eps:

• Par
ti
ti
onobj
ect
si oknonempt
nt ysubset
s

• Comput
eseedpoi
ntsast
hecent
roi
dsoft
hecl
ust
ersoft
hecur
rentpar
ti
ti
on

(
thecent
roi
dist
hecent
er,
i.
e.meanpoi
, nt,
oft
hecl
ust
er)

• Assi
gneachobj
ectt
othecl
ust
erwi
tht
henear
estseedpoi
nt

• Gobackt
oSt
ep2,
stopwhennomor
enewassi .
gnment

Exampl
e:

Di
stancebet
weencl
ust
ers:

• Al
gor
it
hmsv
aryaccor
dingt
othewayt
hedi
stancebet
weent
wocl
ust
ersi
sdef
ined.

• Themostcommonal
gor
it
hm f
orhi
erar
chi
cal
met
hodsi
ncl
ude

• Si
ngl
eli
nkagemet
hod(
near
estnei
ghbour
):di
stancebet
weent
wocl
ust
ersi
sthe

mi
nimum di
stanceamongal
lpossi
bledi
stancesbet
weenobser
vat
ionsbel
ongi
ngt
o

t
het
wocl
ust
ers.
• Compl
etel
i
nkagemet
hod(
fur
thestnei
ghbour
):nest
stwocl
ust
erusi
ngasabasi
s
t
hemaxi
mum di
stancebet
weenobser
vat
ionsbel
ongi
ngt
osepar
atecl
ust
ers.

• Av
eragel
i
nkagemet
hod:t
hedi
stancebet
weent
wocl
ust
ersi
stheav
erageofal
l
di
stancesbet
weenobser
vat
ionsi
nthet
wocl
ust
ers

• cent
roi
dmet
hod:Thedi
stancebet
weent
wocl
ust
ersi
sthedi
stancebet
weent
het
wo
cent
roi
ds,

• Cent
roi
dsar
ethecl
ust
erav
eragesf
oreachoft
hev
ari
abl
es

• eachcl
ust
eri
sdef
inedbyasi
ngl
esetofcoor
dinat
es,t
heav
eragesoft
he
coor
dinat
esofal
li
ndi
vi
dualobser
vat
ionsbel
ongi
ngt
othatcl
ust
er

• Di
ff
erencebet
weent
hecent
roi
dandt
heav
eragel
i
nkagemet
hod
 • Cent
roi
d:comput
es t
he av
erage oft
he co-
ordi
nat
es oft
he obser
vat
ions
bel
ongi
ngt
oani
ndi
vi
dualcl
ust
er

• Av
erage l
i
nkage:comput
es t
he av
erage oft
he di
stances bet
ween t
wo
separ
atecl
ust
ers.

Hi
erar
chi
cal
vs.non-
hier
archi
cal
met
hods

Hi
erar
chi
calMet
hods Non-
hier
archi
calmet
hods

 Nodeci
sionaboutt
henumberof  Fast
er,mor
erel
i
abl
e,wor
kswi
th

cl
ust
ers l
argedat
aset
s

 Pr
obl
ems when dat
a cont
aina  Needt
ospeci
fyt
henumberof

hi
ghl
evel
ofer
ror cl
ust
ers

 Canbev
erysl
ow,
pref
erabl
ewi
th  Needt
osett
hei
nit
ial
seeds

smal
ldat
a-set
s
 Onl
ycl
ust
erdi
stancest
oseeds

 I
nit
ial deci
sions ar
e mor
e need t
o be comput
ed i
n each

i
nfl
uent
ial
(one-
steponl
y) i
ter
ati
on

 At each st
ep t
hey r
equi
re

comput
ati
onoft
hef
ullpr
oxi
mit
y

mat
ri
x

Conj
ointAnal
ysi
s:

 Pr
ovi
des i
nfor
mat
ion aboutt
he r
elat
ivei
mpor
tance r
espondent
s pl
ace on i
ndi
vi
dual

at
tr
ibut
eswhenchoosi
ngf
rom mul
ti
plebr
ands.
  Bui
l
tont
heassumpt
iont
hatconsumer
smakecompl
exdeci
sionsbasednotononef
act
or

atat
imebutonsev
eral
fact
ors“
joi
ntl
y”(
thust
het
erm“
conj
oint
”).

