The Hundred Years' War was a conflict between France and England, lasting 116 years from 1337

to 1453. It was fought

primarily over claims by the English kings to the French throne and was punctuated by several brief and two lengthy periods of peace
before it finally ended in the expulsion of the English from France, with the exception of the Calais Pale. Thus, the war was in fact a series
of conflicts and is commonly divided into three or four phases: the Edwardian War (1337-1360), the Caroline War (1369-1389), the
Lancastrian War (1415-1429), and the slow decline of English fortunes after the appearance of Joan of Arc, (1429-1453). The term
"Hundred Years' War" was a later historical term invented by historians to describe the series of events.

‫ ש‬, Standard Šimšon Tiberian Šimšôn; meaning "of the sun" – perhaps proclaiming he was
Samson, Shimshon (Hebrew: ֹ‫שְמִׁמשְוׁן‬
radiant and mighty, or "[One who] Serves [God]") or Shama'un (Arabic) is the third to last of the Judges of the ancient Children of Israel
mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh. He is described in the Book of Judges chapters 13 to 16.

Interestingly, while there are many common prophets in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic discourse, stories about Samson are absent in
narratives from the Quran. Samson is something of a Herculean figure, utilizing massive strength to combat his enemies and to perform
heroic feats unachievable by ordinary men: wrestling a lion, slaying an entire army with nothing more than a donkey's jawbone, and tearing
down an entire building. He is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church
on July 30.

The revolution of Jews on Romans, started at the time of Emperor Niron. Titos, the leader, occupied Orshaleem in 70 A.C and
assaulted the Jews. When Jews re-revolted under the leadership of Barkokhia in 132 A.C, the emperor Haderianos, quickly suppressed it
in 135 and ruined Orshaleem and founded, on its place, a Roman colony which the Jews were deprived to enter. He called it, “Lylia
capitolina “ but he renamed it Orshaleem when the Emperor Constantine converted in to Christianity. His mother, Hilana, built churches in
it.

