To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 115.

Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. Vol. 34, No. 3-4, 1997 ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. RockMech. &Min. Sci. 34:3-4, Paper No. 115

I N F L U E N C E OF STOPE G E O M E T R Y AND B L A S T I N G
PATTERNS ON R E C O R D E D O V E R B R E A K
P. G e r m a i n l; j . H a d j i g e o r g i o u z

1 Noranda Technology Centre, Pointe-Claire, Quebec, H9R 1G5 Canada

z Department of Mining & Metallurgy, Universit6 Laval, Qu6bec, G1K 7P4, Canada

ABSTRACT
This paper reports on work in progress in investigating the influence of stope geometry and blasting
patterns on recorded overbreak. It relies on field data from geomechanical classifications, back analysis
of blasting patterns and actual stope geometries resulting from cavity monitoring system measurements.
Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

KEYWORDS

mining • rock mass characterization • blasting • stope geometry • overbreak

INTRODUCTION
Present mine design practice relies on a combination of numerical and empirical techniques. Most
empirical techniques rely to a large degree on classification systems that provide a rating of rock mass
quality. Perhaps the most popular index of rock mass quality is the Rock Quality Designation (RQD) by
Deere et al. 1967. A reason for its continued popularity is its routine availability at most mine sites
which in itself is a reflection of the ease in which it can be determined.
A common trait of all empirical systems for underground excavations is the link between rock quality
and the geometry of an excavation. In tunnelling, Terzaghi 1946 was the first to quantitatively address
the influence of excavation form (height and width) on the stability of an excavation, while Lauffer 1958
was the first to use the concept of an unsupported span and its equivalent stand-up time. The Rock Mass
Rating (RMR) of Bieniawski 1989 and the Norwegian Tunnelling Index Q, Barton et al. 1974 are widely
used in Canadian underground mines to predict the stability of excavations by correlating rock mass
quality to excavation span.
Hoek, Brown 1980 have suggested that: " .... special consideration may have to be given to the
relationship between the geometry of the rock mass and that of the excavation". This brings into
consideration whether the width or span of an excavation is the most appropriate measure of excavation
geometry. This has been addressed, somewhat in the stability graph method (Mathews-Potvin) for open
stope design, Potvin 1988, where the hydraulic radius of a stope surface, the area of a surface divided by
its perimeter, is used. The hydraulic radius is then plotted versus a stability number which in itself is a
function of the Norwegian Tunnelling Index Q. The method is routinely used to design the dimensions of
each face of a mining block. Recent developments include the work of Milne et al. 1996 where
hydraulic radius has been replaced by the radius factor that can assess more complex geometries and

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Pakalnis, Clark 1997 who plotted dilution values, expressed in thickness of sloughing on the stability
graph in an attempt to better define what a stable condition means in a mining environment.
The present paper deals with the limitations of stability graph method to account for the influence of
complex excavation geometries. This review of previous practice is a direct result of the development of
new laser technology that can determine the actual size and shape of underground excavations. This
allows a mining operation to determine with a certain precision the discrepancies between the design and
final excavation dimensions. The use of such quality field data on the geometry of excavations can assist
in the evaluation and fine tune of mining designs as well as provide a quantifiable measure of
performance.

SITE DESCRIPTION
The main source of analysed data for this work has been the Louvicourt Mine located 25 km east of Val
d'Or in Northwestern Quebec, Figure 1. The mine is a volcanogenic massive sulfide orebody situated in
the Abitibi Greenstone belt within the Precambrian Shield of eastern Canada. The mine is owned 30% by
Aur Resources, 45% by Novicourt Inc. and 25% by Teck Corporation. The mine started commercial
production in 1995 and is currently producing at 4500 tons per day. It employs 4.5 inches blastholes on a
30 m sub-level interval using primaries and secondaries transverse open stopes with a design span of 15
m and variable lengths. The choice for Louvicourt is based on the decision to implement a
comprehensive geomechanical program from the early stages of mining, Germain et al. 1995.

