Society for Music Theory

Studies of Time and Music: A Bibliography

Author(s): Jonathan D. Kramer
Source: Music Theory Spectrum, Vol. 7, Time and Rhythm in Music (Spring, 1985), pp. 72-
106
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Music Theory
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 Studies of Time and Music: A Bibliography
Jonathan D. Kramer
Assembling a bibliography is a matter not only of finding
and examining relevant sources but also of making decisions on
the listing's scope. When the subject is not a universally recog-
nized area of scholarship, making such decisions can be tanta-
mount to defining the field. As I assembled this bibliography, I
became increasingly aware that implicit in my choices of what
to include was my own understanding of what is (or should be)
encompassed by the discipline.
Musical time has not been widely recognized as an indepen-
dent field of study. The New Grove has no article on time;
RILM has no separate category for time; The Music Index has
only recently begun to list articles under the heading "Time."
One might conclude from such neglect in indexes and reference
books that the field is small and/or new. Yet the study of musi-
cal time reasonably ought to consider every musical process
that takes (place in) time-everything, in fact, inherent in a
piece of music. Therefore titles will be found here that might
"properly"(that is, narrowly)be thought of as belonging more
to musicology than to theory, more to music perception than to
music theory, more to composers' prescriptions about tech-
nique than to objective analyses of music.
It is ironic that the study of time is not usually considered a
subdiscipline of music theory. Music is, after all, a temporal art.
Music is pure temporality-abstract sonorous shapes moving
through and creating time. Several writers believe that the
manner in which music uses time symbolizes-in complex, per-
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sonal, yet universal ways-the rhythms, pacings, and progres-
sions of life. Many scholars agree that time is both the essential
component of musical meaning and the vehicle by which music
makes its deepest contact with the human spirit. Yet most theo-
rists do not treat time as central to their understanding of mu-
sic.
As readers of this journal surely know, theories of music
tend instead to be dominated by considerations of pitch. Fur-
thermore, the majority of theoretical works on musical time
deal with rhythm and meter and how they are perceived. Yet
much lies beyond rhythm, meter, and perception: motion and
stasis, continuity and discontinuity, progression, timelessness,
pacing, proportion, duration, and tempo. These aspects of mu-
sic have indeed been studied, although less systematically than
rhythm, meter, and perception. Thus I felt it important not to
restrict this bibliography to those areas within the mainstream
of theoretical thought.
The study of time is perhaps the ultimate interdisciplinary
field. Thus I have found relevant titles concerned with experi-
mental psychology, cognition, sociology, philosophy, criticism
of other temporal arts, and anthropology. I have listed, how-
ever, only works from these areas that do treat music in some
substantive manner.
Omissions have been necessary. The process of defining (my
view of) this discipline's boundaries has been as much exclu-
sionary as inclusionary. Except for sources that are particularly

