Ec2356 Lab Manual

EX.
NO: 1 STUDY OF NETWORKING DEVICES
Aim: To study the functions of various networking devices used in local area networks.
Theory:
(i) Repeater:
A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and passes it on. It can regenerate and
retime network signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the
media.
The repeater does not have the intelligence to keep the frame from passing to the right
side when it is meant for a station on the left.
Types of repeaters:
1. Single port:
• It operates actually with two segments.
2. Multiport:
• It has one input port and multiple output port.
3. Smart:
• It is the hybrid device.
• It is similar to bridge, in functionality.
• Packet filtering is done.
4. Optical:
• It repeats the optic signals.
• It is implemented in all types of cables.
ii) Hub:
Hubs are actually multiport repeaters. Using a hub changes the network topology from a
linear bus, where each device plugs directly into the wire, to a star. Hubs are also called
concentrators.
Three Different types of hubs:
1. Passive: A passive hub serves as a physical connection point only. It does not
manipulate or view the traffic that crosses it. It does not boost or clean the signal. A
passive hub is used only to share the physical media. As such, the passive hub does not
need electrical power.
2. Active: An active hub must be plugged into an electrical outlet because it needs power
to amplify the incoming signal before passing it out to the other ports.
3. Intelligent: Intelligent hubs are sometimes called smart hubs. These devices basically
function as active hubs, but also include a microprocessor chip and diagnostic
capabilities. Intelligent hubs are more expensive than active hubs, but are useful in
troubleshooting situations.
iii) Bridges:
• It operates in both: physical and data link layer.
• Bridges are more intelligent than repeaters and hub. It makes forwarding decisions
based on Media Access Control (MAC) addresses contained within the headers of
transmitted data frames.
• A bridge is used to divide, or segment, a network. Bridges collect and selectively pass
data frames between two network segments.
• In order to do this, bridges learn the MAC address of devices on each connected
segment. With this information, the bridge builds a bridging table and forwards or blocks
traffic based on that table.
• This results in smaller collision domains and greater network efficiency.
• If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the bridge blocks the
frame from going on to other segments. This process is known as filtering.
• If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge forwards the frame to
all segments except the one on which it was received. This process is known as
flooding.
Types of bridges:
1. Simple:
• Most primitive and least expensive.
• Links 2 segments.
• The addresses of each station should be entered or deleted manually.
2. Multiport:
• Link more than 2 LANs.
3. Transparent:
• Build its table of station addresses on its own.
• When the bridge is first installed, its table is empty. As it encounters each packet, it
saves the source and destination addresses in its table.
iv) Switches:
• It may act as a multiport bridge.
• Layer 2, Layer 3 and Layer 4 uses Switch.
• The switch normally has a buffer for each link.
Layer 2 Switches:
• It operates using physical network addresses, identify individual devices.
• They act very fast.
Layer 3 Switches:
• It uses network or IP addresses to identify the location on the network, as well as the
physical device.
• Smarter than Layer 2 device, but not faster.
• It incorporates routing functions to calculate the best way to send a packet to its
destination.
Layer 4 Switches:
• It identifies the application protocols (HTTP, FTP) in each packet.
• It makes packet forwarding decision based on the MAC address, IP address and the
application of the packet.
Switches are made based on two different strategies:

1. Store and Forward:
• Stores the frame in the input buffer until the whole packet has arrived.
2. Cut through:
• Forwards the packet to the output buffer, as soon as the destination address is
received.
v) Routers:
• A router is a three layer device (physical layer, data link layer, network layer).
• It routes the packets based on their logical addresses.
• It connects two or more networks. It may be similar or dissimilar networks.
• It consists of combination of the hardware and software.
• A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet.
• It has a routing table to make decisions about the route.
• It determines the shortest path to the destination by using the routing algorithms to
find the best path.
vi) Gateway:
• It is generally software installed within a router.

• It connects two independent networks.
• It is a protocol converter. A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol
(e.g. TCP/IP) and convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g. Apple Talk)
before forwarding it.
• It operates on all the 7 layers of the OSI model.
• It must adjust data rate, size and data format.
Result:
Thus the Networking devices with its types were studied.
EX.NO:2 CABLES AND THEIR PIN FUNCTIONS
Aim: To study about the cables used and their pin functions.
Theory:
There are different types of configuration:

1. Straight Through
2. Cross Over
3. Roll Over
1. Straight through Cable: A cable that maintains the pin connection all the way through
the communication path is straight through cable. The wire connected to pin 1 is the
transmit connection on either end of the communication cable.
Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:

? Switch to router
? Switch to PC or server
? Hub to PC or server
2. Cross Over Cable: In cross over cable, some of the wires on one side of the cable are
crossed to different pin on the other side of the cable. Pin 1 on one end is connected to
the pin 3 on the other end. Pin 2 on one end is connected to pin 6 on other end.
Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

