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Water Pollution Challenges and Future Direction for Water Resource

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Article

Water Pollution Environment and Urbanization Asia

5(1) 63–81
© 2014 National Institute
Challenges and Future Direction of Urban Affairs (NIUA)
SAGE Publications
for Water Resource Management Los Angeles, London,
Policies in Malaysia New Delhi, Singapore,
Washington DC
DOI: 10.1177/0975425314521544
http://eua.sagepub.com

Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud,

Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

Abstract
Water pollution is a major problem in the global environment. This necessitates continuing assess-
ment and review of water resource policy at all levels. The main objectives of this article are to inves-
tigate major sources of water pollution, water resource policies and challenges to improve water
quality in Malaysia. The findings indicate that the major problem associated with water pollution
is that human heart and kidneys can be adversely affected if polluted water is consumed regularly.
Other health problems associated with polluted water are poor blood circulation, skin lesions, vom-
iting, cholera, gastroenteritis and damage to the nervous system. It also highlighted that residential,
agricultural and industrial wastes are three main sources of river pollution in Malaysia. This article
also identified several challenges fronting as rural water supply and sanitation, recreational water
and safe drinking water in Malaysia. Finally, we discuss the water resource policies in Malaysia and
provide some recommendations that will be helpful for policymakers to improve river water quality,
particularly in Malaysia.

水污染：马来西亚水资源管理政策的挑战和未来方向
水污染是全球环境的一大难题。这需要持续的对水资源政策进行全方位的评估和审查。本文的
主要目的是探讨水体污染的主要来源、水资源政策和马来西亚改善水质的挑战。研究结果表明
一些重大问题均与水质污染相关，比如如果经常食用被污染的水，人的心脏和肾脏都会受到不
利影响。其它与水污染有关的健康问题还包括血液循环不畅、皮肤损伤、呕吐、霍乱、肠胃炎
和神经系统损伤。研究还强调了生活、农业和工业废物是马来西亚河流污染的三个主要来源。
本文还确定了马来西亚面临的一些挑战，比如：农村供水和卫生、娱乐用水和安全饮用水。最
后，我们对马来西亚水资源政策提供了一些建议，这将有助于政策制定者改善河流水质，特别
是马来西亚的水质。
关键词：水污染；政策；挑战；健康和马来西亚

Keywords
Water pollution, policy, challenges, health, Malaysia
64 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

Introduction
In the twenty-first century, the environmental problem is one of the biggest issues all over the world.
Water pollution is one of them. Water is the most delicate part of the environment, which is essential for
human and industrial development. An increase in the population leads to an increase in the demand for
water supply and safe water. This valuable resource needs to be managed in a sustainable manner in
order to ascertain a sustainable development of human population in an environment with finite amount
of resources. In many developing countries, water resources management is a problem due to lack of
integration and holistic approach usually with little participation of the general public and other stake-
holders apart from government (Medema et al., 2008). In addition, not only are systems poorly designed
and underfinanced, but also regulatory and management aspects remain weak. Collaborative Decision
Making (CDM) mechanism has been promoted as one of best management approaches in managing
water resources in a river basin including the suggestion to use indicators in performance measurements
(Elfithri et al., 2011). Rapidly growing cities and industries, expansion of the mining industry and the
increasing use of chemicals in agriculture have undermined the quality of many rivers. Rapid changes in
land activities may increase the sources of pollution loads in the river systems. Maintaining good water
quality is a growing concern in water resources management around the world. The change in govern-
ment policy plays an important role in increasing the complexity of managing water resources. A change
in the focus on economic development involves a change in emphases on different sectors such as trans-
formations from an agriculture-intensive to industry-intensive activity which resulted in changes in land
use activities. Changes in land use such as deforestation, agriculture and industrial and residential devel-
opment have large impacts on water quality in many river systems. Water quality of rivers and lakes is
one of the most common issues in Malaysia. The publics and government are conscious of the future of
rivers (Ujang et al., 2008). Figure 1 clearly indicates that river basins in Malaysia are facing serious
water pollution problems.
It is advised by our government that we should protect the richest water resources, as water is a vital
resource, necessary for all aspects of human and ecosystem survival and health.