CAVITY MONITORING SYSTEM (CMS)

Presently Louvicourt Mine employs a cavity monitoring system (CMS) on a routine basis as an integral
part of its mining strategy. The CMS uses a laser head that can revolve 360 degrees in a plane
perpendicular to its axis and 270 degrees parallel to this axis. It can record distances of up to 100 m
without the use of reflectors. A typical survey can provide up to 50,000 points to define a three
dimensional mesh that can be imported into a mine computer aided design system. While the CMS is
ideally suited for the mining environment it does have its limitations, Miller 1995. In setting up the
system in an open stope it is necessary to provide adequate access to allow the laser beam to point at all
surfaces inside the cavity without interferences. If the line of view is restricted multiple access are
needed to ensure a representative coverage of the surfaces as shown in Figure 2. Another important
practical consideration is the determination of the CMS position with precision. An error of a few
degrees, at the laser head, might offset by several metres at its farthest points the resulting three
dimensional mesh of the monitored excavation.
At Louvicourt CMS surveys are run routinely by the mine surveying team. In doing so, multiple meshes
can be created as the cavity is being opened up. These meshes can be imported on different layers into an
AutoCAD drawing as dxf files. This enables the monitoring of the stability of each face of an excavation
over an extended time period. Comparisons with point anchor displacement measurements are also
possible if the back or the hanging wall are instrumented.
Once the resulting CMS mesh is imported into an AutoCAD drawing, sections can be cut at regular
intervals and compared with the design mesh, based on either the geological block model or the blasting
plans. From a rock mechanics point of view the blasting plans reflect the final shape of the opening we
think we can create with production blasts. The CMS provides the real shape obtained after the stope is
mined out and ready to be backfilled. In this case knowledge of the exact volume of a stope makes it

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easier to plan how much time is needed to backfill a stope while also monitoring fill height progression at
different time intervals.
It is generally accepted that the overall stability of an excavation is governed to a large degree by rock
mass quality, blasting and the geometry of the opening. The CMS provides a quantitative means of
comparison between predicted and resulting behaviour of the different faces of a cavity. In effect it is a
measure of our ability to develop an excavation of a particular shape and volume, in a specific rock mass.

INFLUENCE OF BLASTING
It is widely recognized that blasting influence the surrounding rock mass conditions. In civil engineering
works, pre-shear holes are drilled to ensure a better wall quality along road cuts, in tunnelling, overbreak
is the enemy of the contractor. In mining it was almost impossible to adequately measure the amount of
overbreak occurring in the surrounding walls of a stope. The damage induced on a rock wall after a
production blast can now be estimated by use of CMS surveys.

U B C case studies
Clark 1995 summarized previous work on blast induced damage. In good quality rocks, with few
discontinuities present, the strain energy from the blast dominates induced overbreak. In heavily
fractured rocks blast damage mechanisms will be dominated by gas expansion along discontinuities. In
this case, the strain energy is rapidly absorbed by shearing mechanisms along the joints. In practice, the
performance of a blast is influenced by several parameters thus making it difficult to evaluate the
contribution of each blast mechanism. These include: drilling pattern; the degree of confinement of the
explosive; type of explosive; drilling accuracy and the distribution of charge in the holes. From a design
point of view, a hanging wall will be less stable and more sensible to the blast vibration if it is undercut
by too much development work. The presence of major geological structures also influences the overall
performance of a blast.
Clark 1995 tried to correlate overbreak observations with predicted damage based on Peak Particle
Velocity (PPV) readings blast vibration monitoring. Several models exist that can predict with varying
degrees of success the level of PPV needed to create incipient damage to the surrounding rock mass.
Usually the intact rock or insitu rock mass properties are employed to estimate the threshold value of
PPV which are then introduced in the charge weight scaling approach to evaluate the extend of blast
damage. For cylindrical charges:
PPV = K (e/Wl/2) -n

where PPV = Peak particle velocity (mm/s)

K,n = Site constants
W = Charge weight per delay (kg)
R = Distance from blast (m)
Pakalnis 1997 reported that recent work at two mine sites aiming to link PPV, distance of damage around
a blast and predicted damage with actual measured overbreak from the CMS resulted in somewhat
conflicting and inconclusive results. A major problem with predictive models of this nature is the
uncertainty associated with most input parameters. A more immediate approach that can improve overall
mine efficiency requires the improvement of drilling pattern as well as the loading factor and distribution
of charge.

