Earthquakes: Cause and Effect

Earthquake Effects 1
Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering

Earthquakes: Cause and Effect

• Why Earthquakes Occur

• How Earthquakes are Measured
• Earthquake Effects
• Mitigation Strategy
• Earthquake Time Histories

Earthquake Effects 2
Revised 2/8/05
 Seismic Activity >M5 Since 1980

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Alpide Belt
Ring of Fire

Alpide Belt

Earthquake Effects 3
 Plate Boundaries
Crustal Plate Boundaries

Earthquake Effects 4
Plate Tectonics: Driving Mechanism

Earthquake Effects 5
Continental-Continental collision
(orogeny)

Earthquake Effects 6
Oceanic-Continental Collision
(subduction)

Earthquake Effects 7
San Andreas Fault System

Earthquake Effects 8
Seismicity of North America
North American
Plate

1811 New Madrid

M > 8.0
1886 Charleston
M > 7.0

Pacific
Plate

Earthquake Effects 9
 Faults and Fault Rupture

Epicenter

Rupture surface

Hypocenter
(focus)
Fault plane

Earthquake Effects 10
 Types of Faults

Strike Slip Strike Slip

(Left Lateral) (Right Lateral)

Normal Reverse (Thrust)

Earthquake Effects 11
 Elastic Rebound Theory
Time = 0 Years

New Fence

Earthquake Effects 12
 Time = 40 Years

New Road

Old Fence

Earthquake Effects 13
 Time = 41 Years

New Road

Old Fence

Earthquake Effects 14
San Andreas Fault Offset - 1906 S.F. EQ M8.2

2.6-m fence offset

from fault

fault trace
Photo credit: USGS.
Earthquake Effects 15
 Seismic Wave Forms
(Body Waves)

Di
Di Pr re c
Pr re c op tio
op tio ag n
ag n ati of
ati of on
on

Compression Wave Shear Wave

(P Wave) (S Wave)
Earthquake Effects 16
 Seismic Wave Forms
(Surface Waves)

Di
Di Pr rect
Pr recti op io
ag n o
op on ati f
ag
ati of on
on

Love Wave Rayleigh Wave

Earthquake Effects 17
 Arrival of Seismic Waves

P Waves S Waves Love Waves

Earthquake Effects 18
Effects of Seismic Waves

• Fault Rupture
• Ground Shaking
• Landslides
• Liquefaction
• Tsunamis
• Seiches

Earthquake Effects 19
 Surface Fault Rupture;
1999 Chi Chi Taiwan Earthquake (M7.7)

Earthquake Effects 20
 Liquefaction
“If a saturated sand is subjected to ground
vibrations, it tends to compact and decrease in volume.

If drainage is unable to occur, the tendency to

decrease in volume results in an increase in
pore pressure.

If the pore water pressure builds up to the point at

which it is equal to the overburden pressure, the
effective stress becomes zero, the sand loses its
strength completely, and liquefaction occurs.”

Seed and Idriss

Earthquake Effects 21
Liquefaction - Field of Sand Boils

Earthquake Effects 22
Liquefaction damage - Niigata, Japan
1964

Earthquake Effects 23
 Lateral Spreading

Sand
Boils

Liquefied
Soil
Unliquefied
Soil

• mostly horizontal deformation of gently-sloping

ground (< 5%) resulting from soil liquefaction
• one of most pervasive forms of ground damage;
especially troublesome for lifelines
Earthquake Effects 24
 Liquefaction and Lateral Spreading
Nishinomiya Harbor Bridge - 1995 Kobe, Japan EQ

Earthquake Effects 25
 Liquefaction and Lateral Spreading
Nishinomiya Harbor Bridge - 1995 Kobe, Japan EQ

Earthquake Effects 26
 Lateral Spreading
1999 Chi Chi EQ M7.7 (Taiwan)

Earthquake Effects 27
 Landslide on Coastal Bluff
Loma Prieta Earthquake, California, 1989

Earthquake Effects 28
Tsunami Damage: Seward Alaska, 1964

Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Earthquake Effects 29
 Cause of Tsunamis
Tsunamis are created by a sudden
vertical movement of the sea floor.

These movements usually occur in

subduction zones.

Tsunamis move at great speeds, often 600

to 800 km/hr.

