C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U.

of South Alabama 1

Forces
The book describes forces in two classes:
Fundamental forces...
Non-Fundamental Forces.
Actually, the \Non-Fundamental" forces are derived from the Funda-
mental forces.
There are three Fundamental Forces in nature:
Force Strength
Strong  1
1
Electromagnetic
Electro Weak 137
5
Weak 10
Gravitational 10 40

The Strong force holds quarks together inside protons (and neutrons).
The Electo-Weak force is a force that breaks down into two other
forces:

The Electromagnetic force (electricity and magnetism).

This is the force responsible for holding electrons
around the nucleus in atoms.

The Weak force which is responsible for quarks changing

identities and electrons changing into neutrinos (and
visa versa).

(Nuclear beta decay, for example.)

The Gravitational force is responsible for holding us to the earth, the

earth around the sun, and stars in galaxies!

This is the weakest of all forces.

C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 2

Non-Fundamental forces are produced by systems of particles interact-

ing through fundamental forces.
For example, Electromagnetic forces produce the bonding forces be-
tween atoms and molecules which make up strings, blocks and tables.
Non-fundamental forces include:
Normal force (supporting objects on tables).
Tension force (in strings).
Friction (between sliding objects).
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 3

Gravity
Astronomers had accumulated a great amount of data on the motion
of the moon and planets.

Newton used this data to deduce the law of gravity.

Newton assumed that celestial gravity is the

same as terrestrial gravity.

From these observations, he deduced the gravitational force law:

m1m2
F =G 2
r12
This force law has several characteristics:
The force due to gravity is proportional to the masses of the two
objects.
The Force due to gravity is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance separating the two masses.
The Force due to gravity is along the line joining the two masses
and the force is attractive.
The constant G is called Newton's Universal gravitational con-
stant. It has a value of 6:67  10 11 Nkgm2
2
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 4

Cavendish Experiment
All of the characteristics of New-
ton's gravitational law were mea-
sured experimentally by Cavendish.

Suspended two light masses (m1)

from a ber.

The ber twist when a torque is

applied (i.e. two forces on either
side of the horizontal bar).

Supported two heavy masses (m2) on a table.

Measured the force of gravity by measuring the angle that the ber
twist.

With this apparatus, Cavendish measured the value of G.

C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 5

Example: The acceleration due to Gravity

An object near the surface of the
earth has a constant acceleration
of g towards the center of the earth.
From Newton's second law there
must be a force (its weight) acting
on this object.
~ = m~g
W
From Newton's law of gravity, this
force is also:
mmE
F =G
rE2
Where the distance separating the
object and the center of the earth is the radius of the earth: RE =
6:38  106 m.
These forces are the same:
mg = G mmrEE 2

g = G mrEE 2

Using the value for G = 6:67  10 11 Nkgm2 , and using the value for
2

the mass of the earth: ME = 5:98  1024 kg.

5:98  1024 m
g = 6:67  10 11
= 9 :8
(6:38  106)2 s2
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 6

Friction
Consider a book on top of a table.

If the book is pushed (an given an initial velocity) it will eventually

slow down and stop.

This is because the friction between the table and the book.
A close look, microscopic look at even polished surfaces reveals that
these surfaces are rough (at the atomic level).

Some pointed surfaces develop very strong attractive forces between

the molecules of the two surfaces.

These points of strong attraction between molecules are called cold

welds .

The force of friction is always directed opposite

the direction of the motion or possible motion
of the object.
Experimentally, friction between two unlubricated surfaces has the fol-
lowing properties:
The magnitude of the friction is independent of the area of contact
between the two surfaces.
For slow speeds, the frictional force is independent of the speed of
the sliding object.
The magnitude of the frictional force is proportional to the normal
force.
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 7

Static Friction
Suppose you push against a very massive ob-
ject (like a massive block).
The block does not move!

There must be another horizontal force di-

rected opposite to the force you apply for the
block to remain stationary.

This is the force of static friction

.
The forces acting on the block are: the force
you apply (F), the weight of the block, the
force normal acting on the block, and the
force of static friction.

The free body diagram shows all of these forces

acting on the block.

Apply Newton's Laws of motion:

X max = F Fs
Y may = FN mg
Since the block is not moving ax = ay = 0 and:

F = Fs
The force of static friction is just enough to counter balance the applied
force to keep the block stationary.

Empirically, it is found that the maximum static frictional force is pro-

portional to the normal force.
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 8

So, the magnitude of the static frictional may be summed up as:

FS  sFN

Where s is the coeÆcient of static friction .

Note that the coeÆcient of static friction is a dimensionless quantity.
Remember that the direction of the force of static friction is opposite
to the applied force.

In other words, objects don't start moving because of the sudden in u-

ences of static friction.
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 9

Kinetic Friction
If you get help and continue to push against
the block, eventually, enough force will be ap-
plied to get the block to slip.
Once the block slips, the frictional force re-
duces.
This reduced frictional force is associated with
the motion of the block and is called kinetic
friction .

This makes sense as it takes a lot of force to get an object to start to

move and a less to keep it moving once it has started to move.

The forces acting on the block are: the force

you apply (F), the weight of the block, the
force normal acting on the block, and the
force of kinetic friction.

The free body diagram shows all of these forces

acting on the block.

Apply Newton's Laws of motion:

X max = F Fk
Y may = FN mg
In this case ax may be zero (block moving with a constant velocity) or
ax is in the positive X direction (opposite the direction of the friction).
Remember, friction retards motion, so it is always directed opposite to
to the motion of the object.
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 10

Empirically, it is found that the kinetic frictional force is proportional

to the normal force.

So, the magnitude of the static frictional may be summed up as:

Fk = k FN

Where s is the coeÆcient of kinetic friction .

Note that the coeÆcient of kinetic friction is a dimensionless quantity.
Remember that the direction of the force of kinetic friction is opposite
to the motion of the object.
C. M. Jenkins, Department of Physics, U. of South Alabama 11

Friction
These observations are summed up
in the graph.
Use the analogy of pushing the
heavy block.

Push with some force less than

FSmax and the block does not move.

This is the force of static

friction.

The static frictional force is

equal to to the applied force, but
opposite in direction..

The magnitude of the maximum static frictional force is:

FSmax = S FN
Increase the applied force until it is equal to FSmax and block slips.

The frictional force on the block decreases as the block is now moving.

This is the force of kinetic friction.

The magnitude of the kinetic frictional force is:

Fk = k FN
The direction is always opposite the motion of the two objects.