ew
Richard H. French
OPEN-CHANNEL
HYDRAULICS
McGraw-Hill Book Company
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INTERNATIONAL EDITION
Copyright € 1986
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Singapore for manufacture and export. This
book cannot be re-exported from the country
to which it is consigned by McGraw-Hill.
2nd Printing 1987
Copyright € 1985 by Richard H. French. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed
in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or
retrieval sytem, without the prior written permission of
the publisher.
The editors were Joan Zseleczky and Rita Margolies.
The designer was Elliot Epstein
The production supervisor was Sara L. Fliess
It was set in Century Schoolbook by University Graphics, Inc.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data.
French, Richard H.
Open-channel hydraulics.
Includes index.
1. Channels (Hydraulic engineering) 1. Title.
TC175.F78 1985 627.1 85-207
ISBN 0-07-022134-0
When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-¥66342-4
er
PAS Slee Sb orks Slee
10393 tals
PRINTED AND BOUND BY B & JO ENTERPRISE PTE LTD, SINGAPOREContents
Preface, vii
1 Concepts of Fluid Flow 4
1.1 Introduction, 2
1.2. Definitions, 3
1.3. Governing Equations, 11
1.4 Theoretical Concepts, 24
1.5 Similarity and Physical Models, 37
2 Energy Principle 43
2.1 Definition of Specific Energy, 44
2.2 Subcritical, Critical, and Supercritical Flow, 47
2.3 Accessibility and Controls, 54
2.4 Application of the Energy Principle to Practice, 59
3 The Momentum Principle 75
3.1 Definition of Specific Momentum, 76
3.2. The Hydraulic Jump, 78
3.3 Hydraulic Jumps at Density Interfaces, 101
4 Development of Uniform Flow Concepts ANN
4.1 Establishment of Uniform Flow, 112
4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations, 113
4.3 Resistance Coefficient Estimation, 115
5 Computation of Uniform Flow 163
5.1 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity, 164
5.2 Normal and Critical Slopes, 172 :
5.3 Channels of Composite Roughness, 176
5.4 Application of Uniform Flow Concepts to Practice, 1826 Theory and Analysis of Gradually and Spatially Varied Flow
10
12
Desi:
TA
7.2
73
74
Basic Assumptions and the Equation of Gradually Varied Flow, 196
Characteristics and Classification of Gradually Varied Flow Profiles, 197
Computation of Gradually Varied Flow, 201
Spatially Varied Flow, 247
Application to Practice, 257
ign of Channels
Introduction, 274
Design of Lined Channels, 279
Design of Stable, Unlined, Earthen Channels: A General Tractive Force
Design Methodology, 288
Design of Channels Lined with Grass, 314
Flow Measurement
Rap!
Induction, 326
Devices and Procedures for Stream Gaging, 327
Structures for Flow Measurement: Weirs, 336
Structures for Flow Measurement: Flumes, 356
Structures for Flow Measurement: Culverts, 365
idly Varied Flow in Nonprismatic Channels
Introduction, 394
Bridge Piers, 394
Control of Hydraulic Jumps, 426
Drop Spillways, 441
Transition Structures, 444
Turbulent Diffusion and Dispersion in Steady Open-Channel Flow
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Introduction, 462
Governing Equations, 462
Vertical ani Transverse Turbulent Diffusion and Longitudinal Dispersion,
470
Numerical Dispersion, 499
Vertical, Turbulent Diffusion in a Continuously Stratified Environment,
501
Turbulent, Buoyant, Surface Jets and Associated Phenomena
111
11.2
11.3
114
Introduction, 510
Basic Mechanics of Turbulent Jets, 511
Bouyant Surface Jets, 520
Upstream Cooling Water Wedges, 534
Gradually Varied, Unsteady Flow
12.1
12.2
12.3
124
12.5
12.6
Introduction, 550
Governing Equations and Basic Numerical Techniques, 554
Implicit Four-Point Difference Scheme—Channels of Arbitrary Shape, 560
Generalization of the Implicit Four-Point Technique, 572
Boundary and Initial Conditions, 574
Calibration and Verification, 576
195
273
325
393
464
509
549CONTENTS vil
13. Rapidly Varied, Unsteady Flow ~ 583
14
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
Introduction, 584
Elementary Surges, 584
Dam Break, 594
Surges in Open Channels, 619
Pulsating Flow; Roll Waves, 621
Hydraulic Models 634
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
Introduction, 632
Fixed-Bed River or Channel Models, 638
Movable-Bed Models, 643
Model Materials and Construction, 656
Physical Model Calibration and Verification, 660
Special-Purpose Models, 661
Appendix I, 667
Appendix II, 673
Appendix III, 685
Index, 693Preface
From the twin viewpoints of quantity and quality, water-resources projects are
of paramount importance to the maintenance and Progress of civilization as it
is known today. The knowledge of open-channel hydraulics that is essential to
