TEE power series 15 DIGITAL PROTECTION FOR POWER SYSTEMS A. T. Johns and S. K. Salman inus oo on behalf of Electrical Eng ngin eers:Published by: Peter Peregrinus Ltd., on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom © 1995: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any forms or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: Peter Peregrinus Ltd., ‘The Institution of Electrical Engineers, Michael Faraday House, Six Hills Way, Stevenage, Herts. SG1 2AY, United Kingdom While the authors and the publishers believe that the information and guidance given in this work is correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgment when making use of it. Neither the authors nor the publishers assume any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is disclaimed, ‘The moral right of the authors to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data ACIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 86341 303 X Reprinted in paperback 1997 Printed in England by Redwood Books, TrowbridgeContents Page 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical background 1 1.2 Performance and operational characteristics of digital protection 2 1.2.1 Reliability 2 1.2.2 Flexibility 3 1.23. Operational performance 3 1.2.4 Cost/benefit considerations 3 1.2.5 Other features and functions 4 1.3 Basic structure of digital relays 4 1.4 References 5 2 Mathematical background to protection algorithms 7 2.1 Intreduction 7 2.2 Finite difference techniques 7 2.3 Interpolation formulas (2 2.3.1 Forward interpolation 12 2.3.2. Backward interpolation 14 2.3.3 Central difference interpolation 15 2.4 Numerical differentiation 16 2.5 Curve fitting and smoothing 18 2.5.1 Least-squares method 18 2.5.2 Smoothing 22 2.6 Fourier analysis 4 2.6.1 The Fourier series 24 2.6.2. The Fourier transform 28 2.7 Walsh function analysis 30 2.7.1 Definition of Walsh functions 31 2.7.2. Some fundamental properties of Walsh functions 31 2.7.3 Discrete representation of Walsh functions 33 2.74 The Walsh series 34 2.8 Relationship between Fouricr and Walsh coefficients 35 2.9 References 38 3 Basic elements of digital protection 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Basic components of a digital relay 38