An Overview of Water Pollution in Malaysia

Water pollution is a serious problem in Malaysia and impacts negatively on the sustainability of water
resources. In addition, it also affects plants and organism living, people’s health and the country’s
economy. It reduces total water availability considerably, as the cost of treating polluted waters is too
high and in some instances, polluted waters are not treatable for consumption. The large quantity of
water resources available in the catchment unfortunately does not guarantee adequate supply to all
users because of the river pollution (Ling, 2010). Urbanization within our river catchments gives rise
to an increase in population and urban life activities. The effect of urbanization normally changed the
quality of run-off within a catchment, which in turn affects the water quality of receiving waters.
Rainfall in urbanized areas washes down contaminants accumulated on land surfaces into storm water
facilities. Wastewater from residential, commercial and industrial areas causes foul smell, especially
in the presence of garbage and deteriorates the quality of storm water and pollutes the existing rivers

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 65

Figure 1. Map of Polluted River Basins in Malaysia

system. Most of the sources of pollution have been caused by human activity, although some of them
come from natural sources of pollution. The problem of water pollution is now becoming more serious
with reports indicating a downward trend year by year. Water pollution, however, is not a recent envi-
ronmental issue, as it had been synonymous with urbanization and modernization. Malaysia’s major
source of fresh water contributes some 97 per cent of total water supply (Gasim et al., 2009). Malaysia
is well endowed with abundant rainfall and water resources. With an average rainfall of 3,000 mm,
there is an estimated 566 billion m3 of water running-off into the river system each year (Weng, 2005).
There are mainly two primary methods employed to classify the river water quality monitored; the
Water Quality Index (WQI) and the Interim National Water Quality Standards (INWQS). The INWQS
defined six classes (I, IIA, IIB, III, IV and V) which are referred to for the classification of rivers based
on the descending order of water quality; Class I being the ‘best’ and Class V being the ‘worst’. Table 1
presents the class definition provided by the INWQS.
Moreover, six parameters were chosen for the WQI; such as Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Suspended Solids (SS), Ammoniacal
Nitrogen (NH3–N) and PH. Calculations are performed not on the parameters themselves but on their

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

66 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

Table 1. INWQS Class Definitions

Class Definition
I Conservation of natural environment
Water supply I—Practically no treatment necessary (except by disinfection or boiling only)
Fishery I—Very sensitive aquatic species
IIA Water supply II—Conventional treatment required
Fishery II—Sensitive aquatic species
IIB Recreational use with body contact
III Water supply III—Extensive treatment required
Fishery III—Common of economic value and tolerant species; livestock drinking
IV Irrigation
V None of the above
Source: Benchmarking River Water Quality in Malaysia 2010.

Table 2. DOE Water Quality Classification Based on WQI

Index Range
Parameters Clean Slightly Polluted Polluted
SIBOD 91–100 80–90 0–79
SIAN 92–100 71–91 0–70
SISS 76–100 70–75 0–69
WQI 81–100 60–80 0–59
Source: Benchmarking River Water Quality in Malaysia 2010.

sub-indices. The sub-indices are named SIDO, SIBOD, SICOD, SIAN, SISS and SIPH. The best fit
equations used for the estimation of the six sub-index values are shown in Table 2.
According to EQR report 2011, the percentage of clean rivers had increased from 51 per cent (2010)
to 59 per cent in 2011. The percentage of polluted river had decreased from 13 per cent in 2010 to 8 per
cent in 2011. Figure 2 shows the river basins water quality trend (2005–2011) in Malaysia.

River Water Pollution

Generally, river water is potable (fit for human consumption) with minimum treatment, if it is not affected
by human activities. However, rivers are now used as disposal routes for liquid and solid waste. While
river pollution issues need to be and are being addressed by the government, such fundamental aspect of
water supply requires the understanding and participation of end users. Water pollution occurs when a
body of water is adversely affected by addition of small or large amounts of materials (pollutants) to the
water. The major causes of water pollution are mentioned in Figure 3.

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 67

400

350

300

250
Clean
200
Slightly polluted
150
Polluted
100
50
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Figure 2. River Basins Water Quality Trend (2005–2011), Malaysia

Source: Environmental Quality Report (EQR), 2011.