water resources development and the preservation of acceptable water quality
has, along with other areas of engineering knowledge, exploded in the last two
decades. To some degree this explosion of information is due to the advent of
the high-speed digital computer which has allowed the hydraulic engineer to
address and solve problems which only 20 years ago would have been compu-
tationally too large to contemplate. In addition, the concern of society with both
the preservation and restoration of the aquatic environment has led the
hydraulic engineer to consider open-channel flow processes which, previous to
the environmental movement, would not have been considered important
enough to require study. At this time there are only two well-known English-
language books on~the subject of open-channel hydraulics—Open-Channel
Hydraulics by V. T. Chow, published in 1959, and Open Channel Flow by F.
M. Henderson, published in 1966. Neither of these books provides the modern
viewpoint on this important subject.
This book is designed primarily as a reference book for the Practicing engi-
neer; however, a significant number of examples are used, and it is believed that
the book can serve adequately as a text in either an undergraduate or graduate
course in civil or agricultural engineering. As is the case with all books, this
book is a statement of what the author believes is important, with the length
tempered by a very reasonable page limit suggested by the publisher. Because
of the background of the author, this book approaches open-channel hydraulics
from the viewpoint of presenting basic principles and demonstrating the appli-
cation of these principles. This book, unlike the ones that have preceded it,
emphasizes numerical methods of solving problems; like previous hooks, the
approach to the subject is primarily one-dimensional.X PREFACE
The book is divided into 14 chapters. In Chapter 1 basic definitions and the
equations which govern flow in open channels are introduced.
In Chapters 2 and 3 the laws of conservation of energy and momentum are
introduced, and applications of these basic laws to both rectangular and non-
rectangular channels are discussed.
In Chapters 4 and 5 uniform flow and its computation are discussed. In con-
nection with the topic of uniform flow, flow resistance is also treated.
In Chapter 6 gradually and spatially varied flow is considered. Solutions to
these problems that involve tabular, graphical, and numerical procedures are
considered.
In Chapter 7 various methods of designing channels are presented. The types
of channels considered include lined channels; stable, unlined, earthen chan-
nels; and grass-lined channels. Consideration is given to both economics and
seepage losses.
In Chapter 8 methods of flow measurement are considered. Techniques
included in this discussion are devices and procedures for stream gaging, weirs,
flumes, and culverts.
In Chapter 9 rapidly varied flow in nonprismatic channels is discussed. Dis-
cussions of flow through bridge contractions; the control of hydraulic jumps
with sharp- and broad-crested weirs, abrupt rises and drops, and stilling basins;
drop-spillway structures; and the design of channel transitions are included.
In Chapter 10 the transport processes known as turbulent diffusion and dis-
persion are discussed. After the one- and two-dimensional governing equations
have been developed, methods of estimating the vertical and transverse tur-
bulent diffusion coefficients and the longitudinal dispersion coefficient are
discussed.
In Chapter 11 the topic of turbulent, buoyant surface jets in open-channel
flow’ is discussed.
In Chapters 12 and 13 gradually and rapidly varied unsteady flows are con-
sidered. In these chapters modern numerical methods for solving the governing
equations are discussed. In the case of the dam break problem, both numerical
methods and simplified methods of computation are presented.
In Chapter 14 the design, construction, and use of physical models in the
study of open-channel hydraulics are discussed. Among the types of models
considered are geometrically distorted and undistorted; fixed and movable bed;
and ice.
It should be noted and emphasized that this book is concerned only with the
flow of water in channels where the water is not transporting significant quan-
tities of air or sediment. In subject areas where pollutant transport is the pri-
mary reason for describing the flow, specific pollutants are not discussed;
rather, transport of a neutral tracer is considered. In the area of unsteady flow,
tidal hydraulics are not considered since this is properly the venue of the
coastal engineer.
