Professional Documents
Culture Documents
standardisation
Basque recovery II
Garabide Elkartea
On this DVD we have brought together the accounts of major participants in the
process of Basque standardization who describe the motivations, obstacles and
triumphs in this fascinating story.
Author: Garabide Elkartea
Jose Arana, 13. 20540 Eskoriatza. Gipuzkoa.
Tel: 943250397.
www.garabide.org / info@garabide.org
L I C E N C I A C R E AT I V E C O M M O N S
Language standardisation..........................................11
Spoken and written languages.....................................11
Alphabets and cultural propagation...........................13
The standard language, a necessity.............................14
The staircase of language.............................................15
After Arantzazu............................................................ 41
Standardising the auxiliary verb..................................42
The analysis of the Arantzazu rules............................43
Consequences of standardisation............................59
Bibliography......................................................................64
Basque is a language that may be described in seemingly
contradictory ways. It is both an aboriginal and a western
language. It is a very old language, yet also a rather modern
one. It is language undergoing recovery, yet still a threatened
FOREW language.
Jon Sarasua
Language standardisation 11
Language
standardisation
Spoken and
written languages
Every language started life as a spoken gradually became increasingly complex,
language. For many generations oral and the need was felt to set down some
transmission was the only way in rules, and to give those who needed
which knowledge could be passed on it access to them. It also became clear
about how to hunt or tend livestock, that it was not enough to transmit
how to cultivate the land, what to be knowledge and feelings only to one’s
afraid of, what to protect. most intimate circle. It was necessary to
record business transactions, pacts and
Then there came a time when human important decisions. Verbal agreements
beings found this was not enough. As were no longer adequate for this, and so
civilisations sprang up, social structures writing came into being.
It all started with the drawing of simple trading people from the eastern end of
pictures called pictograms: a hand, an the Mediterranean Sea, realised that
eye, a house, a cow or the sun. Next they needed a more efficient writing
came ideograms and hieroglyphics. By system, one that was practical, quick,
means of various writing conventions and not only accessible to scholars
developed in China, Mesopotamia or or priests, that would answer their
Egypt, it now became possible to convey business needs for bookkeeping. They
to posterity ideas and issues pertinent to started to represent by means of
day-to-day life. Likewise, the Maya and letters the sounds that we make when
Aztecs used signs to set down laws or to we speak, and so the first alphabet was
record the names of the dead. Primitive born. This idea was eventually adapted
symbols were employed to write poetry, to the languages of most civilisations.
to pray to the gods, to preserve ancient
epics and sagas, or to sing the praises of But since each language is different,
rulers. But this was still not enough. and its sounds are likewise different,
each speech community had to adjust
Roughly twelve hundred years before and adapt the written code to its needs.
the Common Era, the Phoenicians, a Although traditional writing systems
Language standardisation 13
are able to understand the world better contexts, runs the risk of becoming
through it. Let us not forget that when more and more isolated.
we study mathematics, geography or
history, we are also studying language.
Bordele
Andorra
Burgos
Zaragoza
The Basque case 19
The Basque
case
“The real mystery of the Basque thousand years ago it was spoken over
language is its survival, not its origin,” a much larger territory than at present,
wrote one of the greatest of Basque basically in the region of the Pyrenees
linguists, Koldo Mitxelena. mountain chain. The argument over
its relations to other languages is still
The Basque language has always going on; no hypothesis has gained
aroused interest because of its special enough adherents to be generally
characteristics. One of the oldest admitted. It is not certain whether it
languages in Europe, its relationship has always been spoken on the shore
to other languages has never been of the Bay of Biscay, that is, if it came
clarified. It is generally acknowledged into existence in this area, or was
that Basque, or its ancestor forms, has brought there by some very ancient
been spoken in Europe for thousands people. It is therefore referred to as an
of years and that prior to the arrival isolate, that is, a language which has no
of the Indo-Europeans over two known relatives.
Present-day distribution
of Basque dialects
Western dialect
Central dialect
Navarrese dialect
Navarrese-Lapurdian dialect
Zuberoan dialect
The Basque case 21
The long
road towards
standard Basque
The preoccupation with the standardi- close as possible to all the dialects in
sation of Basque is almost as old as his area in order to reach the greatest
written Basque literature itself. Joanes number of readers. He was aiming at a
Leizarraga, a priest who translated the standard language.
New Testament into Basque in the
sixteenth century, wrote in the pref- In the next century another Jesuit,
ace that in Euskal Herria, the Basque Manuel Larramendi, was one of the
Country, the language that was spoken first Basque language apologists
varied practically from house to house. and he also wrote the first Basque
Therefore he tried to create a way of grammar and a dictionary, for which
writing the language that would be he took words from every dialect. He
understood by the largest possible part believed that in this way, not only
of the population. For this purpose he would the language be enriched, but
observed the language varieties around speakers of different dialects would
him, particularly those spoken to the understand each other better. It was
north of the Pyrenees. He tried to de- his priority that Basques should listen
velop something that would come as to each other.