Oil
Oil spill
Septic
pollution tank

Nuclear Animal
waste dung

Causes
of water
Waste pollution Intensive
water farming

Household
waste Pesticide

Industrial Water
waste table

Figure 3. Major Causes of Water Pollution

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

68 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

There are point sources and non-point sources of water pollution (Novotny and Chester, 1981). The
main point sources identified are household sullage, sewage treatment plant and industrial area. Besides
these, there are other point sources polluting the river basin such as market, restaurant, workshop, resi-
dential area, solid waste disposal sites, soil and sand sourcing, new development area, aquaculture, com-
mercial lots, petrol station, livestock and others. Non-point source pollution affects a water body from
diffuse sources; it may accumulate from many different sources. Generally, controlling non-point sources
is more complex than dealing with point source pollution. The Department of Environment (DOE) main-
tains mainly records of point sources. In 2008, it was recorded that that there were 17,633 water pollution
point sources in Malaysia. These point sources comprised sewage treatment plants (9,524: 54.1 per cent,
inclusive of 668 network pump stations), manufacturing industries (6,830: 38.7 per cent), animal farms
(788: 4.48 per cent) and agro-based industries (491: 2.78 per cent) as shown in Figure 4. The DOE com-
plied statistics of industrial water pollution sources from agro-based and manufacturing industries
through field surveys and questionnaires. Figure 5 showed the distribution of these sources in 2008. A
total of 7,321 sources were indentified with Johor having the highest number of water pollution sources
(1,790: 24.45 per cent).
Data from the Veterinary Department of Malaysia showed that there were 1.75 million standing pig
populations in 2008. This was an increase of 0.6 per cent compared to 2007 where the standing pig popu-
lation was 1.74 million. Correspondingly, the number of pig farms increased from 779 in 2007 to 788
farms in 2008. Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd (IWK) managed mainly public sewage treatment plants

Animal farm
( Pig farm), 788
Agro-based (5%)
industry, 419
(2%)

Manufactring Sewage teatment

industry, 6,830 plants, 9,524
(39%) (54%)

Figure 4. Composition of Water Pollution Sources by Sector, 2008

Source: EQR, 2008.

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 69

Number of Plants
2715

1422
1061
945
806 770
662
521
307 231
43 32 9

ka

ng
r

ng

nu

an

ya
k

rli
go

ho

pu
ila

da
ra

aja
ela

na

ha

bu
ga

Pe
Pe

bl
lan

m
Ke
Jo

Pi

Pa

ng

La

tr
M
m

Lu
Se

Pu
re
ise

lan

P
ala

W
Te
er

P
Pu

W
Ku
eg
N

P
W

Figure 5. Distribution of Sewage Treatment Plants by State, 2008

Source: EQR, 2008.

that were handed over by local authorities only in Peninsular Malaysia and Labuan. The number of sew-
age treatment plants under the management of IWK increased from 9,337 plants in 2007 to 9,524 in 2008.
Selangor had the largest number of sewage treatment plants (2,715: 28.5 per cent), followed by Perak
(1,422: 14.9 per cent), Johor (1,061:11.1 per cent) and Negeri Sembilan (945: 9.9 per cent) (Figure 5).
In terms of BOD load, domestic treated and partially treated sewage remained the largest con-
tributor with an estimated load of 944,533.80 kg/day (Table 3). Other major contributors were pig
farming (226,929.17 kg/day) and agro-based manufacturing industries (76,186.36 kg/day). Table 3
showed the total BOD load in kg/day discharged from sewage treatment plants in the states managed
by IWK in 2008.
In order to evaluate the contribution of pollutants from the non-point sources, a comprehensive study
done in the USA can be referred to Water Planning Division, Washington, DC, 1983. Event mean con-
centration (EMC), which represents the flow-weighted pollutant concentration for any storm event, of a
few selected pollutants is given in Table 4.
In the national urban run-off pollution (NURP) study in the USA revealed that NPS pollution plays
significant role in degradation of water quality. However, the composition of the pollutants in the run-off
in Malaysia has not been determined and DOE water quality monitoring programme does not cover the
collection of samples during the rain events, when the quality of the river water would be very different
from the normal dry periods. Based on the overseas experiences, it can be anticipated that annual pollut-
ant load of certain pollutants (e.g. SS, Pb, Zn, Cu, etc.) in the urban centres of Malaysia could be as high
as 50 per cent of the total pollution load entering the rivers. A study on Klang river basin done for the
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) indicated that the most common pollutants responsible for

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

70 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

Table 3. Total BOD Load (Kg/day) from Sewage Treatment Plant

State No. of STP Total PE Flow (m3/day) BOD Load (kg/day)

Selangor 2,715 6,579,871 1,480,471 370,117.74
Perak 1,422 1,300,646 297,645 73,161.34
Johor 1,061 1,370,605 308,386 77,096.53
Negeri Semblilan 945 996,659 224,248 56,062.07
Kedah 806 626,258 140,908 35,227.01
Melaka 770 623,622 140,315 35,078.74
Pulau Pinang 662 1554,709 349,810 87,452.38
Pahang 521 332,668 74,850 18,712.58
WP Kuala Lumpur 307 3195,659 719,023 179,755.82
Terengganu 231 69,165 15,562 3,890.53
Perlis 43 21,839 4,914 1,228.44
WP Labuan 32 42,309 9,520 2,379.88
WP Putrajaya 9 77,702 17,483 4,370.74
Total 9,524 16,791,712 3,778,135 944,533.80
Source: EQR, 2008.
Note: STP = Sewage Treatment Plant; PE = Pollution Equivalent.