? Switch to switch
? Switch to hub
? Hub to hub
? Router to router
? PC to PC
? Router to PC
3. Roll Over Cable:
? The cable used between a terminal and a console port is a rollover cable
? The rollover cable, also known as a console cable, has a different pin out than the
straight-through or crossover RJ-45 cables.
? This cable is typically flat to distinguish it from the others.
? As the name specifies the pinouts on one end are literally rolled over on the other end.
Result:
Thus the networking cables and their pins were studied.
EX.NO:3 SERIAL /PARALLEL COMMUNICATION USING PC TO PC
Aim: To transfer the file between the two computers serially using Serial/Parallel adapter
connection.
Theory:
In serial communication, one bit follows another and so we need only one
communication channel rather than transmit data having two communication channels.
The main advantage of serial communication is that it reduces the cost of transmission
over parallel communication by a factor ‘h’.
Requirements:
• Serial/Parallel communication kit
• Serial cable - 2
• Computers with ViRtSim software – 2
• Patch cords – 2
• LAN cable - 1
Connections:
Procedure:
1. Select Start ?All programs ?Vi-Rt simulator

i) Transmitter:
2. Open Serial and Parallel comm ? RS232 File transfer and select Transmitter
3. In the “Settings” tab, click “connect”.
4. Once connected, go to “Communication” tab, select a file to be transmitted and click
“send
file”.
ii) Receiver:
5. Choose start ?all programs ?ViRtSim
6. Choose Serial and Parallel comm ? RS232File Transfer and select Receiver. In the
“Settings”
tab, click “connect”.
7. In the “communication” tab you can the see the file receiving message. Save the file
once
received from its transmitter
Output:
Transmitter Windows:
1. Connect Transmitter:
2. Select file to be sent:
Receiver Window:
1. Connect receiver:
2. Save received File:
3. Check saved file in specified destination:
Result:
Thus the file was transmitted from one PC to another PC using Serial/Parallel
communication.
EX.NO:4 EHTHERNET LAN PROTOCOL (CSMA/CD)
Aim: To study about CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3), which is the Ethernet LAN protocol.
Theory:
Whenever multiple users have unregulated access to a single line, there is a danger of
signals overlapping and destroying each other. Such overlaps turn the signals into
unusable noise, called collisions.
As traffic increases on the multiple access links, the collision also increases. A LAN
therefore needs a mechanism to co-ordinate traffic, minimize the number of collisions
that occur, and maximize the number of frames that are delivered successfully.
The access method used in the Ethernet is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
CSMA/CD is the result of an evolution from Multiple Access (MA) to Carrier Sense
Multiple Access (CSMA), and finally Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD).
If the station can determine whether a collision is taking place, then the amount of
wasted bandwidth can be reduced by aborting the transmission when a collision is
detected. The CSMA/CD uses this approach.
CSMA/CD is the most commonly used protocol for LANs. It was developed by Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel and Xerox. This network is called Ethernet. The IEEE
802.3 CSMA/CD standard for LAN is based on Ethernet specification.
A station with a message to send must monitor the channel to see if any other station is
sending. If another station is sending, the second station must wait until the sending
station has finished. Then it may send its message. If no station was sending at the time
that it first listened, the station may send its message immediately. The term “carrier
sense” indicates this “listening before transmitting” behavior.
All stations are attached to one path and monitor the signal on the channel through
transceiver attached to the cable. CSMA/CD has totally decentralized control and is
based on contention access.
CSMA/CD supports both baseband and broadband system. CSMA/CD offers four options
in terms of bit rate, signaling method and maximum electrical cable segment length.
These are:
• 10 BASE 5
• 10 BASE 2
• 1 BASE 5
• 10 BROAD 36
? The number at the beginning indicates the bit rate in Mbps.
? The middle term indicates the type of signaling.
? The number at the end indicates the cable length in multiples of 100 meters.
Base band (Digital signal): Manchester encoding.

Broad band (Analog signal): Differential Phase Shift Keying encoding.
The format of MAC frames in CSMA/CD:
• Preamble: 56 bits of altering 1s and 0s.

• SFD: Start Frame Delimiter. This signals the beginning of the frame.
• Destination address: Contains the physical address of the packet’s destination address.
• Source address: Contains the physical address of the packet’s sender’s address.
• Length PDU: Indicates the number of bytes in the coming Protocol Data Unit (PDU).
The data unit in the upper layer of Data Link Layer (Logical Link Control) is the PDU.
• Data and Padding: It contains the information and padding is done if necessary.
• CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check. It contains the error detection information.
• DSAP: Destination Service Access Point.
• SSAP: Source Service Access Point.
• Control:It is used for flow management. The frames are of 3 types as in HDLC:
If the first bit in the control field is 0, it is I-frame.
If the two bits in the control field are 10, it is S-frame.
If the two bits in the control field are 11, it is U-frame.
The PDU from the LLC has no CRC, and no station address. These fields are added in the
MAC layer (lower layer in the Data Link Layer).
Result:
Thus the Ethernet LAN protocol with its frame format was studied.
EX.NO:5 SIMULATION OF CSMA/CD
Aim: To simulate the CSMA/CD protocol using ViRtSim software.
Procedure:
1. Select program ?ViRtSim? Simulation ?CSMA ?CSMA/CD

2. Enter the program in the Algorithm column (right side), save and run it.
Algorithm:
Step 1: Declare two frame variables and assign them the data frames to be transmitted.
Step 2: Initialize the CSMA/CD function.
Step 3: Send data from node B to node A and sense multiple access.
Step 4: Send data from node A to node C and sense multiple access.
Step 5: Check if collision occurs.
Step 6: If collision occurs wait for 1000ms and then retransmit the two data from the
nodes one
after the other.
Step 7: Stop the execution.
Program:
include
void main()
{
Frame X,Y;
X="A.R.Engg";
Y="III-ECE";
CSMACD_INIT();
CSMACD_START();
CSMA_SEND(B,A,X);
CSMA_SEND(A,C,Y);
R=COLLISION_OCCUR();
if(R)
{
WAIT(1000);
RETRANSMIT(B,A);
RETRANSMIT(A,C);
}
}
Output:
1. Two Stations Transmit data X and Y simultaneously:

2. Occurrence of Collision:
3. Retransmit the data X from Station B to Station A:
4. Retransmit the data Y from Station A to Station C:
Result:
Thus the CSMA/CD protocol was simulated using ViRtSim software was studied.
EX.NO:6 TOKEN RING AND TOKEN BUS PROTOCOLS
Aim: To study the Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) and Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) Protocols
Theory:
Token passing:
Whenever the network is unoccupied, a three byte token is circulated. This token is
passed from NIC to NIC in sequence until it encounters a station with data to send. That
station waits for the token to enter its network board. If the token is free, the station
may send a data frame. It keeps the token and sets a bit inside its NIC as a remainder
that it has done so, and then sends its one data frame.
1. Token Bus (802.4):
Token bus is a physical bus that operates as a logical ring using tokens. Token bus
combines the features of Ethernet and the token ring. It combines the physical
configuration of Ethernet and the collision free feature of token ring. Stations are
logically organized into a ring.
A token is passed among stations. If a station wants to send the data, it must wait and
capture the token. Only the token holder is permitted to transmit the frames. Only one
station holds the token at a time, thus collision will not occur.
Figure: Token Passing in the Token Bus
Figure: Transmitting Data

Token bus uses the following medium:
a) Broad band:
It supports data channel at 1,5,10 Mbps with Bandwidths of 1,5,6 and 12 MHz
respectively.
b) Carrier band:
It is also known as Single-channel broadband, because the carrier band is dedicated to a
single data channel.
c) Optical band:
It supports data rates of 5, 10 and 20 Mbps. Active or Passive Star topology is used.
Frame format:
The total length of the frame is 8191 bytes.
Preamble: for bit synchronization

SD: frame Start Delimiter
FC: Frame Control – it distinguish data frame from control frame
DA: Destination Address
SA: Source Address
Data: data field
FCS: Frame Check Sequence – contains CRC. Used to detect transmission errors on DA,
SA, FC and data fields
ED: End Delimiter – marks the end of the frame
2. Token Ring (802.5):
In a token ring a special bit pattern called token circulates around the ring whenever all
stations are idle. When a station transmits, it breaks the ring and inserts its own frame
with source and destination address.
Whenever the network is free it transmits a 3 byte token which is a simple placeholder
frame that passes from NIC to NIC in sequence until it encounters a station with data to
send. The station holds the token and sends the data which is checked by each station
on the ring. Each station checks the destination address, regenerates the frame if a
match is not found. The intended receiver receives the data and sends an
acknowledgement frame to the sender. The sender releases the token to the ring after
receiving the acknowledgement frame.
There is only one token, only one station can transmit at a given time, thus solves the
channel access problem.Each station is connected to the ring through a Ring Interface
Unit (RIU).
Figure: Passing Token in the Token Ring

Figure: Transmitting Data
Token ring uses the following cables:
1. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

• Data rate – 4 or 16 Mbps.
• Uses Differential Manchester encoding.
• Maximum number of repeaters: 250.
2. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

• Data rate – 4 Mbps.
• Uses Differential Manchester encoding.
• Maximum number of repeaters: 250.
Frame format:
Data/Command frame:
Figure: Data/Command
SD: frame Start Delimiter

AC: Access Control – it has 4 fields
Figure: AcessControl
? Priority
? Token – indicate that the frame is data/command
? Monitor
? Reservation – set by stations wishing to reserve access to the ring
FC: Frame Control – it distinguish data frame from control frame
DA: Destination Address

SA: Source Address
Data: data field
ED: End Delimiter – marks the end of the frame
FS:Frame Status
Figure: Frame Status
Token Frame:
Figure: Token
SD: indicates the frame is coming
AC: indicates that the frame is a token
ED: indicates the end of the frame
Abort frame:
Figure: Abort
It just carries the starting and ending delimiters. It can be generated either by the
sender to stop its own transmission or by the monitor to purge (clean or eliminate) an
old transmission from the line.
Result:
Thus the Token bus and Token ring protocols were studied.
EX.NO:7 SIMULATION OF TOKEN RING
Aim: To simulate the token ring protocol using ViRtSim software.
Procedure:
1. Select program?ViRtSim?Simulation ?Token Ring

2. Enter the program in the Algorithm column (right side), save and run it
Algorithm:
Step 1: Declare a frame variable and assign it the data frame to be transmitted.
Step 2: Declare a token variable.
Step 3: Initialize the ring topology based network.
Step 4: Call the construct logical ring function to create a network with four devices.
Step 5: Start to pass the token in the ring.
Step 6: If node B wants to transmit data the token is captured by B.
Step 7: Once token is captured, node A transmits data. The intended receiver receives
data and
sends an acknowledge. Once acknowledge reaches node B, it releases the token on to
the ring.
Step 8: Stop passing token.
Program:
include
void main()
{
Frame X;
Token t;
X = “data1”;
RING_TOPOLOGY();
CONSTRUCT_LOGICAL RING();
START TOKEN_PASSING(t);
WANT TO_TRANSMIT(B);
repeat
r = TOKEN_CAPTURE(B);
until(r);
TRANSMIT_DATA(B,C,X);
STOP TOKEN_PASSING();
}
Output:
1. Enter the Program in the ‘Algorithm’ column, Save, Run:
2. Station B receives Token and sends data to C:
3. Station C receives Data and Sends Acknowledge:

Result:
Thus the token ring protocol was simulated using ViRtSim software.
EX.NO:8 SIMULATION OF TOKEN BUS
Aim: To simulate the token bus protocol using ViRtSim software
Procedure:
1. Select program ?ViRtSim?Simulation ?Token Bus

2. Enter the program in the Algorithm column (right side), save and run it
Algorithm:
Step 1: Declare a frame variable and assign it the data frame to be transmitted.
Step 2: Declare a token variable.
Step 3: Initialize the bus topology based network.
Step 4: Call the construct logical ring function to create a network with four devices.
Step 5: Start to pass the token.
Step 6: If node B wants to transmit data the token is captured by B.
Step 7: Once token is captured node B transmits data. The intended receiver receives
data and
sends an acknowledge. Once acknowledge reaches node B, it releases the token.
Step 8: Stop passing token.
Program:
include
void main()
{
Frame X;
Token t;
X = “III-ECE”;
BUS_TOPOLOGY();
CONSTRUCT_LOGICALRING();
START TOKEN_PASSING(t);
WANT TO_TRANSMIT(B);
repeat
r = TOKEN_CAPTURE(B);
until(r);
TRANSMIT_DATA(B,C,X);
STOP TOKEN_PASSING();
}
Output:
1. Enter the Program in the ‘Algorithm’ column, Save, Run:

2. Station B gets Token and sends data to C:
3. Station C receives Data and Sends Acknowledge:
Result:
Thus the token bus protocol was simulated using ViRtSim software.
EX.NO:9 TOKEN BUS USING LAN TRAINER KIT
Aim: To simulate the token bus protocol using LAN trainer kit
Requirements:
• System installed with ViRtSim software and Xilinx for IMPACT application.
• ViLAN 03 Trainer kit
• Power cable – 1
• Parallel cable – 1
• Serial cable – 1
• LAN cable – 1 (long), 4 – (short)
Connections:
Note:
1. In the system, change the IP address third part as 1. (Eg: “192.168.1.10”). This
should be done because the Trainer kit’s address is 1.
2. The connection is made with the NIC 1 so that, the parallel cable and serial cable
should be connected to the ports available for NIC 1 in the kit, which is just behind it. If
you are using NIC 2 or 3 connect the cables to that corresponding NIC ports. Don’t give
connections in the kit with one NIC and cables between the system and kit with another
NIC.
Procedure:
1. Give the connections between System and Trainer kit as mentioned above.
2. First set the kit to “Programming mode”
i) Downloading FPGA:
1. Open “Impact” from Start menu directly or Start ? Xilinx ISE.92 ? accessories ?
Impact.
2. Main window and Sub window will appear. Click “Cancel” on the sub window.
3. In the left side of the Main window, double click on the “Boundary Scan”. The right
side of the window will become as white background with the line “Right click to Add
Device or Initialize JTAG chain”.
4. Right click on that line and select “Initialize Chain”. “Progress Dialog” window will
appear to execute the command.
5. After executing, the main window will get a Chip diagram (green color) and one Sub
window “Assign new configuration file” will be displayed.
6. In that select “E (drive) ? (ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Token Bus-170 ? FPGA ?
tokenbus.bit” and click “Open”. So that the Main window’s chip diagram color changes to
grey.
7. Right click on the chip and select “Program”. “Programming Properties” window will
get opened. Click “Apply” and “OK”.
8. Then again “Progress Dialog” window will execute the command and display as
“Program Succeeded”.
9. In the kit you get display as:
ii) Downloading ARM:
1. Open ViRtSim software either from desktop or from Start menu or from “C ? Program
Files ? Network Simulator ? ViRtSim”.
2. Select “Utilities ? ARM Downloader” .
3. “LPC 2000 Flash Utilities” window will appear. Click “Read Device ID”. Then a window
will appear with the message “Please reset your LPC 2000 board now and then press
OK”.
4. So press “A RST” button in the Trainer kit of the corresponding NIC once and click OK
in the system. In the left bottom corner you will get the display as “Read part ID
successfully”.
5. Then select the required file by clicking browse button in the “File name:”. That is “E ?
(ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Token Bus-170 ? ARM ? LAN-token_bus-170.hex” and click
“Open”.
6. After selecting the particular file press “Upload to Flash”. The Progress bar gets Blue
color as the data is being sent to RAM. If sent, “File upload successfully completed”
message will be displayed in the left bottom corner of that window.
7. Now minimize this window.
In the Trainer kit change the mode to “Execution” of the corresponding NIC and press “A
RST” once.
iii) Simulating Token Bus:
1. Open OSI Lan Trainer ? Token Bus.