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, 37 – June 9, 68), born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also
called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was
adopted by his grand-uncle Roman imperial dynasties
Claudius to become heir to the Julio-Claudian dynasty
throne. As Nero Claudius
Caesar Drusus, he succeeded Augustus
to the throne on October 13, 54, Children
following Claudius' death.
Nero ruled from 54 to Natural - Julia the Elder
68 CE, focusing much of his Adoptive - Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Agrippa Postumus, Tiberius
attention on diplomacy, trade, Tiberius
and increasing the cultural Children
capital of the empire. He
ordered the building of theatres Natural - Julius Caesar Drusus
and promoted athletic games. Adoptive - Germanicus
His reign included a successful Caligula
war and negotiated peace with Children
the Parthian Empire (58–63), Natural - Julia Drusilla
the suppression of the British
revolt (60–61) and improving Adoptive - Tiberius Gemellus
diplomatic ties with Greece. In Claudius
68 CE a military coup drove Children
Nero into hiding. Facing Natural - Claudia Antonia, Claudia Octavia, Britannicus
execution at the hands of the
Adoptive - Nero
Roman Senate, he reportedly
committed forced suicide with Nero
the help of his scribe Children
Epaphroditos. Natural - Claudia Augusta
Popular history
remembers Nero as a libertine
and a tyrant; he is known as the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" [3] and an early persecutor of Christians. These accounts follow
the histories of Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio along with a number of early Christian writers. However, some ancient sources also
indicate that Nero was quite popular with the common people during and after his reign. [4] Some modern historians question the reliability of
ancient sources when reporting on Nero's alleged tyranical acts. [5] It may be impossible to completely separate fact from fiction concerning
Nero's reign.
Life
Family
Nero was born with the name Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on December 15, 37 CE, in Antium, near Rome.[6][7] He was the only son of
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of emperor Caligula.
Lucius' father was grandson to an elder Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius
Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus was also a grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughter Antonia Major. Through Octavia, he
was the grand-nephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a praetor and was a member of Caligula's staff when the
future-emperor traveled to the East.[8] Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by emperor
Tiberius with treason, adultery, and incest.[8] Tiberius died allowing him to escape these charges.[8] Gnaeus died of edema (or "dropsy") in
39 CE when Lucius was three.[8]
Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their
daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina's father, Germanicus, was grandson to Augustus's wife,
Livia, on one side and to Mark Antony and Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother Antonia Minor, was a daughter of Octavia Minor and
Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus' second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of Tiberius. A number of ancient historians
accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband, emperor Claudius.
Rise to power
It was not expected for Lucius to ever become emperor. His maternal uncle, Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of twenty-four with
ample time to produce his own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband's death.[10]
Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida[
Caligula produced no heir. He, his wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered in 41.[11] These events led
Claudius, Caligula's uncle, to become emperor.[12] Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.[7]
Claudius had married twice before marrying Messalina.[13] His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who
died at a young age.[14] He had two children with Messalina - Claudia Octavia (b. 40) and Britannicus (b. 41).[14] Messalina was executed by
Claudius in 48.[13] In 49, Claudius married a fourth time to Agrippina.[14] To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and
renamed Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome).[15] Nero was older than his step-brother, Britannicus, and became heir to
the throne.[16]
Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of fourteen.[17] He was appointed proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made
joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. [17] In 53, he married his step-sister Claudia Octavia.[18]
Emperor - Early rule
Claudius died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts vary greatly, many ancient historians claim Agrippina
poisoned Claudius.]It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved with the death of Claudius, [19] but Suetonius wrote that:
“ ...even if [Nero] was not the instigator of the emperor's death, he was at least privy to it, as he openly admitted; for he used
afterwards to laud mushrooms, the vehicle in which the poison was administered to Claudius, as "the food of the gods, as the
Greek proverb has it". ”
Nero became emperor at sixteen, the youngest Emperor yet. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by
his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first year. The
first few years of Nero's rule were known as examples of fine administration. The matters of the Empire were handled effectively and the
Senate enjoyed a period of renewed influence in state affairs.
Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two advisers, Seneca and Burrus. In
54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous
scene. Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his mother. Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his
marriage to Octavia and entered an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave. In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and
demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs. [
With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly turned to a younger candidate for the throne. Nearly fifteen-year-old
Britannicus was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood. According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support,
Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over Nero. However, the youth died
suddenly and suspiciously on February 12, 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set. Nero
claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all claim Britannicus' death came
from Nero poisoning him. According to Suetonius,
“ [Nero] attempted the life of Britannicus by poison, not less from jealousy of his voice (for it was more agreeable than his own) than
from fear that he might sometime win a higher place than himself in the people's regard because of the memory of his father. [20] ”
[30]
After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.
Matricide and consolidation of power
Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina
Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful. In 55, he removed Marcus Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in
the treasury. Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix to the throne.
Seneca was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement. [32] Seneca was able to get himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted.
According to Cassius Dio, at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of
Nero.
In 58, Nero became romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend and future emperor Otho.[34] Reportedly because a
marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his
mother in 59. Some modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set Rubellius Plautus on
the throne.[36] According to Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, but when she survived, he had her
executed and framed it as a suicide.[37]

The Remorse of Nero after killing his mother, by John William Waterhouse, 1878.
In 62 Nero's adviser, Burrus, died.[38] Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges. [39] Seneca asked Nero for
permission to retire from public affairs.[40] Nero divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry Poppaea.
[41]
After public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile, [41] but she was executed shortly upon her return.[42]
Accusations of treason against Nero and the Senate first appeared in 62.[43] The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to
death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book. [44] Tacitus
writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year. To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of
people in 62 and 63 including Pallas, Rubellius Plautus, Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix and Doryphorus. [45] According to Suetonius, Nero
"showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period. [46]
Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers
equivalent to those under Republican rule.[47] By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian
conspiracy.[48]
[edit] War and peace with Parthia
Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman vassal kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince Rhadamistus and he was
replaced with the Parthian prince Tiridates.[49] This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory.[49] There was concern in Rome over
how the young emperor would handle the situation. [50] Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command
of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.[51] The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome. [52]
The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from
Armenia.[53] The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom. [34] Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of
the Parthian army that same year.[54] Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia. [54]
Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.[55] Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new
ruler of Armenia.[56] Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward. [56]