When the author began this book in the fall of 1981, he was, from the view-PREFACE xi
point of 1984, not aware of the magnitude of the project he was undertaking.
Because of his position as a member of the research faculty, the University of
Nevada system could legitimately provide but verbal encouragement and moral
support in this project. Thus, this project was completed in the evenings, on
holidays, and on weekends. The author is especially indebted to Professor Vin-
cent T. Ricca of the Ohio State University, who originally introduced the author
to the subject of open-channel hydraulics, and the late Professor Hugo B.
Fischer of the University of California, Berkeley, who continued the educa-
tional process. The author would also acknowledge Dr. S. C. McCutcheon of
the U.S. Geological Survey and Professor J. W. Bird of the University of
Nevada, Reno, who spent numerous hours of their own time reading the manu-
script. The author would also acknowledge his wife, Darlene, whose assistance
through the seemingly endless and late hours of work provided invaluable
encouragement that was desperately needed.
Richard H. FrenchOPEN-CHANNEL
HYDRAULICSONE
Concepts of
Fluid Flow
11
1.2
1.4
15
SYNOPSIS
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
Types of Flow
Changes of Depth with Respect to Time and Space
Viscosity, Density, and Gravity
Channel Types
Section Elements
Abstract Definitions
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Momentum
Energy Equation
Energy and Momentum Coetticients
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS
Sealing Equations
Boundary Layers
Velocity Distributions
SIMILARITY AND PHYSICAL MODELSSYNOPSIS
In Section 1.2, the types of flow encountered in open channels are clas-
sified with respect to time. space, viscosity, density, and gravity. In
addition, the types of channels commonly encountered and their geo-
metric properties are defined. In Section 1.3, the equations which gov-
ern flow in open channels, i.e., conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy, are developed along with the equations for the energy and
momentum correction coefficients. In Section 1.4, theoretical concepts
such as the scaling of partial differential equations, boundary layers,
and velocity distributions in both homogeneous and stratified flows are
briefly discussed. In Section 1.5, the basic concepts of geometric and
dynamic similarity are developed in relation to their application to the
design and use of physical hydraulic models
1.1 INTRODUCTION
By definition, an open channel is a conduit for flow which has a free surface,
i.e., a boundary exposed to the atmosphere. The free surface is essentially an
interface between two fluids of different density. In the case of the atmosphere,
the density of air is much lower than the density for a liquid such as water. In
addition the pressure is constant. In the case of the flowing fluid, the motion is
usually caused by gravitational effects, and the pressure distribution within the
fluid is generally hydrostatic. Open-channel flows are almost always turbulent
and unaffected by surface tension; however, in many cases of practical impor-
tance, such flows are density-stratified. The interest in the mechanics of open-
channel flow stems from their importance to what we have come to term civi-
lization. As defined above, open channels include flows occurring in channels
ranging from rivulets flowing across a field to gutters along residential streets
and continental highways to partially filled sewers carrying waste water to irri-
gation channels carrying water halfway across a continent to vital rivers such
as the Mississippi, Nile, Rhine, Yellow, Ganges, Amazon, and Mekong. Without
exception, one of the primary requirements for the development, maintenance,
and advancement of civilization is access to a plentiful and economic supply of
water.
In the material which follows, it is assumed that the reader is familiar with
the basic principles of modern fluid mechanics and hydraulics, calculus, numer-
ical analysis, and computer science. It is the purpose of this chapter to review
briefly a number of basic definitions, principles, and laws with the focus being
on their application to the study of the mechanics of open-channel flow.CONCEPTS OF FLUIDFLOW 3
1.2 DEFINITIONS
Types of Flow
Change of Depth with Respect to Time and Space _ As will be demonstrated
in this section, it is possible to classify the type of flow occurring in an open
channel on the basis of many different criteria. One of the primary criteria of
classification is the variation of the depth of flow y in time ¢ and space x. If
time is the criterion, then a flow can be classified as being either steady, which
implies that the depth of flow does not change with time (dy/dt = 0), or
unsteady, which implies that the depth does change with time (dy/dt # 0).