Earthquake Effects 30
Cause of Tsunamis

Earthquake Effects 31
Cause of Tsunamis

Earthquake Effects 32
Earthquake Effects 33
Earthquake Effects 34
 Result of Ground Shaking;
1994 Northridge, California Earthquake

Earthquake Effects 35
 Mitigation Strategies

Earthquake effect Strategy

Fault rupture Avoid
Tsunami/seiche Avoid
Landslide Avoid
Liquefaction Avoid/resist
Ground shaking Resist

Earthquake Effects 36
 Measuring Earthquakes
INTENSITY
• Subjective measure of human reaction and damage
• Used where instruments are not available
• Very useful in historical seismicity

MAGNITUDE
• Measured with seismometers
• Direct measure of energy released
• Possible confusion due to different measures

Earthquake Effects 37
 Modified Mercalli Intensity

I. Not felt except by a few under especially

favorable circumstances

II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on

upper floors of buildings. Suspended objects may swing.

III. Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on

upper floors of buildings. Standing automobiles may
rock slightly. Vibration like passing truck.

Earthquake Effects 38
 Modified Mercalli Intensity
IV. During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by
few. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows,
doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound. Sensation
like heavy truck striking building. Standing automobiles
rocked noticeably. [0.015 to 0.02g]

V. Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some

dishes and windows broken. Cracked plaster.
Unstable objects overturned. Disturbance of trees, poles
and other tall objects. [0.03 to 0.04g]

VI. Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors.

Some heavy furniture moved. Fallen plaster and
damaged chimneys. Damage slight. [0.06 to 0.07g]
Earthquake Effects 39
 Modified Mercalli Intensity
VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in
buildings of good design and construction, slight to
moderate in well built ordinary structures, considerable
to poorly built or badly designed structures. Noticed
by persons driving cars. [0.10 to 0. 15g]

VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures,

considerable in ordinary construction, great in
poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, stacks,
monuments. Sand and mud ejected in small
amounts. Changes in well water. Persons driving
cars disturbed. [0.25 to 0.30g]

Earthquake Effects 40
 Modified Mercalli Intensity
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed
structures, well designed frame structures thrown
out of plumb, damage great in substantial buildings
with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.
Ground cracked conspicuously. Underground pipes
broken. [0.50 to 0.55g]

X. Some well built wooden structures destroyed. Most

masonry and frame structures destroyed with
foundations badly cracked. Rails bent. Landslides
considerable from river banks and steep slopes.
Shifted sand and mud. Water splashed over banks.
[More than 0.60g]

Earthquake Effects 41
 Modified Mercalli Intensity

XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures left standing.

Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures in ground.
Underground pipelines completely out of service.
Earth slumps and land slips in soft ground.
Rails bent greatly.

XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground surface. Lines

of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into air.

Earthquake Effects 42
Isoseismal Map for the Giles County, Virginia
Earthquake of May 31, 1897.

Earthquake Effects 43
Isoseismal Map
from New Madrid
Earthquake
Dec. 16, 1811

Earthquake Effects 44
 1886 Charleston EQ Felt Over
Eastern US!
Chicago > 700 mi.

St. Louis > 650 mi. New York >600 mi.

Charleston

Earthquake Effects 45
1980 M5.2 Sharpsburg KY EQ
• Sharpsburg KY, EQ
damage was $20 million
•Why not New Madrid Eqs
in KY? (same Iapetan-age
faults present here)
•Note pattern relative to
OH River

Earthquake Effects 46
Isoseismal Map for February 9, 1971
San Fernando CA Earthquake

Earthquake Effects 47
Comparison of Isosiesmal Intensity for Four Earthquakes

Earthquake Effects 48
Earthquake Effects 49
 Instrumental Seismicity

Magnitude (Richter, 1935)

Richter Magnitude Also called Local Magnitude

ML = Log [Maximum Wave Amplitude (in mm/1000)]

Recorded Wood-Anderson Seismograph

100 km from Epicenter

Earthquake Effects 50
 Magnitude (in general)

M = Log A +f(d,h) +CS + CR

A= Wave Amplitude of seismometer needle

F(d,h) accounts for focal distance and depth
CS, CR, are Station and Regional Corrections

Earthquake Effects 51
 Other Wave Based Magnitudes

MS Surface-Wave Magnitude (Rayleigh Waves)

mb Body-Wave Magnitude (P Waves)

MB Body-Wave Magnitude (P and other Waves)

mbLg (Higher Order Love and Rayleigh Waves)

MJMA (Japanese, Long Period)

Earthquake Effects 52
 Moment Magnitude
Seismic Moment = MO = μAD
[Units=Force times Distance]

μ = Modulus of Rigidity
A= Fault Rupture Area
D = Fault Dislocation or Slip

Moment Magnitude = MW = (Log MO-16.05)/1.5

Earthquake Effects 53
Moment Magnitude vs. Other Magnitude Scales
(Magnitude Saturation)

Earthquake Effects 54
 Approximate Relationship
Between Magnitude and Intensity
10

6 Mˆ L = 0.67 I 0 + 1
Magnitude

3 Richter (Local) mˆ bLg = 0.49 I 0 + 1.66

2 MbLg

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Intensity

Earthquake Effects 55
 Seismic Energy Release
Log E = 1.5 MS + 11.8
1E+28

1E+26

1E+24
Energy, Ergs

1E+22

1E+20
.

