Instruments OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to: Describe the basic instruments used in the process industry. Identify and draw standard instrument symbols. Describe temperature, pressure, flow, and level-measurement techniques. Identify the elements of a control loop. Describe cascaded control. Compare automatic and manual control. Explain the importance of the operating percentage on a control valve. 287Chapter 11 ¢ Instruments Key Terms Absolute pressure (psia)—the pressure above a perfect vacuum (zero pressure). Automatic control—allows a control loop to utilize all five elements and work to match the set point. Bellows pressure element—a corrugated metal tube that contracts and expands in response to pressure changes. Bourdon tube—a hook-shaped, thin-walled tube that expands and contracts in response to pres sure changes and is attached to a mechanical linkage that moves a pointer. Controller—an instrument used to compare a process variable with a set point and initiate a change to return the process to a set point if a variance exists. Differential pressure (DP) cell—measures the difference in pressure between two points. Distributed control system (DCS)—a computer-based system that controls and monitors process variables. Final control element—the device in a control loop that actually adjusts the process; typically a control valve. Gain—the ratio of the output signal from the controller to the error signal. Gauge pressure (psig)—the pressure above atmospheric pressure; zero is equivalent to approximately 14.7 psi at sea level. Indicator gauge—an instrument used to show the value of process variables such as pressure, level, temperature, and flow. Interlock—a device that prevents damage to equipment and personnel by stopping or preventing the start of certain equipment if a preset condition has not been met. Manometer—a device used to measure pressure or vacuum. Manual control—allows the controller to open the control valve and set it at a predetermined percent. Permissive—special type of interlock that controls a set of conditions that must be satistied before a piece of equipment can be started. Process instrumentation—devices that control and monitor process variables; transmitters, controllers, transducers, primary elements, and sensors. Resistive temperature detector (RTD)—a device used to measure temperature changes by changes in electrical resistance in a platinum or nickel wire, Rotameter—a flow meter that allows fluid to move through a clear tube that has a ball or float in it; numbers on the side of the tube indicate flow rate, Set point—desired value of a process variable. Sight glass gauge—a level-measurement device consisting of a transparent tube and gauge attached to a vessel that allows an operator to see the corresponding liquid level. 258Basic Instruments ‘Thermocouple—a temperature-measuring device composed of dissimilar metals that are connected at one end; heat applied to the connected ends causes the generation of voltage that cor responds to the temperature change, which is indicated on a temperature scale, ‘Thermowell—a chamber installed in vessels or piping to hold thermocouples and RTDs. ‘Transducer—a device used to convert one form of energy into another; typically electric to pneumatic. ‘Transmitter—a device used to sense a process variable such as pressure, level, temperature, com- position, or flow, and produce a signal that is sent to a controller, recorder, or indicator. ‘Vacuum pressure—pressure below zero gauge; often expressed in inches of mercury. Basic Instruments ‘Automatic control is the foundation for efficient continuous flow processes. At one time, operators controlled processes manually. This type of process was “valve intensive", it required the technician to open and close valves in piping lineups manually. Modern advances in instrumentation have made it possible for industrial manufacturers to automate their processes. To a process operator, this means that an instrument or computer can control the opening, closing, and positioning of valves; start and stop equipment; measure process variables; and respond automatically. This automation enables a single process technician to monitor and control large, complex process networks from a single control center. Basic process instrumentation (Figure 11.1) includes gauges, transmitters, controllers, transducers, primary elements and sensors, computers, Pressure Transmitter 4h Temperature Transmitter Recorder Control Valve Controller Figure 11.1 Basic Process Instruments 259