Brain implant

A laboratory rat with a brain implant used to record

neuronal activity

Brain implants, often referred to as neural

implants, are technological devices that
connect directly to a biological subject's
brain – usually placed on the surface of
the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex.
A common purpose of modern brain
implants and the focus of much current
research is establishing a biomedical
prosthesis circumventing areas in the
brain that have become dysfunctional after
a stroke or other head injuries.[1] This
includes sensory substitution, e.g., in
vision. Other brain implants are used in
animal experiments simply to record brain
activity for scientific reasons. Some brain
implants involve creating interfaces
between neural systems and computer
chips. This work is part of a wider
research field called brain-computer
interfaces. (Brain-computer interface
research also includes technology such as
EEG arrays that allow interface between
mind and machine but do not require
direct implantation of a device.)

Neural implants such as deep brain

stimulation and Vagus nerve stimulation
are increasingly becoming routine for
patients with Parkinson's disease and
clinical depression respectively.

Purpose
Brain implants electrically stimulate,
block[2] or record (or both record and
stimulate simultaneously[3]) signals from
single neurons or groups of neurons
(biological neural networks) in the brain.
The blocking technique is called intra-
abdominal vagal blocking.[2] This can only
be done where the functional associations
of these neurons are approximately
known. Because of the complexity of
neural processing and the lack of access
to action potential related signals using
neuroimaging techniques, the application
of brain implants has been seriously
limited until recent advances in
neurophysiology and computer processing
power.

Research and applications

Research in sensory substitution has
made significant progress since 1970.
Especially in vision, due to the knowledge
of the working of the visual system, eye
implants (often involving some brain
implants or monitoring) have been applied
with demonstrated success. For hearing,
cochlear implants are used to stimulate
the auditory nerve directly. The
vestibulocochlear nerve is part of the
peripheral nervous system, but the
interface is similar to that of true brain
implants.

Multiple projects have demonstrated

success at recording from the brains of
animals for long periods of time. As early
as 1976, researchers at the NIH led by
Edward Schmidt made action potential
recordings of signals from rhesus monkey
motor cortexes using immovable "hatpin"
electrodes,[4] including recording from
single neurons for over 30 days, and
consistent recordings for greater than
three years from the best electrodes.

The "hatpin" electrodes were made of pure

iridium and insulated with Parylene-c ,
materials that are currently used in the
Cyberkinetics implementation of the Utah
array.[5] These same electrodes, or
derivations thereof using the same
biocompatible electrode materials, are
currently used in visual prosthetics
laboratories,[6] laboratories studying the
neural basis of learning,[7] and motor
prosthetics approaches other than the
Cyberkinetics probes.[8]

Schematic of the "Utah" Electrode Array

Other laboratory groups produce their own

implants to provide unique capabilities not
available from the commercial
products.[9][10][11][12]

Breakthroughs include studies of the

process of functional brain re-wiring
throughout the learning of a sensory
discrimination,[13] control of physical
devices by rat brains,[14] monkeys over
robotic arms,[15] remote control of
mechanical devices by monkeys and
humans,[16] remote control over the
movements of roaches,[17] electronic-
based neuron transistors for leeches,[18]
the first reported use of the Utah Array in a
human for bidirectional signalling.[19]
Currently a number of groups are
conducting preliminary motor prosthetic
implants in humans. These studies are
presently limited to several months by the
longevity of the implants. The array now
forms the sensor component of the
Braingate.

Much research is also being done on the

surface chemistry of neural implants in
effort to design products which minimize
all negative effects that an active implant
can have on the brain, and that the body
can have on the function of the implant.

Another type of neural implant that is

being experimented on is Prosthetic
Neuronal Memory Silicon Chips, which
imitate the signal processing done by
functioning neurons that allows peoples'
brains to create long-term memories.