The Parthian Empire c. 60. Nero's peace deal with Parthia was a political victory at home and made him beloved in the east.
In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian city of Adiabene.[57] Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began
building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria. [58] Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a
peace deal instead.[59] There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit. [60]
The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero. [58] In the future, the
king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to
Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance. [61] The Roman people were said to be overjoyed by lives saved
through this peace deal.[61]
This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically.[62] Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and
with the Parthians as well.[62] The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.
Even Suetonius, who wrote very ill of Nero, said this of Nero and Parthia:
“ Vologaesus, King of the Parthians, when he sent envoys to the Senate to renew his alliance, earnestly begged this too, that honor
be paid to the memory of Nero. In fact, twenty years later,[63] when I was a young man, a person of obscure origin appeared, who
gave out that he was Nero, and the name was still in such favor with the Parthians, that they supported him vigorously and
surrendered him with great reluctance.[64] ”
Administrative policies
Marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine.
Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that protected and pleased the lower class at the expense of the rich and powerful.
Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular.[65]
Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy.[66] In this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to
enactments, for which he was praised by the Senate.[67] Nero was known for being hands-off and spending his time visiting brothels and
taverns during this period.[67]
In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some
ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule. [68]
Nero worked to protect the rights of the lower class. Restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines. [69] Also, fees for lawyers were
limited.[70] There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons
should have the right of revoking freedom.[71] Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right. [72] The Senate tried to
pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a household which Nero vetoed. [73]
Limiting public corruption was a major part of Nero’s rule. On accusations that high-ranking officers were collecting too much from the poor,
Nero transferred collection authority to lower commissioners of competency.[69] Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting
public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to extract bribes. [74] Additionally, there were many impeachments
and removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption. [75]
Nero’s actions attempted to the help the poor’s economic situation. When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed,
Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes.[76] The Senate convinced him this action would be too extreme. [76] As a compromise, taxes were
cut from 4.5% to 2.5%.[77] Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public. [77] To lower the cost of food imports,
merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.[77]
Nero was an avid lover of arts and entertainment. Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theaters and had performers dress in Greek
clothing.[78] Enormous gladiatorial shows were held.[79] Nero also established the quinquennial Neronia.[79][78] The festival included games,
poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theater was for the lower-class and led to immorality and laziness. [78]
Others looked down upon Greek influence.[80] Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment. [80]
In 63, fiscal crises began to emerge. The Parthian War and a lost shipment of grain threatened to increase the price of food in Rome. [81]
Nero reassigned management of public funds, urged fiscal responsibility and gave a private donation to the treasury. [81] He then opted for a
peace deal with the Parthians.[82] In 64, Rome burned.[61] Nero enacted a public relief effort[61] as well as reconstruction.[83] The provinces,
where wealthy land-owners lived, were heavily taxed following the fire [84]
A number of major construction projects occurred in Nero's late reign. To prevent malaria, Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with rubble
from the fire.[83] He erected the large Domus Aurea.[85] In 67 , Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth. [86] These
projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State's budget. [87]
[edit] Major rebellions and power struggles
Compared with his immediate successors, Rome was relatively peaceful under Nero's reign. War with Parthia was Nero's only major war
and he was both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle. [88] Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of internal rebellions and
power struggles.
[edit] British Revolt (Boudica's Uprising)
In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia.[89] While the governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and his troops were busy
capturing Mona Island (Anglesey Island) from druids, the tribes of the south-east staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of the Iceni.[90]
Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Suetonius Paulinus was able to return, be reinforced and put down the
rebellion in 61.[91] Fearing Suetonius Paulinus would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more passive Publius
Petronius Turpilianus.[92]
[edit] The Pisonian Conspiracy
Main article: Pisonian conspiracy
In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus, a praetorian
tribune, and Sulpicius Asper, a centurion.[93] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the State" from the emperor and
restore the Republic.[94] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos.[95] As a result,
the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Nero's former friend Lucan, the poet.[96] Nero's previous advisor, Seneca
was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators. [97]
[edit] Jewish Revolt (The First Jewish-Roman War)
In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea steming from Greek and Jewish religious tension. [98] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore
order.[99] This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.[100] This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of
Jerusalem and destroying the Temple of Jerusalem.[101]
[edit] Vindex's Rebellion
In late 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against the tax policies of Nero.[102] Virginius Rufus, the
governor of superior Germany was sent to put down the rebellion. [103] To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania
Citerior in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal), to become emperor.[104] Virginius Rufus defeated
Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide.[103] Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. [104]
[edit] The Rise of Galba
Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. By June of 68 the senate
voted Galba the emperor[105] and declared Nero a public enemy.[106] The praetorian guard was bribed to betray Nero by the praetorian
prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself.[107] The praetorian guard captured Nero and he reportedly
committed suicide.[106]
After Nero's death, Rome descended into a period civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.[108] Nero's successors fought among
themselves for power. Galba, Otho and Vitellius were each briefly emperor until Nero's general Vespasian returned from Judea and
restored order as emperor.
[edit] Great Fire of Rome
Main article: Great Fire of Rome
The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of July 18 to July 19, 64. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in
shops selling flammable goods.[109]