Table 4. Typical Pollutant Concentrations in Storm Run-off (USEPA, 1983; DOE, 2009)

Event Mean Concentration EMC (mg/1)

Source BOD COD TSS Cu Zn Cd
Residential run-off (NPS) 10.0 80.0 139.0 0.05 0.17 0.002
Industrial run-off (NPS) 9.5 60.0 87.0 0.05 0.32 0.002
Agricultural run-off (NPS) 8.5 55.0 52.0 – – –
Forest run-off (NPS) 7.9 50.0 10.0 – – –
Sewage and industrial effluent (PS) 20.0 120.0 50.0 0.2 1.0 0.01
Source: Mamun and Zaki (2013).

water pollution such as BOD and NH3-N are significantly released from the non-point sources as shown
in Figure 6. Many of these non-point sources include the sub-urban and squatter areas without proper
sanitary system. Another source of sediment-laden pollution in the inland water is sand mining in the
rivers. The sand mining activities are significant sources of soil particles and make the water treatment
operation very costly by increasing the coagulant (alum) and polymer doses.
Statistics published by the DOE (Kailasam, 2011) for the year 2004 reveal 8 per cent of our rivers to
be polluted, 44 per cent slightly polluted and remaining 48 per cent to be clean. This is a clear indication
that river basins in Malaysia are facing serious environmental problems.

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 71

(i) BOD Loading (Kg/d)

Indusrrial
4%(PS) Commercial
10%(PS)

Residential
48%(PS) Sewage
38%(PS)

(ii) NH3-N Loading (Kg/d)

Indusrrial
2%(PS)

Residential
22%(PS)
Commercial
38%(PS)

Sewage
38%(PS)

Figure 6. Calculated Pollutant Load from Various Sources in Klang River Basin (DID, 2001)
Source: Mamun and Zaki (2013).

Studies indicate that residential, agricultural and industrial wastes are three main sources of river pol-
lution in Malaysia. Degradation of water quality due to pollution causes adverse effects to aquatic life
forms, disturbs the balance of life and reduces the bioavailability of potable water. The burden on rivers
to supply fresh water is likely to increase as demand is growing at 4 per cent annually and is projected to
reach 20 billion m3 by the year 2020. Since rivers form 97 per cent of our fresh water resource, this is an
indication that water supply would have to be treated extensively in future and the cost would have to be
absorbed by the public (DOE, 2004). This fact alone is enough to give us a wake call on the need for
careful water quality monitoring to keep our rivers clean.

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

72 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

Impact of Water Pollution on Health in Malaysia

Polluted water consists of industrial discharged effluents, sewage water and the rainwater. The use of this
type of water is a common practice in agriculture. Estimation indicates that more than 50 countries of the
world with an area of 20 million hectares are treated with polluted or partially treated polluted water
(Ashraf et al., 2010). In poor countries of the world more than 80 per cent polluted water have been used
for irrigation with only 70–80 per cent for food and living security in industrial urban and semi-urban
areas (Mara and Cairncross, 1989). Polluted water has both advantages and disadvantages. Generally,
the uses of polluted water for the effects of water pollution are numerous. Some water pollution effects
are recognized immediately, whereas others do not show up for months or years. When toxins are in the
water, the toxins travel from the water the animals drink to humans when the animals’ meat is eaten, and
thereby the pollutants enter the food chain. Infectious diseases such as typhoid and cholera can be con-
tracted from drinking contaminated water. This is called microbial water pollution. The human heart and
kidneys can be adversely affected if polluted water is consumed regularly. Other health problems associ-
ated with polluted water are poor blood circulation, skin lesions, vomiting and damage to the nervous
system. In fact, the effects of water pollution are said to be the leading cause of death for humans across
the globe (Ghafoor et al., 1994). The research has shown that more than 2 million children under the age
of five in the third world die every year from drinking polluted water. Good health is something that
everyone wants for themselves, their children and for the wider economic and social benefits it brings to
our society. It plays a major role in long-term economic growth and sustainable development.
It is estimated that diseases resulting from poor water, sanitation and hygiene account for almost 10
per cent of the total global burden of illness (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2008). Globally, almost 900 million
people lack access to safe water supplies and 2.5 billion people live without access to improved sanita-
tion, the majority (at least 80 per cent) of whom live in rural areas (JMP, 2008). Further, one third of the
world’s population lives in countries experiencing moderate to high water stress (IWMI, 2007). Currently,
1.4 million children die as a result of diarrhoea and 0.5 million people die as a result of malaria each year
(Prüss-Üstün et al., 2008). In 2002, the total number of deaths attributed to poor water, sanitation and
hygiene was over 3.5 million (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2008). An estimated 4 billion cases of diarrhoeal dis-
eases occur every year such as rotavirus gastroenteritis which is responsible for approximately half a
million deaths per year among children under the age of five (Parashar et al., 2003). Diarrhoea is very
significant in terms of mortality: chronic diarrhoea can result in malnutrition in children, making them
susceptible to other diseases and resulting in 860,000 deaths per year (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2008). This is
all unnecessary given that 94 per cent of diarrhoea cases are preventable.
Eisakhani and Malakahmad (2009) stated that water quality of the Bertam river and its tributaries
deteriorated because of the huge increase of SS, the high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus
compounds including COD, which cause very significant enrichment and eutrophication as well as pres-
ence of Escherichia coli causing severe micro-biological contamination. Results from their study showed
that all above-mentioned parameters are higher than those recommended by WHO, especially during
high water flow; therefore this water resource is not adequate for human health.
Simple solutions such as improved water supply (especially in the house), improved sanitation and
hand washing with soap can reduce morbidity rates by at least 25 per cent (e.g. Esrey, 1996; Esrey et al.,
1991; Fewtrell et al., 2005; Jalan and Ravallion, 2001; Luby et al., 2004; Zwane and Kremer, 2007).
However, some options are more effective than others. Cost, reduction of disease and improvement in