In 2016, scientists at the University of

Illinois at Urbana–Champaign announced
development of tiny brain sensors for use
postoperative monitoring, which melt away
when they are no longer needed.[20]

Military

DARPA has announced its interest in

developing "cyborg insects" to transmit
data from sensors implanted into the
insect during the pupal stage. The insect's
motion would be controlled from a Micro-
Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) and
could conceivably survey an environment
or detect explosives and gas.[21] Similarly,
DARPA is developing a neural implant to
remotely control the movement of sharks.
The shark's unique senses would then be
exploited to provide data feedback in
relation to enemy ship movement or
underwater explosives.[22]

In 2006, researchers at Cornell University

invented[23] a new surgical procedure to
implant artificial structures into insects
during their metamorphic
development.[24][25] The first insect
cyborgs, moths with integrated electronics
in their thorax, were demonstrated by the
same researchers.[26][27] The initial
success of the techniques has resulted in
increased research and the creation of a
program called Hybrid-Insect-MEMS, HI-
MEMS. Its goal, according to DARPA's
Microsystems Technology Office, is to
develop "tightly coupled machine-insect
interfaces by placing micro-mechanical
systems inside the insects during the early
stages of metamorphosis".[28]

The use of neural implants has recently

been attempted, with success, on
cockroaches. Surgically applied electrodes
were put on the insect, which were
remotely controlled by a human. The
results, although sometimes different,
basically showed that the cockroach could
be controlled by the impulses it received
through the electrodes. DARPA is now
funding this research because of its
obvious beneficial applications to the
military and other areas[29]

In 2009 at the Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Micro-
electronic mechanical systems (MEMS)
conference in Italy, researchers
demonstrated the first "wireless" flying-
beetle cyborg.[30] Engineers at the
University of California at Berkeley have
pioneered the design of a "remote
controlled beetle", funded by the DARPA
HI-MEMS Program. Filmed evidence of
this can be viewed here.[31] This was
followed later that year by the
demonstration of wireless control of a "lift-
assisted" moth-cyborg.[32]

Eventually researchers plan to develop HI-

MEMS for dragonflies, bees, rats and
pigeons.[33][34] For the HI-MEMS cybernetic
bug to be considered a success, it must fly
100 metres (330 ft) from a starting point,
guided via computer into a controlled
landing within 5 metres (16 ft) of a specific
end point. Once landed, the cybernetic bug
must remain in place.[33]

In 2015 it was reported that scientists

from the Perception and Recognition
Neuro-technologies Laboratory at the
Southern Federal University in Rostov-on-
Don suggested using rats with microchips
planted in their brains to detect explosive
devices.[35][36][37]

In 2016 it was reported that American

engineers are developing a system that
would transform locusts into "remote
controlled explosive detectors" with
electrodes in their brains beaming
information about dangerous substances
back to their operators.[38]

Rehabilitation
Neurostimulators have been in use since
1997 to ease the symptoms of such
diseases as epilepsy, Parkinson's Disease,
dystonia and recently depression.

Current brain implants are made from a

variety of materials such as tungsten,
silicon, platinum-iridium, or even stainless
steel. Future brain implants may make use
of more exotic materials such as
nanoscale carbon fibers (nanotubes), and
polycarbonate urethane.
Historical research
In 1870, Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch
demonstrated that electrical stimulation of
the brains of dogs could produce
movements. Robert Bartholow showed the
same to be true for humans in 1874. By
the start of the 20th century, Fedor Krause
began to systematically map human brain
areas, using patients that had undergone
brain surgery.

Prominent research was conducted in the

1950s. Robert G. Heath experimented with
aggressive mental patients, aiming to
influence his subjects' moods through
electrical stimulation.[39]

Yale University physiologist Jose Delgado

demonstrated limited control of animal
and human subjects' behaviours using
electronic stimulation. He invented the
stimoceiver or transdermal stimulator, a
device implanted in the brain to transmit
electrical impulses that modify basic
behaviours such as aggression or
sensations of pleasure.

Delgado was later to write a popular book

on mind control, called Physical Control of
the Mind, where he stated: "the feasibility
of remote control of activities in several
species of animals has been
demonstrated [...] The ultimate objective
of this research is to provide an
understanding of the mechanisms
involved in the directional control of
animals and to provide practical systems
suitable for human application."

