E. E. Gdoutos Fracture Mechanics An IntroductionSOLID MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 14 Series Editor: G.M.L.GLADWELL Solid Mechanics Division, Faculty of Engineering University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 Aims and Scope of the Series The fundamental questions arising in mechanics are: Why?, How?, and How much? The aim of this series is to provide lucid accounts written by authoritative research- ers giving vision and insight in answering these questions on the subject of mechanics as it relates to solids. The scope of the series covers the entire spectrum of solid mechanics. Thus it includes the foundation of mechanics; variational formulations; computational mechanics; statics, kinematics and dynamics of rigid and elastic bodies; vibrations of solids and structures; dynamical systems and chaos; the theories of elasticity, plasticity and viscoelasticity; composite materials; rods, beams, shells and membranes; structural control and stability; soils, rocks and geomechanics; fracture; tribology; experimental mechanics; biomechanics and machine design. The median level of presentation is the first year graduate student. Some texts are monographs defining the current state of the field; others are accessible to final year undergraduates; but essentially the emphasis is on readability and clarity. For a list of related mechanics titles, see final pages.Fracture Mechanics An Introduction by E. E. GDOUTOS ‘School of Engineering, University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece CY Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht / Boston / LondonLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 1946- shanice ; an intreduction / by E.E. Gdoutos. (Solid mechanics and its applications : v. 14) Gdoutos, E. & Fractu Be Includes index. ISBN 0-7923-1982-X (alk. paper? 1, Fracture sechanics. I. Title. II. Series. 38 1993 26--de20 92-2721 ISBN 0-7923-1932-X Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Kluwer Academic Publishers incorporates the publishing programmes of D. Reidel, Martinus Nijhoff, Dr W. Junk and MTP Press. Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada by Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Norwell, MA 02061, U.S.A. In all other countries, sold and distributed by Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, P.O. Box 322, 3300 AH Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 1993 Kluwer Academic Publishers No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. Printed in the NetherlandsContents Conversion table Preface L 2. Introduction 1.1. Conventional failure criteria 1.2. Characteristic brittle failures 1.3, Griffith’s work 1.4. Fracture mechanics References Linear Elastic Stress Field in Cracked Bodies 2.1, Introduction 2.2. Crack deformation modes and basic concepts 23. Westergaard method 2.4. Singular stress and displacement fields 2.5. Stress intensity factor solutions 2.6. Three-dimensional cracks Examples Problems Appendix 2.1 References Elastic-Plastic Stress Field in Cracked Bodies 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Approximate determination of the crack-tip plastic zone 3.3. Irwin’s model 3.4. Dugdale’s model Examples Problems References Crack Growth Gased on Energy Balance 4.1. Introduction a BSuven 15 15 17 20 7 Pa) 37 53 55 57 57 58 63 65 68 B 76 9 719vi 4.2. Energy balance during crack growth 43. Griffith theory 4.4, Graphical representation of the energy balance equation 4.5. Equivalence between strain energy release rate and stress intensity factor 4.6. Compliance 4.7. Crack stability Examples Problems Reference 5. Critical Stress Intensity Factor Fracture Criterion 5.1. Introduction 5.2, Fracture criterion 5.3. Variation of K, with thickness 5.4. Experimental determination of Kjc 5.5. Crack growth resistance curve (R-curve) method 5.6. Fracture mechanics design methodology Examples Problems Appendix 5.1 References 6. a Integral and Crack Opening Displacement Fracture Criteria Introduction é: 2. Path-independent integrals 63. J-integral 6.4, Relationship between the J-integral and potential energy 6.5. J-integral fracture criterion 6.6. Experimental determination of the J-integral 6.7. Stable crack growth studied by the J-integral 68. Crack opening displacement (COD) fracture criterion Examples Problems References 7. Strain Energy Density Failure Criterion: Mixed-Mode Crack Growth 7.1. Introduction . Volume strain energy density |. Basic hypotheses |. Two-dimensional linear elastic crack problems . Uniaxial extension of an inclined crack Ductile fracture The stress criterion Contents 80 81 82 86, 89 o1 94 106 116 u7 117 118 118 122 128 133 134 145 150 151 153 153 153 155 158 160 161 169 170 176 184 192 195 195 196. 199 201 203 209 213Contents 10. Examples Problems References Dynamic Fracture 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Mott’s model 8.3. Stress field around a rapidly propagating crack 84, Strain energy release rate 8.5. Crack branching 8.6. Crack arrest 8.7. Experimental determination of crack velocity and dynamic stress intensity factor Examples Problems References Fatigue and Environment-Assisted Fracture 9.1, Introduction 9.2. Fatigue crack propagation laws 9.3, Fatigue life calculations 9.4, Variable amplitude loading 9.5. Environment-assisted fracture Examples Problems References Micromechanics of Fracture 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Cohesive strength of solids 10.3. Cleavage fracture 10.4. Intergranular fracture 10.5. Ductile fracture 10.6. Crack detection methods References Index vii 215 228 238 Pe 239 243, 8 250 250 253 263 265 267 am 272 275 287 292 293 293 296 299 301 303Conversion table Length 1m=39.37 in 1 in = 0.0254 m 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1m=3.28 ft Force 1N=0.102Kef 1 Kgf = 9.807 N 1N=0.2248 Ib 1 fb = 4,448 N 1 dyne = 10-5.N 1 kip = 4.448 KN 1 KN = 0.2248 kip Stress 1Pa=1 Nim? 1 Ibfin? = 6.895 kPa 1 kPa = 0.145 Ib/in? 