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 73

overall health should all be considered when deciding the most appropriate solutions. For example, even
though a communal tap may reduce the overall number of diarrhoea cases, it can increase the duration of
disease by up to 40 per cent through container contamination (Jalan and Ravallion, 2001). Reduction in
poverty through safe water provisioning can be achieved in three ways. First, new business opportunities
are created for local entrepreneurs to provide water and sanitation services; governments can play an
important role in creating enabling environments for such initiatives. Second, significant savings in the
public health sector, achieved through improvements in overall health, can be invested elsewhere for
economic growth. Third, individuals are better able to participate in capacity building and economic
activities when experiencing improved health and well-being.

Major Issues and Challenges

The continual pollution of rivers will deplete this water resource even further and will have serious
repercussions on the national agenda to become a fully developed nation by the year 2020 if essential
steps are not taken to improve our river water quality. As suggested by WWF-Malaysia, 11 major issues
must be addressed to ensure sustainability of our water resources for now and in the future as shown in
Figure 7.

Over-
emphasis
on water supply
Legislation management Institutional
issues

High rates
Water
of water
pollution
wastage

Major
Issuses Changing
Low water
weather
rates
patterns

Inefficient Privatization
agricultural of the water
water use sector
Destruction High rates of
and degradation Non-revenue
of water catch- water (NRW)
ments

Figure 7. Major Issues and Challenges for Water Resource Management

Source: http://www.wwf.org.my/

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

74 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

Therefore, in order to maintain water resource, the Engineering Services Division, Ministry of Health
identifies several issues and challenges which are discussed in the following sections.

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation

It is noticeable that by the end of 2008, 71.99 per cent of the rural households, which is equivalent to
1,264,364 households, have public water supply while 23.29 per cent (408,801 households) use other
sources such as gravity-feed system, sanitary wells with house connection, rainwater collection system
and private water supply. 4.74 per cent (83,225 households) still do not have clean water supply. By
December 2008, the coverage for the four main rural sanitation activities under the Rural Water Supply
and Environmental Sanitation programme is as follows:

1. Clean water supply: 95.26 per cent (1,673,165 households);

2. Sanitary latrines: 97.93 per cent (1,756,390 households);
3. Sullage disposal: 62.21 per cent (1,092,604 households); and
4. Solid waste disposal: 69.84 per cent (1,226,744 households).

The main challenges are here to achieve 100 per cent coverage for rural clean water supply, 100 per
cent coverage for sanitary latrines, 80 per cent coverage for sullage disposal and solid waste disposal by
the end of the 9th Malaysia Plan (2006–2010). A majority of the low cost technology water supply sys-
tems provided by Ministry of Health (MOH) do not have treatment at all. Simple and effective treatment
systems need to be considered to ensure that the water supplied is safe. Therefore, cost effective and
innovative technologies need to be considered for very remote areas, coastal and riverine settlements.
Poor sullage disposal and solid waste management can give rise to vector borne diseases. Communal
systems need to be considered for sullage and solid waste disposal (9th Malaysian Plan 2009).