2. “Token Bus” window will appear.
3. Set the remote IP’s third part as “1”. (Eg: 192.168.1.170 ? 192.168 – used in the
system, 1 – Trainer kit’s address, 170 – Token Bus number).
4. Click “Ping”, thus the Connection Status will be displayed as “Connected”.
5. Then click “Connect” so that the bulb picture in that window will glow (Yellow color).
6. Press Capture 1 or Capture 2 or Capture 3, which is considered as the Source. Here
we press Capture 3 i.e, Client 3 display in the Trainer kit act as a Source.
7. A window will appear which needs the destination number. NIC 1 has 3 clients, in that
we have chosen Client 3 as the source. So the destination number should be either 1 or
2. Here we entered as 2. So Client 2 in the Trainer kit acts as a Destination. Press “OK”.
8. Another window will be displayed. Enter the data to be sent in that box. Press “OK”.
Thus the data gets transmitted from the Source (Client 3 in the kit of NIC1) to the
Destination (Client 2 in the kit of NIC1). Display in the kit is as follows:
9. Acknowledgment is received in the system.
Output:
1. OSI Lan Trainer ? Token Bus. Click Ping and Connect. Press Capture 3 (Source)
2. Enter the destination number (Client 2) in the kit
3. Enter the data to be transmitted
4. Data is being transmitted.
5. Data is sent and the Acknowledgment is received
Result:
Thus the token bus protocol was executed using the LAN trainer kit and the ViRtSim
software.
EX.NO:10 TOKEN RING USING LAN TRAINER KIT
Aim: To simulate the token ring protocol using LAN trainer kit
Requirements:
• Patch cords – 4 (to connect in the Ring topology’s Tx and Rx)
Connection:
Note:
NIC.
Procedure:
Impact.
6. In that select “E (drive) ? (ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Token Ring-160 ? FPGA ?
tokenring.bit” and click “Open”. So that the Main window’s chip diagram color changes to
grey.
will appear with the message “Please reset your LPC 2000 board now, and then press
OK”.
successfully”.
(ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Token Ring-160 ? ARM ? LAN-token_ring-160.hex” and click
“Open”.
RST” once.
iii) Simulating Token Ring:
1. Open OSI Lan Trainer ? Token Ring.

2. “Token Bus” window will appear.
system, 1 – Trainer kit’s address, 160 – Token Ring’s number).
6. Press Capture 1 or Capture 2 or Capture 3, which is considered as the Source. Here
we press Capture 2 i.e, Client 2 display in the Trainer kit act as a Source.
7. A window will appear which needs the destination number. NIC 1 has 3 clients, in that
we have chosen Client 2 as the source. So the destination number should be either 1 or
3. Here we entered as 1. So Client 1 in the Trainer kit acts as a Destination. Press “OK”.
8. Another window will be displayed. Enter the data to be sent in that box. Press “OK”.
Thus the data gets transmitted from the Source (Client 2 in the kit of NIC1) to the
Destination (Client 1 in the kit of NIC1). Display in the kit is as follows:
9. Acknowledgment is received in the system.
Output:
1. OSI Lan Trainer ? Token Ring. Click Ping and Connect. Press Capture 2 (Source)
2. Enter the destination number
3. Enter the data to be transmitted
4. Acknowledgment is received
Result:
Thus the token bus protocol was executed using the LAN trainer kit and the ViRtSim
software.
EX.NO:11 WIRELESS LAN PROTOCOLS (CSMA/CA)

Aim: To study about the wireless LAN protocol (CSMA/CA).
Theory:
Wireless networks cannot use CSMA/CD in the MAC sub-layer, since this requires the
ability to receive and transmit at the same time – hence the use of CSMA/CA. In a
wireless network, much of the sent energy is lost in transmission. The received signal
has a very little energy. Therefore, a collision may add only 5 to 10% additional energy.
This is not useful for effective collision detection. We need to avoid collision on wireless
networks because they cannot be detected. So CSMA/CA was invented for this network.
Collisions are avoided using 3 methods:

1. Inter-frame space:
o When an idle channel is found, the station does not send immediately. It waits for a
period of time called Inter-frame space.
o In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station of a frame. A
station that has shorter IFS has a higher priority.
2. Contention window:
o Amount of time divided into slots. A station that is ready to send chooses a random
number of slots as its wait time.
o Station set one time slot for the first time and then double each time the station
cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time.
o This method gives the priority to the station with the longest waiting time.
3. Acknowledgments:
o The data may be corrupted during the transmission. The positive acknowledgment and
the time out can help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.
Exposed node problem:

o If C is transmitting a message to D and B wants to transmit to A, B will find the
network to be busy as B hears C transmitting.
o Even if B would have transmitted to A, it would not have been a problem at A or D.
o CSMA/CA would not allow it to transmit message to A, while the two transmissions
could have gone in parallel.
Hidden node problem:
o In case of wireless network it is possible that A is sending a message to B, but C is out
of its range and hence while “listening” on the network it will find the network to be free
and might try to send packets to B at the same time as A. So there will be collision at B.
o The problem can be looked upon as if A and C are hidden from each other. Hence it is
called the “hidden node problem”.
Result:
Thus the wireless LAN protocol (CSMA/CA) was studied.

EX.NO:12 SIMULATION OF CSMA/CA
Aim: To simulate the CSMA/CA protocol using ViRtSim software.

Procedure:
1. Select program ?ViRtSim?Simulation ?CSMA ?CSMA/CA

2. Enter the program in the Algorithm column, save and run it.
Algorithm:
Step 1: Declare a frame variable and assign them the data frame to be transmitted.
Step 2: Initialize the CSMA/CA function
Step3: Nodes keep listening to the channel
Step 4: Send request to send frame from node A to node B
Step 5: Send clear to send frame from node B to node A
Step 6: Send data from node A to node B and sense multiple access.
Step 7: Send acknowledge frame from node B to node A
Step 8: Stop the execution.
Program:
include
void main()
{
Frame X;
X="A.R.Engg";
CSMACA_INIT();
CSMACA_START();
NODE_LISTEN();
REQUESTTO_SEND(A,B);
CLEARTO_SEND(B,A);
DATATO_SEND(A,B,X);
ACKNOWLEDGE(B,A);
Output:
1. Node A sends RTS frame to node B:

2. Node B sends CTS frame to node A:
3. Node A sends data frame to node B:
4. Node B sends ACK frame to node A:
Result:
Thus the wireless LAN (CSMA/CA) protocol was simulated using ViRtSim software.
EX.NO:13 IMPLEMENTATION AND STUDY OF STOP AND WAIT PROTOCOL
Aim: To implement and test the stop and wait protocol using LAN trainer kit and
ViRtSim.
Theory:
• Stop and wait protocol is an efficient way of dealing errors during transmission.
• The stop and wait protocol stops the transmission of packets when the loss of data or
any other error causes a negative acknowledgement to reach the transmitting computer
(ie) the transmitting computer waits for a kind of acknowledgement from the receiving
computer.
• If the receiving computer acknowledges the sent data, the transmitting computer
sends the next data.
• If the receiver sends a negative acknowledgement then the transmitter retransmits the
data. This way the transmission is reliable.
Requirements:
• ViLAN03 Trainer kit
Connections:
Note:
NIC.
Procedure:
Impact.
6. In that select E (drive) ? (ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Stop-and-Wait-120 ? FPGA ?
stopandwait.bit and click “Open”. So that the Main window’s chip diagram color changes
to grey.
OK”.
successfully”.
(ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Stop-and-Wait 120 ? ARM ? LAN-stop_wait-120.hex” and click
“Open”.
RST” once.
iii) Simulating Stop-and-Wait:
1. Open OSI Lan Trainer ? Protocols ? Stop and Wait.

2. “Stop and Wait” window will appear.
system, 1 – Trainer kit’s address, 120 – Stop and Wait protocol’s number). Change the
Packet size as you wish.
4. Enter the data in the “Data to be sent” box.
7. Then click “Send” button in the system.
8. Thus you get the details of “Transmit” and “Receive” columns in the system window.
Output:
1. Packet size is set as 3, so the first 3 letters are sent in Packet 1.

2. Receiving ACK for Packet 1
3. Sending Packet 2 data (ECE)
4. Receiving ACK for Packet 2
Result:
Thus stop and wait protocol was implemented and simulated using VI-LAN trainer kit and
ViRtSim software.
EX.NO:14 IMPLEMENTATION AND STUDY OF GO-BACK-N PROTOCOL
Aim: To implement and test the Go-Back-N protocol using LAN trainer kit and ViRtSim.
Theory:
In Go back – N protocol if one frame is damaged or lost, all frames sent since the lost
frame acknowledged are retransmitted. The receiver sends an acknowledgement frame
for a group of data frames. Only one acknowledgement is enough for a group of
transmitted data. In case of lost data frames the transmitter sends a negative
acknowledgement with data frame that is damaged or lost. Once sender receives a NAQ,
it retransmits data. If there is a repetition the receiver discards one of the data.
Requirements:
• LAN cable - 1 (long), 4 – (short)
Connections:
Note:
NIC.
Procedure:
Impact.
6. In that select E (drive) ? (ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Go-back-N-130 ? FPGA ?
gobackn.bit and click “Open”. So that the Main window’s chip diagram color changes to
grey.
OK”.
successfully”.
(ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Go-back-N-130 ? ARM ? LAN-GBN-130.hex” and click “Open”.
RST” once.
iii) Simulating Go-Back-N:
1. Open OSI Lan Trainer ? Protocols ? Go-back-N.

2. “Go-back-n” window will appear.
system, 1 – Trainer kit’s address, 130 – Go-back-N protocol’s number). Change the
Packet size as you wish.
7. Press “Error” button in the window. In the Trainer kit you get the display as:
8. Press “Frame” button in the kit once of the corresponding client display. Then the
display changes as:
9. Again press “Frame” button once so that Frame Err changes to 01 then press “Enter”
in the kit. Then click “Send” button in the system. (here you can also press the Frame
button twice or as many times you wish to set the Frame Err as 02, 03, …)
10. “Network Simulator” window will appear with NAK (Negative) Acknowledgment.
Press “OK”, so that the NAK packet will be resend and gets the “Status:” in the kit as
ACK (Positive) acknowledgment.
11. Then the message “Retransmission completed successfully” will appear. Click “OK”.
OUTPut:
1. The Remote IP is 192.168.1.130 for Go-back-N. select packet size. Enter data
2. Since the packet size is set as 3, the “hai” message is sent as one packet.
3. NAK is received.
4. Data is retransmitted
5. ACK is received
Result:
Thus Go-Back-N protocol was implemented and simulated using VI-LAN trainer kit and
ViRtSim software.
EX.NO:15 IMPLEMENTATION AND STUDY OF SELECTIVE REPEAT PROTOCOL
Aim: To implement and test the Selective Repeat protocol using LAN trainer kit and
ViRtSim.
Theory:
It retransmits only the damaged frame or the lost frame instead of sending multiple
frames. It increases the efficiency of transmission and is more suitable for noisy channel.
The circuit complexities at the receiver side increases. The receiver window size is of the
same size as that of the sender. Negative acknowledgment (NAK) is used for lost or
damages frame.
Requirements:
Connections:
Note:
NIC.
Procedure:
Impact.
6. In that select “E (drive) ? (ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Sel-and-Rep-140 ? FPGA ?
sel_rep.bit” and click “Open”. So that the Main window’s chip diagram color changes to
grey.
OK”.
successfully”.
(ViLAN) ? Hexbit(3s400) ? Sel-and-Rep-140 ? ARM ? LAN-SELREP-140.hex” and click
“Open”.
RST” once.
iii) Simulating Selective-Repeat:
1. Open OSI Lan Trainer ? Protocols ? Selective Repeat.