1E+18 1000
31
1E+16

1E+14

1E+12
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude, Ms

Earthquake Effects 56
 Seismic Energy Release
1E+28
Nuclear Bomb
1E+26
1964 Alaska Earthquake
1E+24
1906 San Francisco Earthquake
Energy, Ergs

1E+22
1972 San Fernando Earthquake
1E+20 Atomic Bomb
.

1E+18 1978 Santa Barbara EQ

1E+16

1E+14

1E+12
0 2 4 6 8 10
Magnitude, Ms

Earthquake Effects 57
 Ground Motion Accelerograms

Sources:
• NONLIN (more than 100 records)
• Internet (e.g. National Strong Motion Data Center)
• USGS CD ROM

Uses:
• Evaluation of Earthquake Characteristics
• Development of Response Spectra
• Response History Analysis

Earthquake Effects 58
Sample Ground Motion records

Earthquake Effects 59
 Ground Motion Characteristics

• Acceleration, Velocity, Displacement

• Effective Peak Acceleration & Velocity
• Fourier Amplitude Spectra
• Duration (Bracketed Duration)
• Incremental Velocity (Killer Pulse)
• Response Spectra
• Other (See Naiem and Anderson)

Earthquake Effects 60
 Typical Earthquake Accelerogram Set
600

400 Horizontal Acceleration (E-W), cm/sec2

200

-2 0 0

-4 0 0

-6 0 0 2
0 5
-463 cm/sec
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

600

400 Vertical Acceleration, cm/sec2

200

-2 0 0

-4 0 0

-6 0 0 2
0 5
-500 cm/sec
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

600
400 Horizontal Acceleration (N-S), cm/sec2
200

-2 0 0
-4 0 0

-6 0 0
0 5
-391
10
cm/sec21 5 20 25 30 35 40 45
T im e (s e c )
Time, Seconds
Loma Prieta Earthquake
Earthquake Effects 61
 Definition of Bracketed Duration

Acceleration, cm/sec2
600

400
0.05g
200

-200

-400

-600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time, Seconds

Bracketed Duration

Earthquake Effects 62
 Definition of Incremental Velocity
Acceleration, cm/sec2
600

400

Acceleration, cm/sec2 200

400
0

300 -2 0 0

-4 0 0
200
-6 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
100
Time, Seconds
0

-100

-200

-300

-400
8 9 10 11 12

Time, Seconds
Earthquake Effects 63
 Concept of Fourier Amplitude Spectra
N /2 N /2 N /2
vg (t ) ≅ a0 + ∑ a j cos(2πjf 0 ) + ∑ b j sin( 2πjf 0 ) = a0 + ∑ A j cos(2πjf 0 + φ j )
j =1 j =1 j =1

⎛ bj ⎞
f 0 = df = 1 / Ndt φ j = arctan⎜⎜ − ⎟ A j = a 2j + b 2j
⎟
⎝ aj ⎠

Acceleration, cm/sec2 Acceleration, cm/sec2

600
1.2
400
1.0
200
0.8
0
0.6
-2 0 0
0.4
-4 0 0
0.2
-6 0 0
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0 10 20 30
Frequency (Hz)

N points at timestep dt N/2 points at frequency df

Earthquake Effects 64
 Ground Motion Frequency Content (1)
1.2
HORIZONTAL Acceleration (E-W), cm/sec2
600
1.0
400

Fourier Amplitude
0.8
200
0 0.6

-200 0.4

-400
0.2
-600
0 10 20 30 40 50 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1.2 Frequency (Hz)
VERTICAL Acceleration, cm/sec2
600
1.0
400

F o u rie r Am p litu d e
0.8
200
0.6
0
-200 0.4

-400 0.2
-600
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, Seconds Frequency (Hz)

Earthquake Effects 65
 Development of an Elastic Displacement
Response Spectrum
0.40
El Centro Earthquake Record
GROUND ACC, g

0.20

0.00

-0.20
Maximum Displacement Response Spectrum
16
-0.40

DISPLACEMENT, inches
14
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
TIME, SECONDS 12

10

8
T=0.6 Seconds 6
DISPLACEMENT, in.

4.00

2.00 4
0.00
2
-2.00
0
-4.00
0 2 4 6 8 10
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
PERIOD, Seconds

T=2.0 Seconds
DISPLACEMENT, In.

8.00

4.00

0.00

-4.00

-8.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Earthquake Effects 66