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Geco case study

This is an underground copper, zinc and silver mine in Ontario that used the CMS to measure the amount
of overbreak in 13 stopes, Tucker 1996. The influence of blasting on the stability of the rock mass was
investigated by plotting the employed charge/delay against recorded overbreak values. For the purposes
of this analysis the stopes were sub-divided into the three main ore types. In the first group comprising 6
stopes, the overbreak values varied from 2% to 15% while the average pounds of Anfo/delay varied from
600 to 750 lbs/delay with the highest overbreak value obtained for the lowest charge. No significant
correlation between charge/delay and overbreak was observed. In the second group, with 5 stopes
surveyed, overbreak varied between 28% and 55% for 4 of the stopes with an average of 267.4 lbs/delay
while a 75% of overbreak was recorded for the last stope with an average of 475.8 lbs/delay of explosive.
The last group comprised of only two stopes yielded radically different results. The first one used 1533.4
lbs/delay for an average overbreak of 7% and the second one used 701.2 lbs/delay for an average
overbreak of 19%. No definite relationship was observed between the hydraulic radius and the recorded
overbreak values. It is noted, however, that in this study no extensive ground characterization was
undertaken.
The conclusion at GECO was that drilling accuracy, better distribution of explosives inside the hole and
modified drilling patterns were the areas of work that could be acted upon. Of interest was the
recognition for further work to introduce the influence of blasting in the stability graph method of open
stope design.

G R O U N D CHARACTERIZATION AT L O U V I C O U R T MINE
At the Louvicourt Mine the rock mass domains correspond to the geological domains. As such, the
parameters used in the modified Q (i.e. water influence and stress reduction factor of 1) are typical for
each lithology. To evaluate the input parameters, an extensive logging of the core samples coming from
the definition drilling program was undertaken. A comprehensive mapping program helped to identify
the number of joint sets at different levels throughout the mine, Grenon, Hadjigeorgiou 1996. This work
has further allowed also to validate and adjust the Jr and Ja values obtained during coring.
Even though there is an abundance information on RQD values in practice it is difficult to integrate this
information in the design process. It is questionable that a single RQD rating can be representative of a
45 m x 30 m sidewall. Figure 3 displays the mine cross-sections and the density of drilling traces. The
RQD values are plotted along them with a colour code, not shown in the figure. It is assumed that the
drill holes are perpendicular to the foliation planes. For example, a fracture zone (dark areas) might cross
a specific stope perpendicular to its sidewalls. The average RQD from the drilling traces parallel to one
of its sidewalls would indicate a value of about 90% while the fracture zone having a thickness of a few
metres has a RQD lower than 40%. It is clear that the fracture zone will affect the stability of the sidewall
especially during production blasts, consequently a lower RQD value would provide a better
characterization of this wall. This is somewhat a judgement decision that can only be guided by previous
mining experience.
In Figure 3, it is also shown that the hanging wall is crossed by some drilling traces. Again, if all the
traces are concentrated on a specific area of the hanging wall, the RQD value might not be representative
for all the surface. At what depth from the hanging wall should the RQD values be considered, in order to
arrive at a representative value is subject to interpretation.

