University of Antique

Tario-Lim Memorial Campus

Tibiao, Antique

SUMMARY OF INTEGRALS

A Summary Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Course Basic Calculus

Submitted by:
Felb Audrey Hope G. Padpad
11-STEM

Submitted to:
Sir Carl Jiljohn Maquiling

March 30, 2019

 Antiderivatives and Integrals of Algebraic Functions
An antiderivative of a function f is a function whose derivative is f. In other words, F is an
antiderivative of f if F' = f. To find an antiderivative for a function f, we can often reverse the
process of differentiation.

For example, if f = x4, then an antiderivative of f is F = x5, which can be found by reversing the

power rule. Notice that not only is x5 an antiderivative of f, but so are x5+ 4, x5 + 6, etc. In
fact, adding or subtracting any constant would be acceptable.
This should make sense algebraically, since the process of taking the derivative (i.e. going
from F to f) eliminates the constant term of F.
Because a single continuous function has infinitely many antiderivatives, we do not refer to "the
antiderivative", but rather, a "family" of antiderivatives, each of which differs by a constant. So,
if F is an antiderivative of f, then G = F + c is also an antiderivative of f, and Fand G are in the
same family of antiderivatives.
Indefinite Integral

The notation used to refer to antiderivatives is the indefinite integral. f (x)dx means the

antiderivative of f with respect to x. If F is an antiderivative of f, we can write f (x)dx = F + c. In

this context, c is called the constant of integration.

To find antiderivatives of basic functions, the following rules can be used:

1. xndx = xn+1 + c as long as n does not equal -1. This is essentially the power rule for
derivatives in reverse

2. cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx. That is, a scalar can be pulled out of the integral.

3. (f (x) + g(x))dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx. The antiderivative of a sum is the sum of the

antiderivatives.

4. sin(x)dx = - cos(x) + c

cos(x)dx = sin(x) + c

sec2(x)dx = tan(x) + c

These are the opposite of the trigonometric derivatives.

Substitution and change of variables
One of the integration techniques that is useful in evaluating indefinite integrals that do not seem
to fit the basic formulas is substitution and change of variables. This technique is often compared
to the chain rule for differentiation because they both apply to composite functions. In this
method, the inside function of the composition is usually replaced by a single variable (often u).
Note that the derivative or a constant multiple of the derivative of the inside function must be a
factor of the integrand.
The purpose in using the substitution technique is to rewrite the integration problem in terms of
the new variable so that one or more of the basic integration formulas can then be applied.
Although this approach may seem like more work initially, it will eventually make the indefinite
integral much easier to evaluate.
Note that for the final answer to make sense, it must be written in terms of the original variable of
integration.

Example:
Because the inside function of the composition is x 3 + 1, substitute with
Integration of Transcendental Functions
A transcendental number is a number that is not the root of any integer polynomial. A
transcendental function, similarly, is a function that cannot be written using roots and the
arithmetic found in polynomials.
Formally, an analytic function ƒ(z) of one real or complex variable z is transcendental if it
is algebraically independent of that variable.[3] This can be extended to functions of several
variables.
The following functions are transcendental:

In particular, for ƒ2 if we set c equal to e, the base of the natural logarithm, then we get that ex is a
transcendental function. Similarly, if we set c equal to e in ƒ5, then we get that (that is,
the natural logarithm) is a transcendental function.
A function that is not transcendental is algebraic. Simple examples of algebraic functions are
the rational functions and the square root function, but in general, algebraic functions cannot be
defined as finite formulas of the elementary functions.[5]
If is an algebraic function and is an algebraic number then is also an algebraic number. The
converse is not true: there are entire transcendental functions such that is an algebraic number
for any algebraic [6]For a given transcendental function the set of algebraic numbers giving
algebraic results is called the exceptional set of that function.[7][8] Formally it is defined by:

In dimensional analysis, transcendental functions are notable because they make sense only
when their argument is dimensionless (possibly after algebraic reduction). Because of this,
transcendental functions can be an easy-to-spot source of dimensional errors. For example,
log(5 meters) is a nonsensical expression, unlike log(5 meters / 3 meters) or log(3) meters.
One could attempt to apply a logarithmic identity to get log(5) + log(meters), which highlights the
problem: applying a non-algebraic operation to a dimension creates meaningless results.
Integral Tables
If the standard integration techniques presented previously fail to yield an antiderivative, the last
measures of despair are integral tables. These tables basically consist of collections of functions
together with their antiderivatives. In order to use them, you may have to re-write the integrand
function first in a standard form listed in the table.

Separable Equations

We are now going to start looking at nonlinear first order differential equations. The first type of
nonlinear first order differential equations that we will look at is separable differential equations.

A separable differential equation is any differential equation that we can write in the following
form.
N(y)dydx=M(x)(1)(1)N(y)dydx=M(x)

Note that in order for a differential equation to be separable all the yy's in the differential equation
must be multiplied by the derivative and all the xx's in the differential equation must be on the
other side of the equal sign.