 For
tunat
ely
, 
conj
ointanal
ysi
s canf
aci
l
itat
ethepr
ocess.Conj
ointanal
ysi
sisat
oolt
hat

al
l
owsasubsetoft
hepossi
blecombi
nat
ionsofpr
oductf
eat
urest
obeusedt
odet
ermi
ne

t
her
elat
ivei
mpor
tanceofeachf
eat
urei
nthepur
chasi
ngdeci
sion.Conj
ointanal
ysi
sis

basedont
hef
actt
hatt
her
elat
ivev
aluesofat
tr
ibut
esconsi
der
edj
oint
lycanbet
terbe

measur
edt
hanwhenconsi
der
edi
nisol
ati
on.

St
epsi
nDev
elopi
ngaConj
ointAnal
ysi
s

Dev
elopi
ngaconj
ointanal
ysi
sinv
olv
est
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps:

1.Choosepr oductat t
r i
but es,forexampl e, appearance, size,orpr i
ce.
2.Chooset hev aluesoropt i
onsf oreachat t
ri
bute.Forexampl e, f
ort heat t
ributeofsi ze,one
maychooset helev elsof5" , 10",or20" .Thehi ghert henumberofopt i
onsusedf oreach
attr
ibut
e, t
hemor ebur dent hati spl acedont her espondent s.
3.Defineproduct sasacombi nationofat t
r i
buteopt i
ons.Thesetofcombi nati
onsof
attr
ibut
est hatwi l
l beusedwi l
lbeasubsetoft hepossi bleuni verseofpr oducts.
4.Chooset hef ormi nwhi cht hecombi nationsofat tributesar et obepr esent edtot he
respondents.Opt ionsi ncludev er balpresentation, paragr aphdescr i
ption,andpi ctori
al
presentati
on.
5.Decidehowr esponseswi llbeaggr egat ed.Ther ear et hreechoi ces-usei ndi
v i
dual
responses,pool all responsesi nt oasi ngleut i
l
ityfunct i
on,ordef inesegment sof
respondentswhohav esi milarpr eferences.
6.Selectt
het echniquet obeusedt oanal y zethecol lecteddat a.Thepar t-worthmodel i
sone
ofthesimpl ermodel susedt oexpr esstheut il
it
iesoft hev ariousat t
ributes.Ther ealsoare
vector(l
inear)model sandi deal -point(quadr ati
c)model s.

Thedat
aispr
ocessedbyst
ati
sti
cal
sof
twar
ewr
it
tenspeci
fi
cal
l
yforconj
ointanal
ysi
s.

Conjoi
ntanal
ysiswasfi
rstusedintheearl
y1970'
sandhasbecomeanimportantmar
ket
ing
resear
chtool
.Iti
swell
-sui
tedfordefi
ninganewproductori
mprov
inganexi
sti
ngone.

Mul
ti
dimensi
onal
Scal
i
ng(
MDS)
:

Mul
ti
dimensi
onalScal
i
ng (
MDS)i
s a cl
ass ofpr
ocedur
es f
orr
epr
esent
ing 
per
cept
ions and

pr
efer
ences ofr
espondent
s spat
ial
l
y by means ofv
isualdi
spl
ay.Per
cei
ved psy
chol
ogi
cal

r
elat
ionshi
ps among st
imul
iar
erepr
esent
ed as geomet
ri
crel
ati
onshi
ps among poi
ntsi
n

mul
ti
dimensi
onalspace. 
These geomet
ri
crepr
esent
ati
ons ar
e of
ten cal
l
ed spaci
almaps.

 
Mul
ti
dimensi
onal
scal
i
ngar
eusedf
or:
  Todet
ermi
net
henumberandnat
ureofdi
mensi
ons’consumer
suset
oper
cei
vedi
ff
erent

br
ands.

 Toposi
ti
onbr
andsont
hesedi
mensi
ons.