In the 1950s, the CIA also funded research

into mind control techniques, through
programs such as MKULTRA. Perhaps
because he received funding for some
research through the US Office of Naval
Research, it has been suggested (but not
proven) that Delgado also received
backing through the CIA. He denied this
claim in a 2005 article in Scientific
American describing it only as a
speculation by conspiracy-theorists. He
stated that his research was only
progressively scientifically motivated to
understand how the brain works.

Concerns and ethical

considerations
Ethical questions raised include who are
good candidates to receive neural
implants and what are good and bad uses
of neural implants. Whilst deep brain
stimulation is increasingly becoming
routine for patients with Parkinson's
disease, there may be some behavioural
side effects. Reports in the literature
describe the possibility of apathy,
hallucinations, compulsive gambling,
hypersexuality, cognitive dysfunction, and
depression. However, these may be
temporary and related to correct
placement and calibration of the
stimulator and so are potentially
reversible.[40]

Some transhumanists, such as Raymond

Kurzweil and Kevin Warwick, see brain
implants as part of a next step for humans
in progress and evolution, whereas others,
especially bioconservatives, view them as
unnatural, with humankind losing essential
human qualities. It raises controversy
similar to other forms of human
enhancement. For instance, it is argued
that implants would technically change
people into cybernetic organisms
(cyborgs). It's also expected that all
research will comply to the Declaration of
Helsinki. Yet further, the usual legal duties
apply such as information to the person
wearing implants and that the implants are
voluntary, with (very) few exceptions.

Other concerns involve vulnerabilities of

neural implants to cybercrime or intrusive
surveillance as neural implants could be
hacked, misused or misdesigned.[41]

Sadja states that "one's private thoughts

are important to protect" and doesn't
consider it a good idea to just charge the
government or any company with
protecting them. Walter Glannon, a
neuroethicist of the University of Calgary
notes that "there is a risk of the microchips
being hacked by third parties" and that
"this could interfere with the user's
intention to perform actions, violate
privacy by extracting information from the
chip".[42]
In fiction and philosophy
Brain implants are now part of modern
culture but there were early philosophical
references of relevance as far back as
René Descartes.

In his 1641 Meditations, Descartes argued

that it would be impossible to tell if all
one's apparently real experiences were in
fact being produced by an evil demon
intent on deception. A modern twist on
Descartes' argument is provided by the
"brain in a vat" thought experiment, which
imagines a brain, sustained apart from its
body in a vat of nutrients, and hooked up
to a computer which is capable of
stimulating it in such a way as to produce
the illusion that everything is normal.[43]

Popular science fiction discussing brain

implants and mind control became
widespread in the 20th century, often with
a dystopian outlook. Literature in the
1970s delved into the topic, including The
Terminal Man by Michael Crichton, where a
man suffering from brain damage receives
an experimental surgical brain implant
designed to prevent seizures, which he
abuses by triggering for pleasure. Another
example is Larry Niven's science fiction
writing of wire-heads in his "Known Space"
stories.
Fear that the technology will be misused
by the government and military is an early
theme. In the 1981 BBC serial The
Nightmare Man the pilot of a high-tech
mini submarine is linked to his craft via a
brain implant but becomes a savage killer
after ripping out the implant.

Perhaps the most influential novel

exploring the world of brain implants was
William Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer.
This was the first novel in a genre that
came to be known as "cyberpunk". It
follows a computer hacker through a world
where mercenaries are augmented with
brain implants to enhance strength, vision,
memory, etc. Gibson coins the term
"matrix" and introduces the concept of
"jacking in" with head electrodes or direct
implants. He also explores possible
entertainment applications of brain
implants such as the "simstim" (simulated
stimulation) which is a device used to
record and playback experiences.

Another example is "The Alliance ", in

which a society is controlled by implants.
Gibson's work led to an explosion in
popular culture references to brain
implants. Its influences are felt, for
example, in the 1989 roleplaying game
Shadowrun, which borrowed his term
"datajack" to describe a brain-computer
interface. The implants in Gibson's novels
and short stories formed the template for
the 1995 film Johnny Mnemonic and later,
The Matrix Trilogy.