Recreational Water
Another important issue observed is that there is no systematic monitoring programme on recreational
water, such as swimming pools, coastal and fresh water. Total coliform, E. coli, Enterococci and
Clostridium perfringens were constantly detected in sea water and storm water drain samples at levels
above the acceptable value. This is an indication of fecal pollution that would have adverse health effects
on recreational users. Therefore, it might cause of infectious diseases which have been detected in recre-
ational water. All waterways have values and uses. These values/uses have criteria necessary to enable
the use to occur or the value to be preserved. Generally, these values/uses fall into categories associated
with supplies for potable, industry and agricultural use, recreation, commercial fisheries and conserva-
tion. The value areas included the community health, ecological health, economic inclusion and personal
health. Reports published by various government and non-government agencies have indicated a trend
of deteriorating water quality and water amenity. Lack of information necessary for managing water-
ways on a continuous basis. A consensus should be reached to incorporate simple techniques for moni-
toring waterway health, as an indicator for a more detailed analysis. What is essentially required is to

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 75

detail a low resource and continuing information base, necessary for day to day management for the
recreational use of the different types of waterways (9th Malaysian Plan 2009).

Safe Drinking Water

The provisions in the Federal Constitution had been amended in 2005 to empower the Federal Government
to legislate water services industry in Peninsular Malaysia and Federal Territory (Kuala Lumpur, Labuan
and Putrajaya). Following the amendment the National Water Service Commission (SPAN) Act and the
Water Service Industry Act (WSIA) were established. The provisions in the WSIA are focused on service
requirements and compliance, while the policy for environmental and health regulation will continue to
be driven by relevant federal agencies. Sources of raw water are mainly from surface water while ground
water makes up the smaller share. Rapid economic growth has exerted severe constraint on present water
utility infrastructures, especially in states with high economic growth. Vision 2020, which stresses on
industrialization, has increased the demand for water supply, thereby exhausting traditional water
resources and calling for inter-state raw water transfer. Present water supply infrastructures could not
keep up with the pace of economic development due to the government’s limited financial resources.
Privatization was viewed as the panacea to address these constraints.
The management of safe drinking water is a national priority. This issue has constantly been discussed
locally and internationally through the World Water Forum and the United Nations Development
Programme’s Millennium Development Goal. The most common issues and challenges experienced by
Malaysia are as follows: surface water pollution from point sources such as industrial effluents, leachate
from unsanitary landfills and sub-standard sewerage effluents and from non-point sources such as pesti-
cide and herbicide from agriculture activities. The number or size of natural water catchments are on the
decline due to deforestation for development and agricultural activities, encroachment by human activi-
ties, lack of public awareness on the Importance of protecting water sources and ineffective enforcement
and weak legislative requirements for catchments and water run-off (9th Malaysian Plan 2009).

Water Resource Policies in Malaysia

There are several strategies to combat water quality problems internationally, nationally and domestically.
In order to obtain water quality, there are four fundamental strategies to combat water quality problems that
can form the basis of policy solutions for improving water quality (Dabelko and Aaron, 2004) such as pre-
vention of pollution, treatment of polluted water, safe use of wastewater and restoration and protection of
ecosystem. In the following section, we discuss the water resource policies in Malaysia

National Policy
The National Policy on environment states that the nation shall implement environmentally sound and
sustainable development for the continuous economic, social and cultural progress and enhancement of
the quality of life of Malaysians (Daud, 2009). It is based on eight inter-related and mutually supporting

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76 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

principles and where water is concerned will include the sustainable use of water resources, conservation
of a river’s vitality and diversity and the continuous improvement of its water quality. The policy outlines
the strategies and measures to be taken towards an effective management of water resources, pollution
control and prevention of environmental degradation. A holistic approach is required to manage our river
water quality.