theoretical or that offer unique insights or viewpoints, I have
not included references dealing with music therapy, popular
music, transcription, rhythmic patterning of folk music, peda-
gogy, rudiments, music education, music appreciation, rhyth-
mic abilities, tempo indications, time signatures, eurhythmics,
notation, child development, performance practice, or the in-
ternal timing of individual notes (e.g., perception of attack rise
times). I have also omitted masters theses. I have included only
those book reviews of sufficient scope to offer their own in-
sights.
Some works have been published more than once. When a
book has reappeared in print long after its original publication,
I have listed the more recent edition and indicated the original
date of publication. When articles or dissertations have been
revised or collected into books, I have listed only the author's
most recent version. When articles appear unchanged in more
than one place, I have tried to list the more accessible sources.
When only one or two chapters of a book are considered rele-
vant, I have listed them by chapter title.
The bibliography is divided into several categories, which
are no more rigorously defined than the field itself. Categoriza-
tion is difficult, because there are inevitably titles that do not fit
the prescribed categories. Listings are grouped more by their
authors' orientations and methodologies than by the types of
music studied (an exception to this policy, however, is found in
"Ethnomusicology"). Most of the works listed might well fall
into more than one category. For example, "Analysis" includes
sources that study individual composition(s) from temporal
viewpoints, while writings that use pieces principally to exem-
plify theoretical ideas are listed under "Music Theory" or
"Rhythm and Meter": this distinction between analysis and
theory can be rather artificial in a number of cases. I have not,
however, resorted to cross referencing, because of the large
number of titles that might require multiple listing.
Under "Contemporary Techniques" are found descriptions
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Studies of Time and Music: A Bibliography 73
and prescriptions of recent composers' approaches to time and
rhythm; just how recent a composer must be for inclusion and
just what constitutes the dividing line between such descrip-
tions and prescriptions and real analysis (which would be listed
under "Analysis") is difficult to say. Under "Ethnomusicol-
ogy" are found works about music in non-Western cultures, al-
though particularly theoretical treatments of such music are
listed elsewhere. "Aesthetics" and "Phenomenology" might
suggest one large category, but I have separated them since
phenomenology is emerging as a self-contained subdiscipline of
music theory. "Other Arts" refers to writings on temporal arts
as compared to music. "History" includes studies that are pri-
marily historical, even if a certain amount of analysis is in-
cluded. The psychology of music is an enormous field, and I
have therefore divided it into two parts: "Perception" includes
experimental studies on how we perceive duration and rhythm;
all other appropriate titles are listed under "Psychology."
"Tempo" includes theoretical and historical studies but not ar-
ticles dealing primarily with performance practice or tempo in-
dications. "Proportion" lists sources concerned with the pro-
portions of duration (but not of tempo), whether of individual
notes or of lengthier time-spans. "Rhythm and Meter" includes
studies of either of these two interrelated ideas, in music of any
period. Theoretical writings not falling under the specific topics
"Rhythm and Meter," "Harmonic Rhythm," or "Information
Theory" appear under "Music Theory." "Science and Tech-
nology" should be self-explanatory. "Textbooks" includes
only those texts that present important, interesting, unique, or
worthwhile theoretical ideas even in an elementary format.
"Textbooks" is combined with "Bibliography" because both
have a small number of titles.
I have chosen not to list any sources originally published be-
fore 1900. I have not, however, included everything published
since the turn of the century. A rule of thumb has been that the
older a source is, the more important it must be to warrant inclu-
74 Music Theory Spectrum

sion. I have made a similar decision regarding writings in lan-
guages other than English. This is primarily an English-
language bibliography, but I have included foreign sources that
are particularly important. The farther a source's language is
from the expertise of most English-speaking music theorists,
the more important the source must be deemed for it to be in-
cluded. Thus there are only a few listings in Russian, Japanese,
or Czech, while there are several in German, French, and Ital-
ian. Titles in languages which do not use the Roman alphabet
are given in translation, enclosed in brackets.
Naturally a bibliography should list only writings relevant to
its topic. It is not always easy to decide, however, whether a
given source is related to the nebulously defined field of musical
time. I have tended to be inclusive, choosing to list a source if it
has any potential relevance. Similarly, while I prefer to exclude
trivial or useless articles, I do not want my own view of the disci-
pline inordinately to color my judgment of a work's quality.
Hence I have preferred to err on the side of inclusion.
The list contains obscure as well as easy-to-find sources. It
has therefore not been possible to examine every item in-
cluded. Some works are listed on the basis of careful examina-
tion, others because of an abstract or a description in another
writing, and some simply on the basis of an educated guess.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance of the Informa-
tion Retrieval System of the School of Music at the Ohio State
University, and in particular Helen Brown, in locating titles in
the "Psychology and Cognition" and "Perception" categories. I
am also indebted to Lewis Rowell for convincing me to assem-
ble this bibliography, for several useful suggestions, and for ed-
itorial assistance.

Aesthetics
Bayer, Raymond. "The Essence of Rhythm," trans. Susanne
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Anthony, Donald B. "A General Concept of Musical Time Perspectives of New Music 14, no. 2 and 15, no. 1
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Amheim, Rudolph. "A Stricture on Space and Time." Critical Blum, Fred. "Susanne Langer's Musical Aesthetics." Ph.D.
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Balazs, Istvan. "Zenemiiv6szet es tort6nelmi tavlat: Arnold Boretz, Benjamin. "Nelson Goodman's Languages of Art from
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tal Music." Musical Quarterly 63 (1977):224-46. Charles. "The Nature of Continuity in Music." Proceedings

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Bosseur, D. "Introduction a la musique americaine: l'experi-
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Briner, A. Der Wandel der Musik als Zeit-Kunst. Vienna, 1955.
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Studies of Time and Music: A Bibliography 75
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Studies of Time and Music: A Bibliography 77
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106 Music Theory Spectrum
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Textbooks and Bibliography
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Winick, Steven D. Rhythm: An Annotated Bibliography. Me-
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