To solve this differential equation we first integrate both sides with respect to xx to get,
∫N(y)dydxdx=∫M(x)dx∫N(y)dydxdx=∫M(x)dx

Now, remember that yy is really y(x)y(x) and so we can use the following substitution,
u=y(x)du=y′(x)dx=dydxdxu=y(x)du=y′(x)dx=dydxdx

Applying this substitution to the integral we get,

∫N(u)du=∫M(x)dx(2)(2)∫N(u)du=∫M(x)dx
At this point we can (hopefully) integrate both sides and then back substitute for the uu on the left
side. Note, that as implied in the previous sentence, it might not actually be possible to evaluate
one or both of the integrals at this point. If that is the case, then there won’t be a lot we can do to
proceed using this method to solve the differential equation.

Now, the process above is the mathematically correct way of doing solving this differential
equation. Note however, that if we “separate” the derivative as well we can write the differential
equation as,
N(y)dy=M(x)dxN(y)dy=M(x)dx

We obviously can’t separate the derivative like that, but let’s pretend we can for a bit and we’ll see
that we arrive at the answer with less work.

Now we integrate both sides of this to get,

∫N(y)dy=∫M(x)dx(3)(3)∫N(y)dy=∫M(x)dx

So, if we compare (2)(2) and (3)(3) we can see that the only difference is on the left side and even
then the only real difference is (2)(2) has the integral in terms of uu and (3)(3) has the integral in
terms of yy. Outside of that there is no real difference. The integral on the left is exactly the same
integral in each equation. The only difference is the letter used in the integral. If we
integrate (2)(2) and then back substitute in for uu we would arrive at the same thing as if we’d just
integrated (3)(3) from the start.

Therefore, to make the work go a little easier, we’ll just use (3)(3) to find the solution to the
differential equation. Also, after doing the integrations, we will have an implicit solution that we
can hopefully solve for the explicit solution, y(x)y(x). Note that it won't always be possible to solve
for an explicit solution.

Recall from the Definitions section that an implicit solution is a solution that is not in the
form y=y(x)y=y(x) while an explicit solution has been written in that form.

We will also have to worry about the interval of validity for many of these solutions. Recall that
the interval of validity was the range of the independent variable, xx in this case, on which the
solution is valid. In other words, we need to avoid division by zero, complex numbers, logarithms
of negative numbers or zero, etc. Most of the solutions that we will get from separable differential
equations will not be valid for all values of xx.
Reimann Integral

The Riemann integral is the definite integral normally encountered in calculus texts and used by
physicists and engineers. Other types of integrals exist (e.g., the Lebesgue integral), but are
unlikely to be encountered outside the confines of advanced mathematics texts. In fact, according
to Jeffreys and Jeffreys (1988, p. 29), "it appears that cases where these methods [i.e.,
generalizations of the Riemann integral] are applicable and Riemann's [definition of the integral] is
not are too rare in physics to repay the extra difficulty."

The Riemann integral is based on the Jordan measure, and defined by taking a limit of a Riemann
sum,

(1)

(2)

(3)

where and , , and are arbitrary points in the intervals , , and ,

respectively. The value is called the mesh size of a partition of the interval into
subintervals .

As an example of the application of the Riemann integral definition, find the area under the
curve from 0 to . Divide into segments, so , then
(4)
(5)
(6)

By induction
(7)

so
(8)

(9)
For example, take .

(10)

so

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

Riemann integrals can be computed only for proper integrals.

Areas by Integration
1. Area under a curve – region bounded by the given function, vertical lines and the x –
axis.
2. Area under a curve – region bounded by the given function, horizontal lines and the y –
axis.
3. Area between curves defined by two given functions.
a. Area under a curve – region bounded by the given function, vertical lines and the
x –axis.
If f(x) is a continuous and nonnegative function of x on the closed interval [a, b], then the area of
the region bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis and the vertical lines x=a and x=b is given by:

When calculating the area under a curve f(x), follow the steps below: 1. Sketch the area. 2.
Determine the boundaries a and b, 3. Set up the definite integral, 4. Integrate.
Ex. 1. Find the area in the first quadrant bounded by 2 f (x)  4x  x and the x-axis.
Graph:

To find the boundaries, determine the x-intercepts: ( ) 0 4 0 2 f x   x  x  x(4  x)  0 x  0 or

(4  x)  0 so x  0 and x  4 Therefore the boundaries are a  0 and b  4
Definite Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

A Definite Integral has start and end values: in other words there is an interval [a, b]. a and b
(called limits, bounds or boundaries) are put at the bottom and top of the "S", like this: Definite
Integral.

The first fundamental theorem of calculus states that, if is continuous on the closed
interval and is the indefinite integral of on , then

(1)

This result, while taught early in elementary calculus courses, is actually a very deep result
connecting the purely algebraic indefinite integral and the purely analytic (or geometric) definite
integral.

The second fundamental theorem of calculus holds for a continuous function on an open
interval and any point in , and states that if is defined by

(2)

then
(3)

at each point in .

The fundamental theorem of calculus along curves states that if has a continuous indefinite
integral in a region containing a parameterized curve for , then