Given that their language
did not attain to the status
of a language of culture, the
Basque-speaking community
was branded illiterate or even
plain ignorant despite a rich
cultural tradition which had
mainly been transmitted orally
Minority languages
and dominant
languages
These intellectuals had forgotten that
centuries earlier Spanish and French
stood in precisely the same situation
vis-à-vis Latin. In the sixteenth cen-
tury, writers in these languages, as in Resurreccion Maria Azkue
the case of the languages then emerg-
The work of
ing elsewhere in Europe, still felt they
needed to defend their language; Latin
was still considered the language of
culture par excellence. In the case of
languages descended from Latin itself,
the academy
the changeover was not so difficult,
But Euskaltzaindia forged ahead, and be-
but in that of other languages, such
gan by deciding on issues where it was
as Basque, things were more compli- possible. In 1920 the academy took a po-
cated. Given that their language did sition on some basic issues about Basque
not attain to the status of a language spelling, eliminating the letters c, q and
of culture, the Basque-speaking com- v while giving the green light to the use
munity was branded illiterate or even of ü, ts, tx and tz, and also h. It was to
plain ignorant despite a rich cultural be the only progress on standardisation
in almost thirty years. Why? One rea-
tradition which had mainly been trans-
son was that Basques still lacked a clear
mitted orally. This dichotomy between consciousness of the relation between
cultured and uncultured peoples lasted language and country: each writer fo-
many centuries — far too many! cused on his own dialect, the language
The language as a
variety of his own community or at best
his own region. Another reason was that
the language was not a genuine priority.
Most intellectuals in the academy still core element
used Spanish for the most part; even the
At the beginning of the twentieth cen-
meetings of the Basque language acad-
tury, the Basque language was generally
emy were conducted in Spanish!
seen as part of the Basque landscape
comparable to its characteristic self-
The traumatic experience of the Spanish sufficient farmsteads (baserriak) which
Civil War (1936-39) and the subsequent dotted the hills all over the country,
authoritarian regime ushered in dark or perhaps to the txistu, a shrill one-
times for any attempt whatsoever to handed flute played while tapping a
defend Basque language and culture. An drum with the other hand, always pres-
entire generation was silenced, and many ent at Basque festive events. Instead, by
of its brightest stars either executed, im- the middle of the century some Basque
prisoned or forced to leave the country. intellectuals had come to view the lan-
The reactionary dictatorial regime for- guage as a basic resource for raising
bade all cultural activity in Basque and Basque awareness, an incomparable ag-
glutinating force that could contribute
made it impossible to even speak Basque
to the regeneration of a whole country,
in public. The Basque language acad- not just as a quaint part of its tradi-
emy was forced into a long period of tional folklore, but as a key to progress.
hibernation. This meant that the language, still pre-
dominantly rural, would now have to be
In the fifties, at a time when young
Basques living under the shadow of the At Arantzazu, the generation
Franco dictatorship were beginning to
grope towards a new political aware-
gap came to a head. The young
ness, a change of discourse appeared writers had begun to publish
regarding the importance of language since the civil war, and it was
and of language recovery. Although this
new discourse was still rooted in the old
their dream to free Basque
romantic view, it went well beyond that. from the ‘folklore’ straitjacket
Language was now seen, not just as an and turn it into a living,
element of Basque idiosyncrasy to be modern language, adaptable
preserved and studied, but as quintes-
sential to the Basque Country’s cultural and well-adapted; a 4-wheel
recovery and absolutely unnegotiable. drive, all-terrain language
The long roadLanguage
towards standard Basque 31
standardisation
When we go back and read public Keeping the h was one way to ensure
statements prior to the Arantzazu that language unification would be
meeting, we receive the impression that supported on both sides of the Pyr-
the latter, conservative view represented enees; it was a strategy to neutralise
the majority position and that, in all both political and linguistic borders. It
probability, those who wanted things might mean that the new Basque spell-
to remain as they already were would
ing had a chance to unify all Basque
win the day.
speakers, rather than driving a wedge
Now one particular issue ended up as between them.
the symbolic flag-bearer in this great
controversy, and that was the letter h. The “young” group liked the idea, but
older and more conservative delegates
were against having to get used to a
letter that they did not even pronounce.