The differentiation between steady and unsteady flows depends on the view-
point of the observer and is a relative rather than an absolute classification. For
example, consider a surge, i.e., a singular wave with a sharp front moving either
up or down a channel. To a stationary observer on the bank of the channel, the
flow is unsteady since he or she will note a change in the depth of flow with
time. However, to an observer who moves with the wave front, the flow is steady
since no variation of depth with time c-n be noted. If water is added or sub-
tracted along the channel reach under consideration, which is the case with
gutters and side channel spillways, then the flow may be steady, but it is non-
uniform. Specifically, this type of flow is termed spatially varied or discontin-
uous flow.
If space is used as the classification criterion, then a flow can be classified as
uniform if the depth of flow does not vary with distance (dy/ax = 0) or as
nonuniform if the depth varies with distance (dy/ax # 0). Although concep-
tually an unsteady uniform flow is possible, i.e., the depth of flow varies with
time but remains constant with distance, from a practical viewpoint such a flow
is nearly impossible. Therefore, the terminology uniform or nonuniform usu-
ally implies that the flow is also steady. Nonuniform flow, also termed varied
flow, is further classified as being either rapidly varied—the depth of flow
changes rapidly over a relatively short distance such as is the case with a
hydraulic jump—or gradually varied—the depth of flow changes rather slowly
with distance such as is the case of a reservoir behind a dam.
It should be noted that from a theoretical viewpoint the classifications of
steady and uniform are very restrictive. For example, the terminology uniform
flow implies that at every point in the flow field at an arbitrary instant in time,
the velocity vectors have both the same magnitude and direction. Such a strict
definition is much too restrictive for practical use; therefore, the definitions
given above have been extended or relaxed to a point where they are useful.
For example, in practice, time and space flow classifications are commonly done
on the basis of gross flow characteristics. If the spatially averaged velocity of
flow u = | | udA does not vary significantly with time, then the flow is
4Depth Chence of
depth trom time
ee
Te SEE
=
Sten
* deptn |
=
Uniform Flow Unsteady Uniform Flow
stuice
Contraction
below stuice gate
QVF - Flood Wave Bore
FIGURE 1.1 Various types of open-channel flow; GVF = gradually varied flow,
RVF = rapidly varied flow. (Chow, 1959.)
classified as steady. Similarly, if the average depth of flow is constant in space,
then the flow is considered uniform. Figure 1.1 schematically provides examples
of the above definitions applied to field situations.
Viscosity, Density, and Gravity Recall from elementary fluid mechanics that,
depending on the magnitude of the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous
forces, a flow may be classified as laminar, transitional, or turbulent. The basis
for this classification is a dimensionless parameter known as the Reynolds num-CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW 8&
ber, or
R= ce (1.2.1)
y
where U = characteristic velocity of flow, often taken as the average velocity
of flow
characteristic length
kinematic viscosity
L
v
Then, a laminar flow is one in which the viscous forces are so large relative to
the inertial forces that the flow is dominated by the viscous forces. In such a
flow, the fluid particles move along definite, smooth paths in a coherent fashion.
In a turbulent flow, the inertial forces are large relative to the viscous forces;
hence, the inertial forces dominate the situation. In this type of flow, the fluid
particles move in an incoherent or apparently random fashion. A transitional
flow is one which can be classified as neither laminar nor turbulent. In open-
channel flow, the characteristic length commonly used is the hydraulic radius
which is the ratio of the flow area A to the wetted perimeter P. Then
R < 500 laminar flow
500 = R < 12,500 transitional flow
12,500 = R turbulent flow
The state of flow based on the ratio of inertial to viscous forces is a critical
consideration when resistance to flow is considered.
Flows are classified as homogeneous or stratified on the basis of the variation
of density within the flow. If in all spatial dimensions the density of flow is
constant, then the flow is said to be homogeneous. If the density of the flow
varies in any direction, then the flow is termed stratified. The absence of a
density gradient in most natural open-channel flows demonstrates that either
the velocity of flow is sufficient to completely mix the flow with respect to den-
sity or that the phenomena which tend to induce density gradients are unim-
portant. The importance of density stratification is that when stable density
stratification exists, i.e, density increases with depth or lighter fluid overlies
heavier fluid, the effectiveness of turbulence as a mixing mechanism is reduced.