 Toi
dent
if
ytheposi
ti
onofconsumer
’si
deal
brand.

Appl
i
cat
ionsi
nmar
ket
ing:

 Br
andi
magemeasur
ement

 Mar
ketsegment
ati
on

 Newpr
oductdev
elopment–byl
ooki
ngatt
hespaci
almapt
heempt
yspacesr
epr
esentt
he

unexpl
oredbycompet
it
or’
smar
ketsegment
s.Thedev
elopmentofapr
oductoraser
vicet
o

f
iti
ntheunusedspaceont
hespaci
almapmi
ghthav
eacommer
cial
sense.

 Assessi
ng adv
ert
isi
ng act
ivi
ti
es and i
ts ef
fect
iveness – some mar
ket
ing campai
gns

ar
e desi
gnedt
ore-
placeabr
andf
rom onepar
toft
he 
mar
ket
 t
oanot
her(
possi
blymor
e

pr
ofi
tabl
eorr
elev
antt
oacompany
’scompet
it
iveadv
ant
age)
.

 Di
str
ibut
ionchanneldeci
sions– manager
sbyl
ooki
ngatt
hemul
ti
dimensi
onalmapof

r
elev
antbr
andscanj
udgewhet
hercr
eat
inganaddi
ti
onalr
etai
lout
letnearot
herbr
and’
s

out
let
siscompat
ibl
ewi
th 
thei
rbr
andi
ngst
rat
egy
.

Li
mit
ati
onsofMDS:

I
tisassumedt
hatt
hesi
mil
ari
tyofst
imul
usAt
oBi
sthesameast
hesi
mil
ari
tyofBt
oAbutt
his

assumpt
ioni
snotnecessar
il
ytr
ue.

Repor
tpr
epar
ati
onandpr
esent
ati
on:

• Ar
esear
chr
epor
tis:

– a wr
it
ten documentoror
alpr
esent
ati
on based on a wr
it
ten documentt
hat
communi
cat
est
hepur
pose,scope,obj
ect
ive(
s),hy
pot
heses,met
hodol
ogy
,fi
ndi
ngs,
l
i
mit
ati
onsandf
inal
l
y,r
ecommendat
ionsofar
esear
chpr
ojectt
oot
her
s.
 – Thel
astst
ageofamar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
ocess.
;

– I
tismor
ethanasummar
yoff
indi
ngs;
rat
heri
tisar
ecor
doft
her
esear
chpr
ocess.

• Ther
esear
cherhast
oconv
incet
hecl
i
ent[
andot
her
swhomayr
eadt
her
epor
t]t
hatt
he

r
esear
chf
indi
ngscanbeact
edonf
ort
hei
rownbenef
it
.

Ty
pesofResear
chRepor
t

• Anyr
esear
chr
epor
tcont
ains:

– descr
ipt
ionsonmet
hodol
ogy
,

– r
esul
tsobt
ained,

– andr
ecommendat
ionsmade.

• Thebasi
cor
ient
ati
onofar
esear
chr
epor
tdependsoni
tsaudi
ence.Bef
orewr
it
ingt
he
repor
t

– t
her
esear
chermustknowhi
sorheraudi
ence;

– he/shemayhavetomakeassumpt
ionsaboutt
hecomposi
ti
on,backgr
oundand
i
nterest
soft
het
argetr
eader
s.

• Twot
ypesofr
epor
ts:
-

– Techni
cal
Repor
t:sui
tabl
eforat
argetaudi
enceof

• researchers,researchmanagersorotherpeopl
efami
li
arwi
thandint
erest
ed
i
nt het echnicali
ti
essuchasr esear
chdesign,sampl
i
ngmethods,st
ati
sti
cal
detail
setc.,

– Popul
arRepor
t:sui
tabl
efor
:

• amor egeneralaudi
ence,i
nter
est
edmai
nlyi
nther
esear
chf
indi
ngsasi
tis
non-
techni
cal
innatur
e.