Term in
Traditional term Proposed current
(loan word) neologism use today
After
Arantzazu
Two years after the Arantzazu meeting, had been lukewarm. He believed that
it was time for Euskaltzaindia to elect the academy should stick to a neu-
a new president. The proponents of tral position, neither for nor against
the road to standardisation considered standardisation, and he stated that
that it was of vital importance for the he would personally carry on writing
academy to be led by someone who was Basque without h.
committed to the decisions that had
been ratified, because they knew that He was not the only one. In 1970, a
their ultimate success would depend on group of Basque writers and academy
further development of the points that members started a movement in oppo-
had been agreed upon and their trans- sition to the rules that had been rati-
fer to the realm of practice. fied at Arantzazu, and convinced the
president of the academy that it was
The academy’s incumbent president, not feasible to move ahead with spell-
Manuel Lekuona, was highly regarded ing reform. Lekuona wanted to create a
among the academy’s members, but his new committee to review the issue and
support for the standardisation process suggested that Mitxelena should not be
The Bergara conference (1978): From left to right, Jose Maria Satrustegi, Koldo Mitxelena,
Luis Villasante and the mayor of Bergara Jose Luis Elkoro.
on it. His proposal was not approved, sion was that the spelling reform was
but it triggered off a great deal of con- in need of a new drive forward. The
cern among some academy members academy set itself a ten-year target:
who believed the time had now come to carry out a thorough analysis of the
to make a move forward in support of feasibility of the Arantzazu rules. In
Euskaltzaindia’s official position. the meantime, the academy was to get
started on the gordian knot of Basque
On the 29th of July, 1970, Luis Villas- standardisation: the conjugation of
ante was elected as the new head of the auxiliary verb.
Euskaltzaindia. Villasante was a Fran-
ciscan who had performed his life’s
work on language and literature with-
in the walls of the Arantzazu monas-
tery itself. His presidency constituted a
vital step forward in support of Basque Standardising
language unification. With Villasante,
the Arantzazu recommendations
became rules.
the auxiliary verb
The new president surrounded himself The need for a common norm for the
with the best available specialists and conjugation of Basque’s ubiquitous
set up committees to undertake all the and complex auxiliary verb forms had
work ahead of them. The first deci- rarely been addressed before. Few had
After Arantzazu 43
dared to, since Mitxelena had expressed requested that Euskaltzaindia concede
the opinion that it was still too early to a “moratorium”, in consideration of
tackle this problem. However, precisely the “issues and confusions” involved.
because verb forms differ notably from It was a euphemism: the publishers in
place to place and are perhaps the area question had already made up their
of greatest interdialectal variation, it was mind to go on applying pre-Arantzazu
a crucial issue for Basque standardisa- spellings in their publications. For two
tion. This would be the Reform-with-a- reasons, the revolt failed: the academy
capital-R so to speak, which could make responded with firmness that it was
or break the whole endeavour, by show- determined to go ahead with its stan-
ing whether or not it was possible to dardisation project, and in any case,
reach agreement on a single set of basic most publishers, including the biggest
rules even when starting out from the ones, were ready to accept and imple-
greatest diversity. ment the new rules.
The Bergara conference (1978): From left to right, Federiko Krutwig, Luis Villasante, Piarres Lafitte,
Jose Maria Satrustegi and Koldo Mitxelena.
After Arantzazu 45
The corpus
of unified Basque
The expression classical language refers language is, on the contrary, perceived
to a language that has attained to a as a drawback, a sign of backwardness.
permanent high status unaffacted by
passing fashions. At the opposite end of Yet all languages are really equal,
the scale, languages such as Quechua, because they share the same capacity to
Aymara or Basque are called vernacular communicate knowledge and feelings.
languages, with the implication that Languages all serve their chief purpose
they are neither big nor important. equally well, namely to express the full
Finally, one speaks of modern languages
range of human thought through the
such as English, French or Spanish.
In the common view implied by this emission of sounds. Is this enough?
classification, knowledge of modern Yes it is. Is this alone desirable? No. A
languages is valued as something language community that hopes to
necessary and useful; familiarity with survive in the modern world needs
classical languages is a bonus enjoyed to have the ability to expand in
by a select, highly educated few; new directions, to spread into new
while knowing and using a vernacular sociolinguistic spaces.
In the Basque case, standardisa- other Basque speakers can barely
tion has been beneficial inasmuch understand (as was the stereotyped
as it has made it possible for the image in the past); in consequence,
language to extend into uses from against the backdrop of the domi-
which it had previously been excluded. nant languages, the prestige of
Standardisation: Basque has positively skyrocketed.
• has helped to demolish the barriers There are several reasons that help to
between speakers of different va- explain this phenomenon:
rieties of Basque: people who can
speak standard Basque no longer • By the mid-twentieth century, the
feel the need to resort to Spanish or outlook for Basque was very bleak.
French to communicate with some- Basques were faced with two op-
body who comes from a different tions: they could abandon their
part of the Basque Country. language to its fate, or make a des-
perate effort to save it; in the event,
• has allowed Basque to enter all do- they decided to go all out in favour
mains of social life, including edu- of the latter option. By oppress-
cation, public administration, the
ing the Basques, Franco’s dictator-
press and media, the Internet, etc.
ship created a generation of young
people with a very strong political
• has, for the above reasons, facilitat-
and cultural consciousness who
ed the expansion of the Basque lan-
guage into new domains. If Basque embraced this option with enthu-
was to survive, it was essential for siasm as something that was both
the total number of speakers to necessary and inevitable.
stop declining and instead to grow.