2. “Selective Repeat” window will appear.
3. Set the Remote IP’s third part as “1”. (Eg: 192.168.1.140 ? 192.168 – used in the
system, 1 – Trainer kit’s address, 140 – Selective Repeat protocol’s number). Change
the Packet size as you wish.
7. Press “Error” button in the window. In the Trainer kit you get the display as:
8. Press “Frame” button in the kit once of the corresponding client display. Then the
display changes as:
9. Again press “Frame” button once so that Frame Err changes to 01 then press “Enter”
in the kit. Then click “Send” button in the system. (here you can also press the Frame
button twice or as many times you wish to set the Frame Err as 02, 03, …)
10. “Network Simulator” window will appear with NAK (Negative) Acknowledgment.
Press “OK”, so that the NAK packet will be resend and gets the “Status:” in the kit as
ACK (Positive) acknowledgment.
11. Then the message “Retransmission completed successfully” will appear. Click “OK”.
Output:
1. The packet size is set to 3. So 3 letters can be sent at a time.

2. Thus the first 3 letters “ECE” is transmitted as Packet 1
3. NAK is received for the packet 1
4. Second 3 letters are sent in packet 2 (LAB)
5. ACK is obtained for Packet 2.
6. It shows that the data in the Packet 1 has negative acknowledgment
7. Thus the Packet 1 is retransmitted again
8. Thus the data is Retransmitted Successfully
Result:
Thus Selective Repeat protocol was implemented and simulated using VI-LAN trainer kit
and ViRtSim software.
EX.NO:16 IMPLEMENTATION OF DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING ALGORITHM
Aim: To implement and test the distance vector routing using ViRtSim.
Theory:
In distance vector routing each router shares its knowledge about the entire network
with information from its neighbors in a step by step procedure. Once this is complete it
will have a complete idea about the network. The table consists of network ID, cost and
next hop. The cost refers to the number of hop count(least) to reach a particular
destination.
Routers using distance-vector algorithms send all or part of their routing table entries to
adjacent routers on a periodic basis. This happens even if there are no changes in the
network. By receiving a routing update, a router can verify all the known routes and
make changes to its routing table. This process is also known as “routing by rumor”. The
understanding that a router has of the network is based upon the perspective of the
adjacent router of the network topology
Procedure:
1. Open ViRtSim and select simulation ?Distance Vector Routing

2. Design the required network by including the routers, links and corresponding weights
on The links.
3. Select the sender and destination node and click the “Find Path”.
4. Click the “Calculate” button which displays all the route details and shows the shortest
Route.
Output:
1. Design the Required Network:

2. The Shortest Path:
Result:
Thus the distance vector routing algorithm was implemented and simulated using
ViRtSimsoftware.
EX.NO:17 IMPLEMENTATION OF LINK STATE ROUTING ALGORITHM
Aim: To implement and test the link state routing using ViRtSim.
Theory:
In link state routing every router shows its knowledge about its neighbor to the entire
network and ultimately all routers will have a routing table within the link state
database. Link-state routing protocols respond quickly to network changes sending
trigger updates only when a network change has occurred. Link-state routing protocols
send periodic updates, known as link-state refreshes, at longer time intervals, such as
every 30 minutes.
When a route or link changes, the device that detected the change creates a link-state
advertisement (LSA) concerning that link. The LSA is then transmitted to all neighboring
devices. Each routing device takes a copy of the LSA, updates its link-state database,
and forwards the LSA to all neighboring devices. This flooding of LSAs is required to
ensure that all routing devices create databases that accurately reflect the network
topology before updating their routing tables.
Procedure:
1. Open ViRtSim and select simulation ?Link State Routing

2. Design the required network by including the routers and links.
3. Select the sender and destination node and click the “Find Path”.
4. Click the “Calculate” button which displays all the route details and shows the shortest
route.
Output:
1. Design the Required Network:

2. Available Paths:
3. Shortest Path:
Result:
Thus the link state routing algorithm was implemented and simulated using ViRtSim
software.
EX.NO:18 IMPLEMENTATION OF DATA ENCRYPTION AND DECRYPTION BETWEEN TWO

SYSTEMS
Aim: To send the data from the source to destination securely using encryption and
decryption.
Theory:
Network security involves four aspects: privacy, message authentication, message

integrity and non-repudiation. Privacy means that the sender and the receiver expect
confidentiality. The transmitted message should make sense only to the intended
receiver. Authentication means that the receiver is sure of the sender’s identity and that
an imposter has not sent the message. Integrity means that the data must arrive at the
receiver exactly as it was sent. Non-repudiation means that a receiver must be able to
prove that a received message came from a specific sender. Privacy is achieved by
encrypting the message at the sender and decrypting the received message at the
receiver.
• The data to be encrypted at the sender site is called plaintext/clear text.