In two-dimensional flow of the type normally encountered in open channels, a
commonly accepted measurement of the strength of the density stratification
is the gradient Richardson number
__gldp/ay)
= p(au/ayy? (1.2.2)
where g = acceleration of gravity
p = fluid densityAYOR ALCS
¥ = vertical coordinate
du/dy: = gradient of velocity in vertical direction
dp/dy' = gradient of density in vertical direction
When u/dy is small relative to dp/dy, Ri is large, and the stratification is stable.
When du/dy is large relative to dp/dy, Ri is small, and as Ri — 0, the flow sys-
tem approaches a homogeneous or neutral condition. There are a number of
other parameters which are used to measure the stability of a flow, and these
will be discussed, as required, in subsequent chapters of this book.
Depending on the magnitude of the ratio of inertial to gravity forces, a flow
is classified as subcritical, critical, or supercritical. The parameter on which this
classification is based is known as the Froude number
F= oe (1.2.3)
Vel
where U = a characteristic velocity of flow and L = a characteristic length. In
an open channel, the characteristic length is taken to be the hydraulic depth,
which by definition is the flow area A divided by the width of the free surface
T, or .
D=—7 (1.2.4)
If F = 1, the flow is in a critical state with the inertial and gravitational forces
in equilibrium. If F < 1, the flow is in a subcritical state, and the gravitational
FIGURE 1.2 Propagation of an elementary wave.CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW 7
forces are dominant. If F > 1, the flow is in a supercritical state and the inertial
forces are dominant.
The denominator of the Froude number is the celerity of an elementary
gravity wave in shallow water. In Fig. 1.2a an elementary water wave of height
Ay has been created by the movement of an impermeable plate from the left
to right at a velocity of Au. The wave has a celerity c, and the velocity of flow
in front of the wave is zero. The situation defined by Fig. 1.2 is unsteady and
cannot be analyzed by elementary techniques. However, as indicated in an ear-
lier section in this chapter, some unsteady-flow situations can be transformed
to steady-flow problems (Fig. 1.26). In this case, the transformation is accom-
plished by adapting a system of coordinates which moves at a velocity c. This
is equivalent to changing the viewpoint of the observer; i.e., in Fig. 1.2a the
observer is stationary while in Fig. 1.2b the observer is moving at the velocity
of the wave. Application of the steady, one-dimensional equation of continuity
to the situation described in Fig. 1.2b yields
a =C—CsCSOeee
and simplifying,
c=y— (1.2.5)
Application of the steady, one-dimensional momentum equation yields
fyy? — lly + Ay)? = pey[(c — Au) — ¢]
or 7 -8 , (1.2.6)
Substitution of Eq. (1.2.6) in Eq. (1.2.5) yields
ay
c
or c= Vay (1.2.7)
If it can be assumed that y ~ d (where d is the depth of flow), which is a valid
assumption if the channel is wide, then it has been proved that the celerity of
an elementary gravity wave is equal to the denominator of the Froude number.
With this observation, the following interpretation can be applied to the sub-
critical and supercritical states of flow:
c=
1. When the flow is subcritical, F < 1, the velocity of flow is less than the celer-
ity of an elementary gravity wave. Therefore, such a wave can propagate
upstream against the flow, and upstream areas are in hydraulic communi-
cation with the downstream areas.
2. When the flow is supercritical, F > 1, the velocity of flow is greater than the—Density intertace
—-— ~- He ye KE KL
2 = =u
te
FIGURE 1.3 Notation for densimetric
Froude number.
celerity of an elementary gravity wave. Therefore, such a wave cannot prop-
agate upstream against the flow, and the upstream areas of the channel are
not in hydraulic communication with the downstream areas.
Thus, the possibility of an elementary wave propagating upstream against the
flow can be used as a criterion for differentiating between subcritical and super-
critical flows.
In the case of density stratified open-channel flows, it is often convenient to
define an overall but inverted form of the gradient Richardson number. The
internal or densimetric Froude number Fp is defined by
p,- UY
O” Velsolk Vel
where, with reference to Fig. 1.3, Ap = p: — po, & = (0; — po)/p, and L = a
characteristic length which is usually taken as the depth of flow in the lower
layer y,. The interpretation of Fp is analogous to that of F; e.g., in an internally
supercritical flow, a wave at the density interface cannot propagate upstream
against the flow.