How large the fire was is up for debate. According to Tacitus, who was nine at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burnt for
five days.[110] It completely destroyed four of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven. [110] The only other historian who lived
through the period and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder who wrote about it in passing.[111] Other historians who lived through the period
(including Josephus, Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it.
It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire- whether accident or arson.[109] Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the arsonist.[112]
Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known whether these were false confessions induced by torture. [113]
However, accidentally started fires were common in ancient Rome. [114] In fact, Rome burned significantly again under Vitellius in 69[108] and
under Titus in 80.[115]
It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.[116] However, Tacitus'
account has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire. [117] Tacitus said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only
rumor.[117] Popular legend remembers Nero playing the fiddle while Rome burned, but this is an anachronism as the instrument had not yet
been invented, and would not be for over 1,000 years. [3]
According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero rushed back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own
funds.[117] After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order
to prevent starvation among the survivors. [117] In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the fire were
spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads. [118] Nero also built a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an
area cleared by the fire.[119] The size of this possibly public complex is debated (some say as low as 100 acres and as high as 300 acres).
[120][121][122]
To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire. [123]
According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. [113] To diffuse blame, Nero targeted a sect
called the Christians.[113] He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and burned. [113]
Tacitus described the event:
“ Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their
abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty
during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus
checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things
hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of
all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the
city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were
torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination,
when daylight had expired.[113] ”
Public performances
Nero coin, c. 66. Ara Pacis on the reverse.
Nero enjoyed driving a four-horse chariot, singing to the harp and poetry.[124] He even composed songs that were performed by other
entertainers throughout the empire.[125] At first, Nero only performed for a private audience. [126]
In 64, Nero began singing in public at Neapolis in order to improve his popularity.[126] He also sang at the second quinquennial Neronia in
65.[127] It was said that Nero craved the attention, [20] but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the
Senate, his inner circle and the people.[128] Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it shameful. [129]
Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance. [130]
As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. [131] He also performed as an actor and a singer.
[132]
Though Nero faltered in his racing and acting competitions, [131] he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned
to Rome.[131] The victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.[133]
Death
In late 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against the tax policies of Nero.[134] Virginius
Rufus, the governor of superior Germany was sent to put down the rebellion. [103] To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of
Hispania Citerior in Hispania, to become emperor.[104] Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. [103] Galba
was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. [104]
Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. By June of 68 the senate
voted Galba the emperor[135] and declared Nero a public enemy.[106] The praetorian guard was bribed to betray Nero by the praetorian
prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself.[107]
According to Suetonius, Nero fled to Via Salaria, a suburb of Rome with his remaining friends. [136] They urged him to flee, but he prepared
himself for suicide.[106] Reportedly, the praetorian guard entered to capture Nero just as he stabbed himself with the help of his secretary,
Epaphroditos.[137] Upon seeing the figure of a Roman soldier, he gasped "this is fidelity." [106] It was said by Cassius Dio that he uttered the
last words "Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!"[138]
With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the four emperors.[108]
[edit] Mourning
According to Tacitus, Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper-class. [139] The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the
arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news. [139]
Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him. [107]
The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. [108] According to Tacitus, this
instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those
before him could.[139] Galba began his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies. [140] One notable
enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor Caligula.[141]
Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he resembled Nero. [142] It was said that the common Roman
hailed Otho as Nero himself.[143] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero. [143] Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius
began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero. [144]