Pulp fiction with implants or brain implants

include the novel series Typers, film Spider-
Man 2, the TV series Earth: Final Conflict,
and numerous computer/video games.

The Gap Cycle (The Gap into): In Stephen

R. Donaldson's series of novels, the use
(and misuse) of "zone implant"
technology is key to several plotlines.
Ghost in the Shell anime and manga
franchise: Cyberbrain neural
augmentation technology is the focus.
Implants of powerful computers provide
vastly increased memory capacity, total
recall, as well as the ability to view his or
her own memories on an external
viewing device. Users can also initiate a
telepathic conversation with other
cyberbrain users, the downsides being
cyberbrain hacking, malicious memory
alteration, and the deliberate distortion
of subjective reality and experience.
In Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's Oath
of Fealty (1981) an arcology with high
surveillance and feudal-like society is
 built by a private company due to riots
around Los Angeles. Its systems are run
by MILLIE, an advanced computer
system, with some high-level executives
being able to communicate directly with
it and given omniscience of the
arcology's workings via expensive
implants in their brains.[44]

Film

Brainstorm (1983): The military tries to

take control over a new technology that
can record and transfer thoughts,
feelings, and sensations.
RoboCop (1987) Science fiction action
film. Police officer Alex Murphy is
murdered and revived as a superhuman
cyborg law enforcer.
Johnny Mnemonic (1995): The main
character acts as a "mnemonic courier"
by way of a storage implant in his brain,
allowing him to carry sensitive
information undetected between
parties.
The Manchurian Candidate (2004): For a
means of mind control, the presidential
hopeful Raymond Shaw unknowingly
has a chip implanted in his head by
Manchurian Global, a fictional
geopolitical organization aimed at
making parts of the government sleeper
 cells, or puppets for their monetary
advancement.
Hardwired (2009): A corporation
attempting to bring marketing to the
next level implants a chip into main
character's brain.
Terminator Salvation (2009): A character
named Marcus Wright discovers he is a
Cyborg and must choose to fight for
humans or an evil Artificial intelligence.

Television

The Happiness Cage (1972) A German

scientist works on a way of quelling
overly aggressive soldiers by developing
implants that directly stimulate the
pleasure centers of the brain. Also
known as The Mind Snatchers.
Six Million Dollar Man (1974 to 1978)
Steve Austin suffers an accident and is
rebuilt as a cyborg.
The Bionic Woman (1976 to 1978) Jaime
Sommers suffers an accident and is
rebuilt as a cyborg.
Blake's 7: Olag Gan, a character, has a
brain implant which is supposed to
prevent future aggression after being
convicted of killing an officer from the
oppressive Federation.
Dark Angel: The notorious Red Series
use neuro-implants pushed into their
brain stem at the base of their skull to
amp them up and hyper-adrenalize them
and make them almost unstoppable.
Unfortunately the effects of the implant
burn out their system after six months
to a year and kill them.
The X-Files (episode:Duane Barry,
relevant to the overreaching mytharc of
the series.): FBI Agent Dana Scully
discovers an implant set under the skin
at the back of her neck which can read
her every thought and change memory
through electrical signals that alter the
brain chemistry.
Star Trek franchise: Members of the
Borg collective are equipped with brain
implants which connect them to the
Borg collective consciousness.
Stargate SG-1 franchise: Advanced
replicators, the Asuran interface with
humans by inserting their hand into the
brain of humans.
Fringe: The Observers use a needle like,
self-guided implant which allows them
to read the minds of others at the
expense of emotion. The implant also
allows for short range teleportation and
increases intelligence.
Person of Interest, Season 4. Episode 81
or 13. Title "M.I.A" "One of many
innocent people who Samaritan
operatives are experimenting on with
neural implants."
In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the
episode named Straight and Narrow
(The Outer Limits). Students are forced
to have brain implants and are
controlled by them.
In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the
episode named The Message (The
Outer Limits). A character named
Jennifer Winter receives a brain implant
to hear.
In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the
episode named "Living Hell", season 1
episode 9. A character named Ben
Kohler receives a brain implant to save
his life.
In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the
episode named Judgment Day (The Outer
Limits), A character who is judged a
criminal has a chip implanted on the
medulla oblongata of the lower
brainstem . The forcibly implanted chip
induces overwhelming pain and
disorientation by a remote control within
range.
In the Outer Limits (1995 TV series), the
episode named "Awakening", season
three, episode 10, a neurologically
impaired woman receives a brain
implant to help her become more like a
typical human.
Black Mirror, a British science fiction
television anthology series, has several
episodes in which characters have
implants on their head or in their brain or
eyes, providing video recording and
playback, augmented reality, and
communication.
Earth: Final Conflict, in season 1,
episode 12, named "Sandoval's Run", the
 character named Sandoval experiences
the breakdown of his brain implant.
Earth: Final Conflict, in season 4,
episode 12, named "The Summit", the
character named Liam is implanted with
a neural surveillance device.