Environmental Policy in Malaysia to Control River Water Pollution

Malaysia has had pollution-related legislation since the 1920s via the Waters Act 1920. The main objec-
tive of the legislation was to control river pollution. However, the legislation was limited in scope and
inadequate for handling complex environmental problems that emerged. This led to the establishment
of the Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (EQA) for a more comprehensive form of legislation and an
agency to control water pollution (Wichelman, 1976). It is important to emphasize that the Act was
designed as a framework for other laws and regulations or orders that were enacted after it. EQA is an
enabling piece of legislation for preventing, abating and controlling pollution and enhancing the envi-
ronmental resources in general. Pollution, as declared in EQA, includes the direct or indirect alteration
of any quality of the environment or any part of it by means of positive act or act of emission. Control
of pollution was through the mechanism of license issued by the DOE. The mode of control includes
prescription of licenses, which were mandatory for the use and occupation of prescribed premises;
discharging or emitting wastes exceeding acceptable conditions into the atmosphere, polluting or caus-
ing the pollution of any soil or surface of any land; and discharging or depositing any wastes or oil, in
excess of acceptable conditions, into inland Malaysian waters. Currently, about 16 out of 43 sets of
regulations and orders to prevent environmental damages, are particularly for pollution of various types
and enforced by the DOE under the EQA, 1974. One of the three strategies embodied in EQA, 1974
was the regulation of pollution. The other two strategies were for preventing and abating any form of
pollution, especially water pollution. Generally speaking, the passing of EQA in 1974 marked a new
chapter in national efforts improve the quality of the environment conducive to a healthy living of the
population. It equally represented a new focus in the prevention, abatement and control of water pol-
lution. A close examination of the provisions in section 25 of EQA shows that the Malaysian approach
to environmental pollution management is wide ranging in scope and concerning not with pollution per
se but with pollution that affects the beneficial use of water resources. Beneficial use involves a use of
any element or segment of the environment that is conducive to public health, welfare or safety that
requires protection from the effects of wastes, discharges, emissions and deposits into rivers. The gen-
eral scheme of section 25 of EQA, in relation to the preservation of the environment, inclines more
towards controlling water pollution. This is to be done through the issuance of licenses by the DOE.
EQA authorizes the minister concerned to prescribe the level of acceptable conditions, even though it
may involve some controversial arguments between those affected and the polluters. To realize the
objectives of water pollution control in the country as highlighted in EQA, laws/orders and regulations
pertaining to the control of agro-based water pollution episode were chronologically enacted. An indi-
rect measure to prevent water pollution was the Street, Drainage and Building Act enacted in 1974.
Section 70A of the Act dealt with the basic requirement for earthwork to ensure the protection of water
resources pollution that might arise from earthworks. In this regard, local authorities were empowered
to use their discretion to disapprove any activity that may create soil erosion and siltation of water

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Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 77

resources. There were several other provisions under this Act that authorized local authorities to control
and prevent pollution of inland water. This was more pronounced in section 7A of the Local Government
Act 1976. The Act contains provisions on pollution abatement in general but water pollution control
specifically. The local authorities were empowered to curb public nuisance to ensure that the source of
drinking water supplies are not polluted. Another regulatory policy for protection of inland waters is the
Street, Drainage and Building Act 1974 (McCourt, 2008). This act is a federal law enacted to amend
and consolidate the laws relating to drainage and building in local authority areas with special reference
to infrastructure facilities that should be provided to buildings such as proper access, modern sanitation
system and proper drainage system that can protect water pollution. In addition, the local authority is
required to properly maintain clear and empty sewers, drains and watercourses in its area. It can also
empty the sewer into the sea or other fit places or conveyed through a proper channel to the most con-
venient disposal site. The local authority may use its discretion to disapprove any activity that can result
in water pollution or soil erosion and siltation watercourse. The Town and Country Planning Act 1976
have also been formulated to include a provision for the prevention of environmental pollution. Though
it is not directly prepared for water pollution, it contains provisions on the development and use of the
land and measures for the improvement of the physical environment. The inclusion of environmental
and social welfare dimensions within the planning process in the Act indicates that the planning process
is not simply focused on the built and physical environment, but takes into consideration the social
implications and public view of development. In this respect, planning is central to the notion of a bal-
ance between development ethos and environmental protection of natural resources. It ensures that any
development projects will not cause harm to water resources or to ensure that development projects and
factories are neither located next to the river nor in close proximity with the rivers. Under the Act 3 of
1970, Malaysian government has formulated the Land Conservation to protect some of the key con-
tributors of inland water pollution such as siltation and soil erosion. In view of the fact that the nature
of siltation discharge and erosion that lead to water pollution are from a non-point sources such as
activities that involve earthwork operations, logging and land clearance, a regulatory policy was enacted
at both state and federal levels in Malaysia. In following the Federal Regulatory Act, many control
enactments have been adopted under the purview of the state authority. Other Acts and Regulations
include: Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations, 1977; Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Premises) Crude Palm Oil Order, 1977 and its Amendment in 1982; Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Premises) related to Raw Natural Rubber Order, 1978 and Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)
related to Raw Natural Rubber Regulations, 1978, Environmental Auditing (EA) and Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA). With regard to the control of municipal and industrial wastewater pollution,
Environmental Quality related to Sewage and Industrial Effluents Regulations was enacted in 1979. In
fact, the control of industrial emissions caused a concern to the government. To upgrade this, Mahathir’s
administration in 1981 enacted the Environmental Control of Toxic and Hazardous Waste Management.
Environmental Quality Regulations related to Scheduled Wastes was passed in 1989. In order to bring
into action, Environmental Quality Orders and Regulations (Prescribed Premises) related to Scheduled
Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities were simultaneously introduced in 1989. In 1990, the
Promotion of Investments Order (made under the Promotion of Investments Act, 1986) was enacted to
regulate environmental issues in the context of investment activities that can affect any environmental
resource, particularly water. This was later followed by the Prohibition on the Use of Controlled
Substance in soap, Synthetic Detergent and Other Cleaning Agents Order passed in 1995. These had
been strictly emphasized in the EIA, 1987.