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As more data have become available with advancements in the mine development headings, the input
parameters for the NGI classification have been revised, Table 1. There is always a minimum of 3 joint
sets based on an extensive joint mapping surveys at different level through out the mine. If a fracture
zone contains thick layer of gauge (ex. 10 cm and more) the Ja value is then increased to 8.
This information has been used at Louvicourt in relation to the Mathews/Potvin stability graph method.
An empirical transition zone has been drawn to distinguish stable from unstable surfaces. The stability
number is derived from the modified Q index, multiplied by 3 adjustment factors. The first one describes
the influence of induced stress on the intact compressive strength of the rock and is derived from
numerical modelling. The second parameter takes into account the orientation of the most unfavourable
rock defect in relation to the wall orientation. The last one considers the dip of the surface itself, vertical
sidewalls, hanging wall, back or footwall. These parameters are relatively easy to evaluate on site.

GEOMETRICAL ASPECT
Stope design based on the Mathews/Potvin method involves a stability analysis for each surface that
constitutes a stope. The less stable case will drive the dimensions of the other surfaces and the overall
stope dimensions. The hydraulic radius is calculated for every surface. For regular vein type or tabular
orebodies, this design method has already proved successful, Hadjigeorgiou et al. 1995. At Louvicourt
Mine, however the applicability of the method has been questioned for stopes of complex geometry,
Germain et al. 1996. Presently at this site the database has been augmented to include 96 case studies
from the 64 reported earlier. Even when the stability of these case studies was reevaluated as more
geomechanical data became available certain discrepancies remained. Based on a back analysis of the
entire database it is now felt that the main source of error is the evaluation of a representative hydraulic
radius.
Previous work by the authors has aimed in defining a three dimensional index of stope geometry and to
use this index in further analysis. The ratio between the volume of a stope and its real surface area (RVS)
was used as a rough index of stope geometrical complexity. The RVS can provide a first measure of
stope complexity and consequently can evaluate the applicability of the stability graph method.

STOPE P E R F O R M A N C E
Based on a review of all available data case by case it was concluded that at Louvicourt recorded
overbreak values were not correlated with rock mass quality, blasting etc. Furthermore, it was also noted
that in several cases when a stope did not experience any significant overbreak, it nevertheless showed a
significant value of underbreak. From an operating point of view, this has a major impact on the rate of
return (ROR) of the project. The underbreak is economic ore left in the stope due to inadequate drilling
and blasting. Recovery of this ore becomes almost impossible after the stope is mined out and backfilled.
Trying to recover the underbreak from an adjacent stope, is in effect equivalent to undercutting the
backfill and increasing the potential instability of the fill wall. To recover the underbreak, one must
accept an increased value of dilution in the adjacent stope. In some cases, it is better to leave the
underbreak in place and assure the stability of the fill wall because the economic value of the underbreak
can be offset by the volume of the fill dilution.
In order to better reflect our ability to create stopes in the desired design dimensions the notion of
performance has been introduced. This is defined as:

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To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Mm. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 115. Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Over&re¢zk T U e d e r b r e a k
P,e~c,,rm~rt,:':P - I -
Pla.n,.'d break

Referring to Figure 4 it is shown that performance is a different parameter than recovery. This last term
refers to the quantity of ore that was mucked out of the planned boundaries only and is generally
determined by:
P l a x t e e d brea~; - Underhreak - B r t x k e n ~*re r e m a i n i n g insisu
R~cr2v4~i'%" - - - - •
Planned bre<~k

PRELIMINARY ANALYSES
The defined performance was thought to be related to a series of parameters such as the blasting effect,
the rock mass classification, the geometrical aspect of the cavity and the volume of it. Table 2
summarizes the statistical relationships found with those parameters.
Based on the collected case studies the performance of a three dimensional stope is not related to the
powder factor. The second parameter investigated was a characteristic of rock mass quality. Several
options are still under consideration. In Table 2 the weighted Q' was used. This is the Q' index assigned
to each wall of the stope and weighted by the surface of each wall. The best relationships indicate that the
size (volume) of a stope and the ratio of its volume over its real surface (geometrical complexity) will
drive the overall performance independently of the explosive consumption and the rock mass
classification in the case of Louvicourt.
The drilling pattern, the distribution of the charge inside the holes, the timing and the holes diameter are
parameters that are even more difficult to control when a stope geometry become complex. These factors
are not necessarily reflected in the powder factor. Poor performance associated with a small stope
volume might indicate some problems with the production drill holes (i.e. pattern, length and loading).

