soa 2 Buitpinc CONSTRUCTION INTRODUCTION A:structure constructed to house any activity of man may be called abi building has two parts : sub-structure or foundations and super-structure. ing. Basically any Foundation, which is in direct contact with the ground and located below the ground level, transmits all the loads from super-structure to the supporting soil. Hence, foundation is the most important part of the building. It evenly distributes the loads over large area thereby reducing the load intensity, provides even surface for the structure to rest, gives lateral stability to the structure and ensures safety against undermining and protection against soil movements, Thorough soil investigations are to be done before deciding on the type of foundation and its design, ‘The investigation methods include : (i) Open pit excavations, (ii) Borings, (iif) Sub-suntace soundings and (ir) Geophysical methods such as seismic refraction and electrical resistivity. Open pit excavation is suitable for shallow depths. The other methods are used when the soil is to be explored tor deeper depths. Static penetration and standard penetration methods in which the resistance to penetration is correlated with the suil properties, belong to the category of sub-surface soundings. The record of samples obtained from boring and arranged according to their depth of occurrence is called a bore-log. When the angle of internal fraction @ of cohesionless soil is known the Rankines formula to obtain minimum depth of foundation may be used. a2 sin je tice item A ‘ch < F a | » Where q is the intensity of loading which is less than or equal to the safe bearing capacity of the soil and is the unit weight of soil 635Wf the depth of foundation is less than its width it is termed a shallow foundation (also known as open foundation) otherwise it is known as deep foundation. The structural unit constructed in masonry or concrete under the base of a wall ora column which distributes the load over a large area is called the footing. The term footing is generally associated with shallow foundations. A footing which provides a continuous longitudinal bearing (as in the case of walls) isknown as strip footing. A footing which supports two columns is called a combined footing and if it supports more than two columns it is called a continuous footing. When two footings are joined by a beam it is called a strap footing, Grillage and Raft foundations are shallow foundations. A grillage foundation is provided for heavily loaded steel stanchions in soils of poor bearing capacity. The depth of foundation is generally limited to about 1.5 m. The load from stanchion is spread over large area by means of layers (tiers) of steel or timber joists placed at right angles to the next layer. The steel joists are embedded in concrete so that they are kept in position and are protected from corrosion. The distance between the flanges is kept at 14 times the width of flange or 30 cm whichever is less. However, the minimum spacing is 8.cm so that concrete can be easily poured. Timber grillages are useful in water logged areas where bearing capacity of soil is low and where steel grillages are likely to get corroded, Raft foundation is shallow foundation which covers the entire area underneath the structure and supports the walls and columns. When the allowable bearing capacity is low, the individual foundations are so lange that the gap left between thens is small that if will be economical to use raft foundation. Raft foundations are also usefull where the settlements are difficult to. control. Machine foundations are to be treated carefully as they are subjected to dynamic loads due to vibrations. The permissible bearing pressure is generally taken as } to 4 of that under static loads. Pile foundations, pier foundations and well foundations (or caissons) are various types of deep foundations. Out of these pile foundation is more widely used in building construction, A pile which transmits the load coming on to it to a suitable bearing stratum are called end- bearing piles or simply bearing piles. That means they are taken to such depth till they meet bearing stratum. A pile which transmits the load coming, on to it through the friction developed between its surface area and the surrounding soil is called a friction pile. Compaction piles are those which do-not take any load by themselves, but they improve the bearing capacity of the surrounding soil through compaction, Depending on the material used, the piles may be classified as concrete piles (both precast and cast-in-sity), timber piles, steel piles and composite pilés {made of concrete and timber or concrete and steel). Steel piles may be H-piles, pipe piles or sheet piles. Sheet piles are used to reduce the seepage and uplift under hydraulic structure.The batter piles are used to resist large horizontal or inclined forces. Assimplex pile has a metal shoe. Franki pile has enlarged base of mushroom shape, which gives the effect of spread footing. Under reamed piles will have one or more bulbs on the pile stem and are generally used in expansive soils. Cantilever sheet piles are yery common in the construction of coffer dams. From scour depth consideration or due to low bearing pressure, if the foundation of bridge has to be taken to more than 5 to 7m depth, open excavation becomes costly and uneconomical as heavy timbering (method of preventing the caving in of foundations in loose soils by wooden planks and struts) is required. Also the excavated earth is loose when refilled and is susceptible for easy scouring. In all these cases well foundations are the only solution. When the well foundations is completed, its bottom is plugged with concrete, the well is filled with sand and the top also is plugged and the pier is then constructed over it. [n circular well foundations the steining of the well (ic., the thickness of the well) is about e where D is the diameter of the well. In sinking the well, care must be taken to see that it is truly vertical. The tilt should not exceed 1 in 20. Superstructure of a building consists of masonry walls which suport the roof. and they contain doors and window meant for passage and ventilation and aeration. A building unit bonded with mortar may be called masonry, Masonry may be called as brick masonry, stone masonry and compusite masonry depending on whether they are made of bricks or stones or a mixture of bricks stones and concrete blocks respectively A horizontal layer of masonry unit is called a course. A brick or stone placed in position such that its length is parallel to the face of the wall is called stretcher and when it is perpendicular to the face of the wall it is called header. In the case of stone masonry stretcher is also known as through stone. A course showing only stretchers on the exposed face is called stretcher course and similarly a course showing only headers is called header course. The lower face of brick or stone is called bed. In the case of stones, they must be placed in position such that their natural bed is always perpendicular to the direction of pressure. The overlapping of stones or bricks in masonry such that no continuous vertical joints are formed and they are tied together is known as bond. The exterior corner or angle of a wall is known as quoin. The units forming the corer are called quoins, ie., quoin stone or quoin brick. If the length of quoin is parallel to the wall it is called a quoin stretcher and when itis perpendicular it is called quoin header. The surface of the walll exposed to weather is called face and which is not exposed is called back. The portion of the wall between facing and backing is called bearting. If a brick is cut into two halves longitudinally two queen closers are obtained. The portion of the brick in which the width at one end is full and the width at the other end is half of that in ful brick is called king closer, Bevelled closer isa brick in which the width tapers from full width at one end to half width at the other end. In a mitred closer one long face is full and the other long face is small in length. The portion of the brick cut across the width is called a bat. Depending on its size it may be called half-bat or three-fourth bat. The bottom surface of door or a window opening isa sill. The horizontal member spanning the window or door opening ina wall and supporting the masonry above the opening is called a