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa Stress intensity factor 1 MPavm = 0.910 ksivin 1 ksivin = 1.099 MPaYmPreface ‘Traditional failure criteria cannot adequately explain many structural failures that occur at stress levels considerably lower than the ultimate strength of the mate- rial. Example problems include bridges, tanks, pipes, weapons, ships, railways and aerospace structures. On the other hand, experiments performed by Griffith in 1921 on glass fibers led to the conclusion that the strength of real materials is much smaller, typically by two orders of magnitude, than their theoretical strength. In an effort to explain these phenomena the discipline of fracture mechanics has been created. It is based on the realistic assumption that all materials contain crack-like defects which constitute the nuclei of failure initiation, A major objective of fracture mechanics is to study the load-carrying capacity of structures in the presence of initial defects, where a dominant crack is assumed to exist. A new design philosophy is therefore introduced by fracture mechanics as opposed to the use of the traditional fracture criteria. Since structures that have no defects cannot be constructed on the grounds of practicality, the safe design of structures should proceed along two lines: either the safe operating load should be determined when a crack of a prescribed size is assumed to exist in the structure; or, given the operating load, the size of the crack that is created in the structure should be determined. Design by fracture mechanics necessitates knowledge of acritical crack size and a parameter which characterizes the propensity of a crack to extend. Such a parameter should be able to relate laboratory test results to structural performance, so that the response of a structure with cracks can be predicted from laboratory test data. This is determined as a function of material behavior, crack size, structural geometry and loading conditions. On the other hand, the critical value of this parameter — known as fracture toughness, a property of the material — is determined from laboratory tests. Fracture toughness expresses the ability of the material to resist fracture in the presence of cracks. By equating this parameter to its critical value we obtain a relation between applied load, crack size and structure geometry which gives the necessary information for structural design. Fracture toughness is used to rank the ability of a material to resist fracture within the framework of fracture mechanics,xii Preface in the same way that yield or ultimate strength is used to rank the resistance of the material to yield or fracture in the conventional design criteria, In selecting materials for structural applications we must choose between materials with a high yield strength, but comparatively low fracture toughness, or those with a lower yield strength, but higher fracture toughness. This book has been prepared to meet the continuing demand for a text designed to present a clear, consistent, straightforward and unified interpretation of the basic concepts and underlying principles of the discipline of fracture mechanics. A general survey of the field would serve no purpose other than give a collection of references and outline equations and results. A realistic application of fracture mechanics could not be made without a sound understanding of the fundamentals. The book is self-contained; the presentations are concise and each topic can be understood by advanced undergraduates in material science and continuum mechanics. Each chapter contains illustrative example problems and homework problems. A total of about fifty example problems and more than two hundred unsolved problems are included in the book. The book is divided into ten chapters. The first, introductory, chapter gives a brief account of some characteristic failures that could not be explained by the traditional failure criteria, and of Griffith's experiments which gave impetus to the development of a new philosophy in engineering design based on fracture mechanics. The next two chapters deal with the determination of the stress and deformation fields in cracked bodies, and provide the necessary prerequisite for the development of the criteria of fracture mechanics. More specifically, Chapter 2 covers the Westergaard method for determining the linear elastic stress field in cracked bodies, with particular emphasis on the local behavior around the crack tip, and Chapter 3 is devoted to the determination of the elastic-plastic stress and displacement distribution around cracks for time-independent plasticity. Addressed in the fourth chapter is the theory of crack growth based on the global energy balance of the entire system. The fifth chapter is devoted to the critical stress intensity factor fracture criterion. The sixth chapter deals with the theoretical foundation of the path-independent J-integral and its use as a fracture criterion, Furthermore, a brief presentation of the crack opening displacement fracture criterion is given. Chapter 7 studies the underlying Principles of the strain energy density theory and demonstrates its usefulness and versatility in solving a host of two- and three-dimensional problems of mixed-mode crack growth in brittle and ductile fracture. Chapter 8 presents in a concise form the basic concepts and the salient points of dynamic fracture mechanics. Addressed in Chapter 9 is the phenomenon of fatigue and environment-assisted crack growth which takes place within the framework of the macroscopic scale level. Finally, Chapter 10 briefly outlines the basic mechanisms of fracture which take place in metals at the microscopic scale level and presents a concise description of the more widely used nondestructive testing methods for defect detection. ‘Most of the material of the theoretical presentation of the various chapters of the ‘book is contained in the previous book by the author