CONCLUSIONS
The relationship between stope geometry, rock mass quality, blasting patterns and resulting performance
is very complex. Preliminary results at Louvicourt Mine show a significant trend between the size of an
underground opening, its geometrical complexity on our ability to create it. Neither the powder factor,
nor the rock mass quality can control stope performance. It would appear that the influence of rock maas
quality increases when there are important variations between different rock types. Present work aims in
further investigating the use of performance in open stope design, with the aim to derive useful mine
design tools resulting in increased profitability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the cooperation of the Noranda Technology Centre and
Louvicourt Mine. In particular the contribution of Mr. J.F. Lessard of Louvicourt Mine is greatly
appreciated.

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FIGURES

Paper 115, Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Mine Location.

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Paper 115, Figure 2.

S 9GIiOC,1
P:anned
Plan View b[>tJr]dary, ~-~ "~N ,Mea.su r~d bo-u n.,-1~.r').,
-.qectEon1 ,','---, , "" . ~ ~ .. 'rein position 2

Drill
t •[r:.-,rn i~csitioJ~ 1

Drift

F i g u r e 2. Interpreting the limitations of the Cavity Monitoring System.

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To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Mm. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 115. Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Paper 115, Figure 3.

30 IrL Jr" [,~:','~!1

.;7,5

$35

565

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......

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,,.... , ;,~ .,, ~ J ~ , ~

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Figure 3. Typical cross-section displaying stope outlines and drill hole traces.

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To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Mm. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 115. Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Paper 115, Figure 4.

i, . "I[.-

I l I
,~,.', i i
/ I,"~,...
(_l,,,ers~'~k "..' . ,
\ ~lal;",sO I~regk ' F " l a r Y ~,:J ~ ' e a k
i

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""left i." 0a L'.~

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A) Performance B) Recovery

Figure 4. Definition of performance and recovery.

TABLES

Paper 115, TABLE 1.

TABLE 1
ROCK MASS CHARACTERIZATION AT LOUVICOURT MINE
I II W r
i~ " :,,

,, Lith°i9g7 Jn i im l|,p~
Jr Ja

Cap Rock 9 1 1
i ii,

Tuff, Stringer & Disseminated Sulfide 9 1.5 2

i i|,

Rhyolite 9 2.3 i

Massive Sulfide 9 1.5 I

Fracture Zone (RQD>40%) 9 1 3

i L

Fracture Zone (RQD<40.%) 12 I Illl L~,

1 4

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Paper 115, TABLE 2.

TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF P E R F O R M A N C E

Correlations Correlation Std. deviation

coefficient

Performance = 0.905377 - (0.317628 * Powder Factor) -0.083 +/-0.185

Performance = 0.669693 + (0.0130585 * Q'weighted) 0.282 +/- 0.178

Performance -- 0.666520 + (9.7098E-6 * Volume) 0.646 +/-0.081

Performance - 0.341230 + (0.14538 * RVS) 0.773 +/-0.068

Performance --0.308927 - (1.343196E-6 * V o l u m e ) + (0.162505 * RVS) 0.746 +/- 0.069

References

References
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Bieniawski Z.T. 1989. Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. New York: Wiley.
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ISSN 0148-9062
To cite this paper: Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 34:3-4, paper No. 115. Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Milne D., Pakalnis R.C., Felderer M. 1996. Surface geometry assessment for open stope design. Proceedings
of the 2nd North American Rock Mechanics Symposium: NARMS'96, Montreal, pp. 315-322.
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