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78 Rafia Afroz, Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Rulia Akhtar and Jarita Bt Duasa

Conclusion and Recommendations

There is no doubt that rivers and their management will be a central issue in the twenty-first century,
particularly as more than half the world’s rivers are ‘dying’. As rivers become more and more polluted,
water becomes scarce. This will lead to a dangerous situation whereby countries sharing the same river
basin will get into disputes. Water pollution is a serious problem in Malaysia and impacts negatively on
the sustainability of water resources. According to a study done by the DOE on 116 rivers nationwide,
some 10 per cent of these rivers are heavily polluted or dead, 63 per cent are polluted and only 27 per
cent are healthy in Malaysia. Kedah, a rice farming district, was severely stricken with air and water
poisoning from a pesticide factory. The ‘paddy’ became diseased, together with coconuts and bananas.
Poultry died. Villagers had sores on their bodies after using the nearby stream for washing. We also
found based on literature reviews that the main causes of water pollution due to low oxygen level because
oxygen levels have dropped dramatically because of sudden algae population explosions. Inadequate
sewerage and drainage systems are similarly another issue for polluted water in Malaysia. Forest har-
vesting and agricultural and urban development have resulted in the pollution of most river systems,
affected ecological dynamics and disrupted natural food chains. Most of the sources of pollution have
been caused by human activity, although some of them come from natural sources of pollution. The
problem of water pollution is now becoming more serious with reports indicating a downward trend year
by year. In our study, we found that there are three main sources of river pollution in Malaysia such as
residential, agricultural and industrial wastes. One of the major impacts of water pollutions causes low
water clarity decreases the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis. Therefore, a suspended par-
ticle interferes with filter feeding and respiration through gills. Concentrated industrial wastewater and
agricultural run-off of fertilizer and chemicals into surface water affect levels of DO in water. Treatment
of raw water from surface water sources for human consumption and for industrial use has become more
complex and becomes costlier because of water pollution. It is obvious that polluted water is dangerous
for human health. The consumption of polluted water might seriously affect human heart and kidneys
and cause poor blood circulation, skin lesions, vomiting and damage to the nervous system. It is clear
that in Malaysia, water has been the subject of concern nationally for some time now. Of all natural
resources, water is the most severely threatened by pollution. For a developing country like Malaysia,
having sufficient water is pivotal to its overall economic growth. A tropical country like Malaysia will
face clean water shortage, something which can become a reality at the rate the rivers are being polluted
these days. Therefore, the following subjects must be addressed to ensure sustainability of Malaysian
water resources for now and in the future.

  1. Strengthen enforcement for protection of water resources and expedite industry restructuring so
that water operators will be financially assisted.
  2. Investment for early warning system to detect pollution, installation of advanced technology for
water treatment and increase water operators’ competency to deal with sudden pollution.
  3. The water services industry in Malaysia is undergoing major reforms. Effective and efficient
water supply services depend on good water resource management. Quantity and quality of water
source are vital for continuous supply of safe and clean water. Water supply operations require
continuous support from various agencies. Cooperation of all stakeholders is required.
  4. Effectively carry out its ‘One State, One River’ programme to rehabilitate one river in each state
as per the Ninth Malaysia Plan planned by the DID, Malaysia.

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Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 79

  5. Adequate Sewage and Drainage systems.

  6. Formulate stringent pollution control regulations.
  7. Educate the people of this city to develop an ecological conscience.
  8. Sensitize people about the need of the hour—to curb water pollution.
  9. Confidence in the ability of the individual to take action on environmental issues and work
together with other individuals.
10. Need to have awareness campaign to change public attitudes, behaviours and expectations.
11. Involvement with associations become necessary for contribution and support local and national
groups that work to solve environmental problems on institutional, national and international
levels. Every single person must have sufficient information, participate in public hearings, serve
on advisory committees and address review boards.
12. Co-operation must be present to crave and support federal, provincial and municipal action on
environmental issues.
13. Personal consciousness is one of the most important recommendations to protect water from pol-
lution. Therefore, an individual should not use any products that are harmful to the environment.
Urge stores to abandon wasteful packaging and to use biodegradable materials.

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Water Resource Management Policies in Malaysia 81

Rafia Afroz, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management Science, International
Islamic University Malaysia, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: rafia@iium.edu.my

Muhammad Mehedi Masud, Faculty of Economics and Administration, University of Malaya, 50603
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Rulia Akhtar, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management Science, International
Islamic University Malaysia, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Jarita Bt Duasa, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management Science,

International Islamic University Malaysia, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Environment and Urbanization Asia, 5, 1 (2014): 63–81

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