– Thewr
it
ingstyl
eisdesi
gnedtofaci
l
itat
eeasyandr
api
dreadi
ngandunder
standi
ng
oft
her
esearchfi
ndi
ngsandrecommendati
ons.

REPORTPREPARATI
ONANDPRESENTATI
ONPROCESS:
• t
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
her
esul
tsofdat
aanal
ysi
sinl
i
ghtof
:

– t
hemar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
obl
em i
nvest
igat
ed,

– andt
her
esear
chdesi
gnandmet
hodol
ogyf
oll
owed.

• Ther
esear
chr
epor
tisameansofcommuni
cat
iont
hatcanbeunder
stood,
bel
i
eved,
trust
ed

byev
ery
onewhoar
eli
kel
ytobeaf
fect
edbyt
her
esear
ch,andact
eduponbyt
hedeci
sion

maker
.

• t
her
esear
chershoul
ddi
scuss:t
hemaj
orf
indi
ngs,
concl
usi
ons,
andr
ecommendat
ionswi
th

t
hekeydeci
si
onmaker
s.

– necessar
yto ensur
ethatt
her
epor
tmeet
sthecl
i
ent
'sneedsand i
sul
ti
mat
ely

accept
ed.

• Theent
ir
emar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
oject
:
 – shoul
dbesummar
izedi
nasi
ngl
ewr
it
tenr
epor
tori
nsev
eralr
epor
tsaddr
essedt
o

di
ff
erentr
eader
s.

– shoul
dpr
esentt
hef
indi
ngsi
nsuchawayt
hatt
heycanbeuseddi
rect
lyasi
nputi
nto

deci
si
onmaki
ng.

• Gener
all
y,anor
alpr
esent
ati
onsuppl
ement
sthewr
it
tenr
epor
t.

• Thecl
i
entshoul
dbegi
venadequat
eti
met
oreadt
her
epor
t.

– I
fnecessar
y,t
her
esear
chershoul
dassi
stt
hecl
i
enti
nunder
standi
ngt
her
epor
t,

i
mpl
ement
ingt
hef
indi
ngs,
under
taki
ngf
urt
herr
esear
ch,
andev
aluat
ingt
her
esear
ch

pr
ocessi
nret
rospect
.

• Repor
tFor
mat
:

• Nouni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
edst
andar
dfor
matorst
ylef
orr
esear
chwr
it
ing.Di
ff
erentr
esear
cher
s

maypr
epar
ethei
rrepor
tsdi
ff
erent
ly.

– Theper
sonal
i
ty,backgr
ound,exper
ti
se,andr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
her
esear
cherand

t
hoseoft
hedeci
sionmakerf
orwhom t
her
epor
tiswr
it
teni
nter
actt
ogi
veeach

r
epor
tauni
quechar
act
er.

– Repor
tfor
mat
sar
eli
kel
ytov
arywi
tht
henat
ureoft
hepr
ojecti
tsel
f.Howev
er,t
he

r
esear
chr
epor
tcl
osel
yresembl
est
hest
epsoft
hemar
ket
ingr
esear
chpr
ocess.

• Repor
tWr
it
ing:

– Obj
ect
ive:Repor
twr
it
ingshoul
dal
way
sbegui
dedbyobj
ect
ivi
ty.

– Shoul
daccur
atel
ypr
esentt
hemet
hodol
ogy
,resul
ts,
andconcl
usi
onsoft
he pr
oject
,

wi
thoutsl
ant
ingt
hef
indi
ngst
oconf
ormt
otheexpect
ati
onsofmanagement
.

– Sel
ect
ivi
ty:Ar
esear
chermustusehi
sorherdi
scr
eti
oni
ndeci
dingwhatshoul
dbe

i
ncl
udedi
nther
epor
t.

– Conci
se:A r
epor
tshoul
dbeconci
se.Yetbr
evi
tyshoul
dnotbeachi
evedatt
he
 expenseofcompl
eteness.

– Pr
esent
ati
on:Ther
epor
tshoul
dbepr
ofessi
onal
l
ydonewi
thqual
i
typaper
,good

t
ypi
ng,
andat
tract
ivebi
ndi
ng.