Apotheosis of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.
Through the civil war and well into the Flavian dynasty, public sentimentality for Nero continued. This was
especially prevalent in the eastern provinces, where Nero was the most popular. Philostratus wrote:
“ The fact is, Nero restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character; and the cities regained
their Doric and Attic characteristics, and a general rejuvenescence accompanied the institution among them of a peace and
harmony such as not even ancient Hellas ever enjoyed. Vespasian, however, on his arrival in the country took away her liberty,
alleging their factiousness with other pretexts hardly justifying such extreme severity.[145] ”
Apollonius of Tyana, in a letter to Vespasian wrote:
“ Greeting: You have, they say, enslaved Hellas, and you imagine you have excelled Xerxes. You are mistaken. You have only
fallen below Nero. For the latter held our liberties in his hand and respected them. Farewell. [146] ”
After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would
return.[147]
At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to
that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius. [148] After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and
executed.[148] Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81) there was another impostor who appeared in Asia and also sang to the
accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed. [149] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian,
there was a third pretender. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up [150] and the matter almost came to
war.[108]
The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. Augustine of Hippo, disgusted by Nero's lingering
admirers, wrote of the legend in 422:
“ Others, again, suppose that he is not even dead, but that he was concealed that he might be supposed to have been killed, and
that he now lives in concealment in the vigor of that same age which he had reached when he was believed to have perished, and
will live until he is revealed in his own time and restored to his kingdom. But I wonder that men can be so audacious in their
conjectures.[151] ”
Historiography
The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at
one time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero. [152] The original sources were also
said to contradict on a number of events.[153] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary
histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians. [154] A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius
Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost. [155] There were also pro-Nero
histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero was praised. [156]
The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and
Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s
death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina and the
Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.
A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some
sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.
Constantine in the 4th century became a patron of Christianity, and when he ascended to the throne, he also declared himself Supreme
Pontiff of the Christian Church. Christian influence in Rome continued from that time forward. In these circumstances, Nero's record of
persecuting Christians reinforced the negative perceptions that already existed.
Cassius Dio Cocceianus
Cassius Dio (c. 155- 229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He
was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205,
as also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.
Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was
abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk.
[edit] Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom (c. 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero
and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced
imposters when they appeared:
“ Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to
prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great
majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly
convinced that he was still alive.[157] ”
Epictetus
Epictetus (c. 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos. He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's
character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and
unhappy man:
“ Is [prosperity and happiness] in royal power? It is not. If it were, Nero would have been happy. [158]
Only see that he has not Nero's stamp. Is he passionate, is he full of resentment, is he fault-finding? If the whim seizes him, does
he break the heads of those who come in his way? [159] ”
Josephus
The historian Josephus (c. 37-100) accused other historians of slandering Nero.
The historian Josephus (c. 37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of
other historians, he said:
“ But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero;
some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favor, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred
to him, and the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to
be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of
history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those
writers lived a long time after them.[160] ”