• The encrypted data is called cipher text.
Requirements:
• 2 Systems installed with ViRtSim software.
• Serial-Parallel communication kit
• Patch cords - 2
• LAN cable – 1
Connection:
Procedure:
1. Transmitter:
2. Choose serial and parallel communication ?RS232 data security ?data encryption
3. Connect the transmitter by pressing “connect”in the “Settings” tab and enter the data
to
be sent by pressing the “communication” tab.
4. If “send” button is pressed, another window will open to enter the password. Enter
the
Password, so that the ASCII values and the Cipher text will be created.Press “send”
button again.
2. Receiver:
2. Choose serial and parallel communication ?RS232 data security ?data decryption
3. Connect the receiver by pressing “connect”in the “Settings” tab and enter the data to
be sent by pressing the “communication” tab.
4. Press the Decrypt button. It asks to enter the password. If correct password is
entered, the
data sent by the sender can be viewed correctly. If not, the plain text will not be clear.
5. Check the original message.
Output:
Transmitter side:
1. Select “Settings”tab, click “connect” button. If connected (see left corner of the PC to
PC Communication window), go to step 2.
2. Enter data to be encrypted and click “send” button. A separate window will open for
the password. Enter the password, click “OK”.
3. The ASCII values and the cipher text will be displayed and press “send”.
Receiver side:
1. Connect the receiver:

2. Received Data:
3. Decrypt the data:
4. Original data received:
5. Wrong password entered:
6. Wrong clear text decrypted
Result:
Thus the encrypted data was transmitted from the sender side and decrypted at the
receiver side.
EX.NO:19 TRANSFER OF FILE FROM PC TO PC USING WINDOWS/UNIX

SOCKET PROGRAMMING
Aim: To communicate between two systems using PC to PC menu from ViRtSim

software.
Procedure:
Transmitter side:
1. Open ViRtSim ? PC to PC ? File Transfer ? Transmitter
2. Give the receiver’s IP address and click “Connect”
3. After it is connected, select a file to transmit and click “Send File”
Receiver side:
1. Open ViRtSim ? PC to PC ? File Transfer ? Receiver
2. Connection is established with the receiver after the transmitter clicks Connect.
3. When the transmitter sends a file, the receiver gets the file. The received file can be
saved in the receiver side.
Output:
Transmitter Side:
1. Select PC to PC ? File transfer ? transmitter

2. Enter the Remote IP address
3. Click Connect. It shows as “I’m Connected”
4. Select the file and send
Receiver Side
1. Select PC to PC ? File transfer ? receiver

2. Transmitter is listening to get connected to the client
3. Receiver is connected
4. File is received and it can be saved
Result:
Thus the file is transferred from one PC to another.

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EX.

NO: 1 STUDY OF NETWORKING DEVICES

Three Different types of hubs:

Switches are made based on two different strategies:

• It is generally software installed within a router.

Thus the Networking devices with its types were studied.

EX.NO:2 CABLES AND THEIR PIN FUNCTIONS

There are different types of configuration:

Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:

Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

Thus the networking cables and their pins were studied.

EX.NO:3 SERIAL /PARALLEL COMMUNICATION USING PC TO PC

1. Select Start ?All programs ?Vi-Rt simulator

EX.NO:4 EHTHERNET LAN PROTOCOL (CSMA/CD)

Base band (Digital signal): Manchester encoding.

The format of MAC frames in CSMA/CD:

• Preamble: 56 bits of altering 1s and 0s.

EX.NO:5 SIMULATION OF CSMA/CD

Aim: To simulate the CSMA/CD protocol using ViRtSim software.

1. Select program ?ViRtSim? Simulation ?CSMA ?CSMA/CD

1. Two Stations Transmit data X and Y simultaneously:

1. Token Bus (802.4):

Figure: Token Passing in the Token Bus

Figure: Transmitting Data

Preamble: for bit synchronization

2. Token Ring (802.5):

Figure: Passing Token in the Token Ring

Token ring uses the following cables:

1. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

2. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

SD: frame Start Delimiter

FC: Frame Control – it distinguish data frame from control frame

DA: Destination Address

Figure: Frame Status

EX.NO:7 SIMULATION OF TOKEN RING

Aim: To simulate the token ring protocol using ViRtSim software.

1. Select program?ViRtSim?Simulation ?Token Ring

1. Enter the Program in the ‘Algorithm’ column, Save, Run:

2. Station B receives Token and sends data to C:

3. Station C receives Data and Sends Acknowledge:

EX.NO:8 SIMULATION OF TOKEN BUS

Aim: To simulate the token bus protocol using ViRtSim software

1. Select program ?ViRtSim?Simulation ?Token Bus

1. Enter the Program in the ‘Algorithm’ column, Save, Run:

EX.NO:9 TOKEN BUS USING LAN TRAINER KIT

ii) Downloading ARM:

iii) Simulating Token Bus:

1. Open OSI Lan Trainer ? Token Bus.

EX.NO:10 TOKEN RING USING LAN TRAINER KIT

ii) Downloading ARM:

iii) Simulating Token Ring:

1. Open OSI Lan Trainer ? Token Ring.

EX.NO:11 WIRELESS LAN PROTOCOLS (CSMA/CA)

Collisions are avoided using 3 methods:

Exposed node problem:

o Even if B would have transmitted to A, it would not have been a problem at A or D.

Thus the wireless LAN protocol (CSMA/CA) was studied.

Aim: To simulate the CSMA/CA protocol using ViRtSim software.

1. Select program ?ViRtSim?Simulation ?CSMA ?CSMA/CA

1. Node A sends RTS frame to node B:

EX.NO:13 IMPLEMENTATION AND STUDY OF STOP AND WAIT PROTOCOL

ii) Downloading ARM:

iii) Simulating Stop-and-Wait: