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(Strengthening Mechanisms)
 Strengthening

• The ability of a metal to deform plastically

depends on the ability of dislocations to
move.
• Hardness and strength are related to how
easily a metal plastically deforms, so, by
reducing dislocation movement, the
mechanical strength can be improved.
• If dislocation movement is easy
(unhindered), the metal will be soft, easy to
deform.

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 Introduction

• Engineering alloys are designed to have maximum

strength with some ductility and toughness.
• Plastic deformation depends on the ability of
dislocations to move.
• All strengthening mechanisms rely on restricting the
motion of dislocations.
• Mechanisms of strengthening are:
•Grain boundary strengthening
•Solid Solution strengthening
•Strain (Work) hardening
•Precipitation Strengthening
•Steel Alloys Strengthening

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 Dislocation Motion

Dislocations & plastic deformation

Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation is by plastic shear or slip
where one plane of atoms slides over adjacent plane by defect motion
(dislocations).

If dislocations don't move, deformation doesn't occur!

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 STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation.
Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
• Smaller grain size: (Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
more barriers to slip. Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

• Hall-Petch Equation:
yield  o  k y d 1/ 2

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 STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION

Hall-Petch equation:

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 STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION

Grain Size Reduction Techniques:

• Increase Rate of solidification from the liquid phase.
• Perform Plastic deformation followed by an appropriate
heat treatment.
• Adding grain refiner (e.g: TiB) during melting. The grain
refiner acts as 'nuclei' for solidification, resulting in finer
grains.
• Thermomechanical treatment (TMT): severe hot
deformation in the austenitic condition followed by
controlled cooling, so that g → a transformation occurs
with minimum grain growth.
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 SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

 Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

 Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

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 SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.

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 SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on the “Tensile

stress” side
reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

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 SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on

“Compressive Stress” side – pinning dislocation

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.

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 SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

400

300 120

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Alloying increases y and TS. Adapted from Fig.

7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)

• Strain hardening (work hardening) is where a material

becomes less ductile, harder and stronger with plastic
deformation.
• Encountered during cold working
• Percentage cold work can be expressed as:

( A0  Ad )
%CW  x100%
A0
Ao = original cross-sectional area
Ad = deformed cross-sectional area

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
COLD WORK (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
die
Ao blank Ad
Adapted from Fig.
11.7, Callister 6e.

-Drawing force -Extrusion

die Ad
Ao tensile
force
die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x100
Ao
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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
ANISOTROPY IN yield
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
-before rolling -after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.11 is
from W.G. Moffatt, G.W.
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
-isotropic -anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.
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 Strain hardening (work hardening)

During Cold Work

• Ti alloy after cold working:
• Dislocations entangle and
multiply
• Thus, Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
0.9 mm Technological
University.)

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Low-Carbon Steel!
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
Copper
Cold
Work

D o =15.2mm D d =12.2mm

ro2  rd2
%CW  x 100  35.6%
ro2
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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working to 35.6%?
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

40
500 600
Cu
300 Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200
0 20 40 60 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
YS = 300 MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American
Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
- e Behavior vs. Temperature
• Results for 800
-200C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Annealing
• Process where material is heated to above the
recrystallization temperature of the sample and then
cooled down.
• Main purpose is to improve Cold work properties by
increasing ductility and retaining most of the hardness.
• There are 3 steps involved with annealing: recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth.

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500 • 3 Annealing
40 stages to
400 30
discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
ductility 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
20 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy,
300 and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American
Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Recovery
• Occurs during heating at elevated
temperatures below the recrystallization
temperature.
• Dislocations reconfigure due to diffusion and
relieve the lattice strain energy.
• Electrical and thermal properties are
recovered to their pre-cold worked state.

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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
Results from of atoms Dislocations
annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right
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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a low dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
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 Strain hardening (work hardening)
Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 8 s, After 15 min,
580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent on
• Empirical Relation: material & Temp.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain dia. At time t. elapsed time
n
d  d  Kt n
o
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 º

Strain hardening (work hardening)

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
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 º

Strain hardening (work hardening)

Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of highest
rate of property change
1. TR  0.3-0.6 Tm
2. Due to diffusion  annealing time
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

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 º

Precipitation Strengthening

• Particles impede dislocations.

• Things that slow down/hinder/impede dislocation movement will
increase, σy and σTS.
• And also other phases -especially very small, well dispersed
particles.
• In some alloys can get small, uniform particles to precipitate out of
(solid) solution. Hence name “precipitation hardening”, also known
as "AGE" -hardening. Examples include:
• Al-Cu
• Cu-Be
• Cu S
• Mg-Al
• Stainless steels
• Many Al-alloys are precipitation hardenable.
• Al -Cu is best known alloy, e.g. Al-4%Cu

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 º

Precipitation Strengthening
Application: Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed by alloying & H.T.

Adapted from Fig.

11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
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