Fracture Mechanics Criteria and Applications, published by Kluwer Academic Publishers. That book containsPreface xiii a more detailed description of the various aspects of fracture mechanics than the present book and includes an extensive list of references for further study. The present book was especially written as a potential textbook for fracture mechanics courses at undergraduate and postgraduate level. The instructive character of the book is enhanced by many illustrative example problems and homework problems included in each chapter. ‘The author wishes to express his gratitude to Professor G.C. Sih for very stimu- lating discussions and his comments and suggestions during the writing of the book. ‘Thanks are also extended to my secretary Mrs L.. Adamidou for typing the manuscript and to my student Mr N, Prassos for the preparation of illustrations. Finally, I wish to express my profound gratitude to my wife, Maria, and my children, Eleftherios and Alexandra-Kalliope for their understanding and patience during the writing of the book. Xanthi, Greece, 1993 EMMANUEL E. GDOUTOSChapter 1 Introduction 1.1. Conventional failure criteria The mechanical design of engineering structures usually involves an analysis of the stress and displacement fields in conjunction with a postulate predicting the event of failure itself. Sophisticated methods for determining stress distributions in loaded structures are available today. Detailed theoretical analyses based on simplifying assumptions regarding material behavior and structural geometry are undertaken to obtain an accurate knowledge of the stress state. For complicated structure or loading situations, experimental or numerical methods are preferable. Having performed the stress analysis, we select a suitable failure criterion for an assessment of the strength and integrity of the structural component. Conventional failure criteria have been developed to explain strength failures of Joad-bearing structures which can be classified roughly as ductile at one extreme and brittle at another. In the first case, breakage of a structure is preceded by large deformation which occurs over a relatively long time period and may be associated with yielding or plastic flow. The brittle failure, on the other hand, is preceded by small deformation, and is usually sudden. Defects play a major role in the mechanism of both these types of failure; those associated with ductile failure differ significantly from those influencing brittle fracture. For ductile failures, which are dominated by yielding before breakage, the important defects (dislocations, grain boundary ‘spacings, interstitial and out-of-size substitutional atoms, precipitates) tend to distort and warp the crystal lattice planes. Brittle fracture, however, which takes place before any appreciable plastic flow occurs, initiates at larger defects such as inclusions, sharp notches, surface scratches or cracks. For a uniaxial test specimen failure by yielding or fracture takes place when o=0y oO o=oy (ay where is the applied stress and cy or ois the yield or breakage stress of the material in tension, Materials that fail in a ductile manner undergo yielding before they ultimately fracture. Postulates for determining those macroscopic stress combinations that 1Introduction 3 where the curve t = F(¢) on the ¢ — 7 plane is determined experimentally and is considered as a material parameter. ‘The simplest form of the curve r = F(c) is the straight line, which is expressed by T= — He. (Ls) Under such conditions the Coulomb-Mohr fracture criterion is expressed by 1+sinw 1—sin (ace) o- Geaea) 8-1 a6 where tan w = pando; > a2 > 03. Equation (1.6) suggests that fracture is independent of the intermediate princi- pal stress 2. Modifications to the Coulomb-Mohr criterion have been introduced to account for the influence of the intermediate principal stress on the fracture of pressure-dependent materials, These macroscopic failure criteria describe the onset of yield in materials with diictile behavior, or Fracture in materials with brittle behavior: they fiave been used Extensively in the design of engineering structures. In order'to take into account Uncertainties in the analysis of service loads, material or fabrication defects and high local or residual stresses, a safety factor is employed to limit the calculated critical equivalent yield or fracture stress to a portion of the nominal yield or fracture stress of the material. The latter quantities are determined experimentally. This design Procedure has been successful for the majority of structures for many years. However, it was early realized that there is a broad class of structures, espe- cially those made of high-strength materials, whose failure could not be adequatel; explained by the conventional design eieria. GHEEINTLZ-L31, Rona seis Of ex: P Tun on glass fibers, came to the conclusion that the strength of real materials ‘iS ich smaller, typically by two orders of magnitude, than their theoretical strength. itrength is detérmined by the properties of the internal structure of and is defined as the highest stress level that the material can sustain. In the following two sections we shall give a brief account of some characteristic Tailures which could not be explained by the traditional failure criteria, and describe some of Griffith’s experiments. These were the major events that gave impetus to the development of a new philosophy in structural design based on fracture mechanics. 1.2, Characteristic brittle failures The phenomenon of brittle fracture is frequently encountered in many aspects of everyday life. It is involved, for example, in splitting logs with wedges, in the art of sculpture, in cleaving layers in mica, in machining materials, and in many manufac- turing and constructional processes. On the other hand, many catastrophic structural failures involving loss of life have occurred as a result of sudden, unexpected brittle