Such growth has been favoured by • The initiatives in support of Basque
the increased prestige of the lan- that were set in motion during
guage in domains of use such as that period — the Basque-medium
education and the media. Today shools or ikastolak, the movement
there are more Basque speakers, of adult Basque evening classes or
and they are no longer confined to gau-eskolak, the Basque-language
the pre-existing linguistic boundar- press, radio stations and eventu-
ies; speakers can now be found in ally television, the literary move-
any part of the Basque Country. ment — all stood to benefit from,
indeed urgently needed, a unified
• has favoured the perception of language as an essential tool allow-
Basque as a “real language”, not a ing Basque to compete successfully
hodgepodge of dialects that even with the dominant languages.
The corpus of unified Basque 55
Consequences of
standardisation
Today, everybody who works in any necessary in a contemporary society,
field, or leads a life, linked to Basque the language community must really
language and culture agrees that the have the will to do so. If a community
change involved in language standardi- lacks enough energy to undertake that
sation was both a necessary and a posi- route, it is resigning itself unsonscious-
tive one. Let us remember that every ly to being assimilated. Therefore, it is
language possesses dialectal variations; essential for language recovery that
such a situation is quite natural. Both one should have a clear notion of the
the standard form of the language and ultimate goal, which is that knowledge
the dialects fulfil their purposes and and use of the language should become
ought to be mastered and used, each in a necessity in the territory to which it
its own context. pertains. That is what has occurred in
every case where a language has been
Obviously, in order for a language to successfully recovered.
recover spaces that it needs to occupy
for communication and to acquire the But can we say that in the case of
ability to express all the things that are Basque the route that has been fol-
lowed was the right one? Has Basque In order for a language to
been impoverished in the process of recover spaces that it needs to
bringing about the increasingly wide- occupy for communication and
spread use of the standard language?
Have local language varieties lost out in to acquire the ability to express
the process? all the things that are necessary
in a contemporary society, the
It is the feeling of people who have language community must really
laboured day and night to ensure the
success of language normalisation that have the will to do so
Basque is a richer language today than
it was forty years ago, and that in the self but a means towards language
future it will become even richer as it normalisation:
gets more malleable and versatile. To be
sure, there will no doubt be some local • The first step in standardisation is
variations, expressions and words that to establish a basic orthography. In
will die out gradually, in Basque as in many cases, establishing the spell-
all the world’s languages; but that does ing for individual words will come
not mean that those varieties will be later. At the initial stage it is neces-
any the poorer, since the number of new sary to bear in mind the following:
forms that will be adopted is greater
than the number of old ones which will • that whichever spelling system is
be lost, and furthermore the new items adopted is purely conventional,
are better adapted to the community of
speakers’ present-day needs. • that the system of spelling of the
dominant language should not be
Mitxelena was wont to say that linguis- viewed as the ideal or only possi-
tics is the worst enemy of standardisa- ble solution for our own language,
tion, because the linguist tends to pre-
fer wild flowers to domesticated plants. • that all languages have variation,
He also said that it is impossible to and each language differs in its
predict any language’s future develop- phonological component,
ment. Nevertheless, having performed
the foregoing analysis of the process • that it is necessary to seek a con-
undergone by Basque, it is possible to sensus and give way on some
list some basic steps that may be valid points while preserving the lan-
for other peoples who desire to address guage’s basic features,
this task in the light of our experience,
provided we always bear in mind that • that it is important to be aware of
standardisation is not an end unto it- what elements are shared by dif-
Consequences of standardisation 61
pertise who not only know the lan- are most used, paying less attention
guage well but are driven by their to less current items. The dictionary
love of the language and their desire should show the most usual mean-
to devote themselves to supporting ings for each word as attested in
it with their work, and to encourage the language’s history.
them to cooperate with each other
towards a common cause. Such • One might also create committees
people ought to come from all the to work on the analysis and classifi-
areas where the language is spoken, cation of dialectal variations.
so that they may:
• Another committee might study the
• Agree on a common alphabet. language’s literature, analysing and
classifying any literary works exist-
• Form a grammar committee to draft ing in the language.
a proposal on those aspects of the
grammar that involve complexities. • Last but not least, it is desirable to
create an awareness group which
• Write a prescriptive dictionary will focus on the need to recover for
showing the recommended spelling the language those functions which
of all words, including names. This are at present monopolized by the
should above all list the words that dominant language.
Bibliography
• Euskararen liburu zuria (Euskaltzaindia, 1978)