(1.2.8)
Channel Types
Open channels can be classified as either natural or artificial. The terminology
natural channel refers to all channels which have been developed by natural
processes and have not been significantly improved by humans. Within this
category are creeks, rivers large and small, and tidal estuaries. The category of
artificial channels includes all channels which have been developed by human
efforts. Within this category are nagivation channels, power and irrigation
canals, gutters, and drainage ditches. Although the basic principles in this book
are applicable to natural channels, a comprehensive understanding of flow in
natural channels is an interdisciplinary effort requiring knowledge of several
technical fields, i.e., open-channel hydraulics, hydrology, geomorphology, and
sediment transport. Therefore, although flow in natural channels will be dis-
cussed, an extensive treatment of the subject is outside the scope of this book.CONCEPTS OF FLUID FLOW 9
Since many of the properties of artificial channels are controlled by design, this
type of channel is much more amenable to analysis.
Within the broad category of artificial, open channels are the following
subdivisions:
1, Prismatic: A prismatic channel has both a constant cross-sectional shape
and bottom slope. Channels which do not meet this criterion are termed
nonprismatic.
2. Canal: The term canal refers to a rather long channel of mild slope. These
channels may be either unlined or lined with concrete, cement, grass, wood,
bituminous materials, or an artificial membrane.
3. Flume: In practice, the term flume refers to a channel built above the ground
surface to convey a flow across a depression. Flumes are usually constructed
of wood, metal, masonry, or concrete. The term flume is also applied to lab-
oratory channels constructed for basic and app'ied research.
4. Chute and Drop: A chute is a channel having a steep slope. A drop channel
also has a steep slope but is much shorter than a chute.
5. Culvert: A culvert flowing only partially full is an open channel primarily
used to convey a flow under highways, railroad embankments, or runways.
Finally, it is noted that in this book the terminology channel section refers to
the cross section of channel taken normal to the direction of flow.
Section Elements
In this part the properties of a channel section which are wholly determined by
the geometric shape of the channel and the depth of flow are defined.
1. Depth of Flow y: This is the vertical distance from the lowest point of a
channel section to the water surface. In most cases, this terminology is used
interchangeably with the terminology depth of flow of section d, which is
the depth of flow measured perpendicular to the channel bottom. The rela-
tion between y and d is
d
cos 6
y=
where @ is the slope angle of the channel bottom with a horizontal line. If @
is small
yod
Only in the case of steep channels is there a significant difference between y
and d. It must be noted that in some places in this book y is also used todesignate the vertical coordinate of a cartesian coordinate system. Although
this dual definition of one variable can be confusing, it is unavoidable if a
traditional notation system is to be used.
2. Stage: The stage of a flow is the elevation of the water surface relative to a
datum. If the lowest point of a channel section is taken as the datum, then
the stage and depth of flow are equal.
3. Top Width T: The top width of a channel is the width of the channel section
at the water surface.
4. Flow Area A: The flow area is the cross-sectional area of the flow taken nor-
mal to the direction of flow.
5. Wetted Perimeter P: The wetted perimeter is the length of the line which
is the interface between the fluid and the channel boundary.
6. Hydraulic Radius R: The hydraulic radius is the ratio of the flow area to the
wetted perimeter or
R=5 (1.2.9)
.
7. Hydraulic Depth D: The hydraulic depth is the ratio of the flow area to the
top width or
A
D=—> 2.
Tp (1.2.10)
Table 1.1 summarizes the equations for the basic channel elements for the
channel shapes normally encountered in practice.
Irregular channels are often encountered in practice, and in such cases values
of the top width, flow area, and the location of the centroid of the flow area
must be interpolated from values of these variables, which are tabulated as a
function of the depth of flow. Franz (1982) has developed a rational and con-
sistent method for performing these interpolations. Define
Ay = f, T, dé . (1.2.11)
0
and yA, = J, (y — @)T, do = f A, de (1.2.12)
0
where ¢ = dummy variable of integration
T, = top width of channel at distance ¢ above origin (Fig. 1.4)
A, = flow area corresponding to depth of flow y
¥ = distance from origin to centroid of flow area
Franz (1982) defined consistency of interpolation to mean: ( 1) both the tabu-
lated and interpolated values are consistent with Eqs. (1.2.11) and (1.2.12), and