Video games

In the video games PlanetSide and

Chrome, players can use implants to
improve their aim, run faster, and see
better, along with other enhancements.
The Deus Ex video game series
addresses the nature and impact of
human enhancement with regard to a
wide variety of prosthesis and brain
implants. Deus Ex: Human Revolution,
set in 2027, details the impact on
society of human augmentation and the
controversy it could generate. Several
characters in the game have implanted
neurochips to aid their professions (or
their whims). Examples are of a
helicopter pilot with implanted chips to
better pilot her aircraft and analyse flight
paths, velocity and spatial awareness,
as well as a hacker with a brain-
computer interface that allows direct
access to computer networks and also
to act as a 'human proxy' to allow an
individual in a remote location to control
his actions.
The game raises the question of the
downsides of this kind of augmentation
as those who cannot afford the
enhancements (or object to getting
them) rapidly find themselves at a
serious disadvantage against people
with artificial enhancement of their
abilities. The spectre of being forced to
have mechanical or electronic
enhancements just to get a job is
explored as well. The storyline
addresses the effect of implant rejection
by use of the fictional drug
'Neuropozyne' which breaks down glial
tissue and is also fiercely addictive,
leaving people who have augmentations
 little choice but to continue buying the
drug from biotech corporations who
control the price of it. Without the drug,
augmented people experience rejection
of implants, crippling pain and possible
death.

See also
Auditory brainstem implant (ABI)
Hippocampal prosthesis
History of neuroimaging
Nanotechnology
Neuroprosthetics
Neurotechnology
Transhumanism
 Wirehead
Reversible charge injection limit
Responsive neurostimulation device

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Further reading
Berger, Theodore W.; Glanzman, Dennis
L., eds. (2005). Toward replacement
parts for the brain: implantable
biomimetic electronics as neural
prostheses. Cambridge, Mass: MIT
Press. ISBN 0-262-02577-9.
Gross, Dominik (2009), Blessing or
Curse? Nonpharmacological
Neurocognitive Enhancement by "Brain
Engineering", Medicine Studies.
International Journal for the History,
Philosophy and Ethics of Medicine &
Allied Sciences 1/4, pp. 379–391
Laryionava, Katsiaryna; Gross, Dominik
(2011), Public Understanding of Neural
Prosthetics in Germany: Ethical, Social
and Cultural Challenges, Cambridge
Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics
International issue, 20/3, pp. 434–439
Gross, Dominik (2010), Traditional vs.
Modern Neuroenhancement. Notes from
a medico-ethical and societal
perspective, in: Heiner Fangerau and
Thorsten Trapp (Eds.), Implanted Minds
(= Science Studies), Bielefeld, pp. 137–
157
External links
Exclusive: A robot with a biological brain
| Emerging Technology Trends |
ZDNet.com
Theodore Berger's Website
Scientific American article on Jose
Delgado
Discover Magazine article on brain
implants
Neurotech Reports article on neural-
silicon hybrid chips
BrainGate website
80,000 and Counting, Brain Implants on
the Rise World Wide
 Brain Implant
IsoRay
Encyclopedia of Computer Science
IEE Explore

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