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 CHAPTER FORM 4

5
THEME: Investigating the Cell as a Basic Unit of Living Things

Cell Division

SPM Topical Analysis

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Section A B A B A B A B A B
Number of questions 2 1 – – 3 1 – – 2 – – – 2 1 – – 3 1 – –

ONCEPT MAP
CELL DIVISION

Cell cycle

G1, S, G2 phases (interphase) M stage

Mitosis Meiosis

Differences
Definition
Definition

Importance Importance

Stages of meiosis
Stages of mitosis

Prophase Application: Meiosis I Meiosis II

• Tissue culture
• Cloning
Metaphase Prophase I Prophase II

The effects of
controlled and Metaphase I Metaphase II
Anaphase uncontrolled cell
division
Anaphase I Anaphase II
Telophase

Telophase I Telophase II
Cytokinesis

108 COMPANION WEBSITE

Learning Objectives
 The types of cells that undergo mitosis
5.1 Mitosis
1 (a) In plants, mitotic cell division occurs
actively in the meristematic tissues of
The necessity for the production of new the root tips and bud tips.
cells in living organisms (b) Meristematic tissues are also found in
terminal buds, the vascular cambium and
1 Cells in the body are continuously dividing,
cork cambium.
growing, and dying. Dead cells need to be
(c) Active cell division in meristematic tissues
replaced with new cells. All organisms grow
allows growth and elongation of a plant to
and change through cell division.
take place at a faster rate.
2 (a) New cells are produced from existing cells,
2 (a) In animals, growth takes place in every
through a process known as mitotic cell F
part of the body and is not just confined O
division.

5
to certain parts as in plants. R
(b) Mitotic cell division involves the
(b) For example, the human skin has

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process of nuclear division called
Malpighian layers that undergo mitotic
mitosis, followed by a cytoplasmic 4
cell division to produce new skin cells
division called cytokinesis.
to replace dead skin cells. During the
growth process, the Malpighian layers
also add to the skin surface area.

The meaning and significance of mitosis

Mitosis is the process of nuclear division which

results in the formation of two genetically identical
daughter nuclei.

The significance of mitosis

(a) Mitosis replaces dead cells. For example, skin cells can live for only two weeks, after which
new cells are formed through mitosis.

(b) It allows damaged cells to be repaired, replaced, or even regenerated, for example, liver cells
can regenerate themselves following an injury through the process of mitosis to replace the
damaged or lost part.

(c) It is the basis of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms such as Amoeba sp. The
daughter cells produced are genetically identical to the parent cell. This type of cell division,
which produces two new organisms, is also known as binary fission.

(d) It increases the number of cells in all living organisms, thus, allowing growth and development
in multicellular organisms.
• In multicellular organisms, the zygote divides and grows into two cells, then four, eight and
eventually into millions of cells that make up a multicellular organism.
• All the cells that are formed are genetically identical. This means that all the cells in our body
have the same genes; be it a cell in the liver, a cell in the skin or a cell in the brain.

(e) It results in the formation of two daughter nuclei which are genetically identical to each other
and to the parent nucleus. Each nucleus contains the same number of chromosomes and the same
genetic material as the parent cell.

Refer Form 4, Chapter 2, Unit 2.2 109 Cell Division

 13 Both chromosomes of each pair carry genes for
Chromosomes and chromosomal number
the same trait (for example, eye colour) at the
1 The cells in a sexually reproducing organism same location.
can be divided into 14 Cells with two sets of homologous chromosomes
(a) somatic cells SPM are called diploid cells (for example, somatic
’09/P2
(b) reproductive cells or gametes cells) while cells which contain only one set
2 (a) Somatic cells comprise all the cells in an of chromosomes are called haploid cells (for
organism, except for the reproductive cells. example, sperm and egg cells).
(b) Somatic cells are formed through mitosis. 15 Of the 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
3 Reproductive cells are formed through in humans, one pair is the sex chromosomes.
meiosis. Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
4 Every cell has thread-like structures in its while males have an X chromosome and a Y
F
nucleus called chromosomes. chromosome (XY).
O
5 The number of chromosomes present in the 16 Each of the gametes or reproductive cells
5

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cells of each species of an individual organism contains only one set of chromosomes or
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is constant. This number is referred to as the one of each kind of chromosome found in a
4 chromosomal number of the species. somatic cell. Therefore, each human gamete
6 (a) All individuals of the same species have only contains one set of 23 chromosomes or
the same chromosomal number but the haploid number of chromosomes (n).
cells of individuals of a different species
have a different chromosomal number. For
example, onions have 16 chromosomes
while the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster,
has eight chromosomes.
(b) Since chromosomes in the nucleus exist
in pairs, the chromosomal number is said
to be diploid and is designated as 2n.
Therefore, for the onions, 2n = 16 and for
Drosophila melanogaster, 2n = 8.
7 The gametes contain only half the number
of chromosomes or only one of each pair Photograph 5.1 The human karyotype consists of a
total of 46 chromosomes arranged in
of chromosomes, that is, a single set. The
matching pairs
chromosomal number is said to be haploid,
and is designated as n. Therefore, in an onion,
Mitosis maintains the chromosomal number
n = 8 and in a Drosophila melanogaster, n = 4.
8 (a) All somatic cells in the human body have of species and ensures genetic material is
46 chromosomes. passed on to the offspring
(b) Each gamete only has 23 chromosomes.
1 (a) Each daughter cell that is formed through
(c) Red blood cells do not have nuclei, and
mitosis receives genetic material
consequently no chromosomes.
9 All somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes: inherited from the parent cell.
one set inherited from each parent. Therefore, (b) The genetic material, the DNA, is carried
one set of the chromosomes is of paternal in the chromosomes.
origin, whereas the other is of maternal 2 The DNA consists of a double helix which
origin. contains hundreds or thousands of genes.
10 The presence of two sets of chromosomes in 3 Each gene in the chromosomes of a parent cell
the nucleus of a cell is known as the diploid is a unit of inheritance that must be passed
number of chromosomes (2n). down to its offspring.
11 In humans, one set of chromosomes consists 4 This genetic information is passed down to the
of 23 chromosomes. Hence, our somatic cells offspring when the nucleus divides to produce
have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs two identical nuclei by mitosis.
or 2n = 46 while each gamete only has 23 5 Each daughter cell contains the same
chromosomes. chromosomal number and genetic material
12 The two chromosomes in each pair have the as the parent cell.
same structural features and are referred to as 6 Hence, mitosis doubles the number of cells
homologous chromosomes. Each member without changing the genetic content of the cell.
of the pair is called a homologue.
Cell Division 110 Refer Form 5, Chapter 5, Unit 5.3
 What is a chromosome?

DNA replication
chromosome duplication

A chromosome which consists

When a DNA double helix replicates, it
of a DNA double helix.
becomes two DNA double helices. The
F
one chromosome is said to have duplicated. A O
chromatid

5
duplicated chromosome consists of two R
the chromosome
identical sister chromatids.

CHAPTER
condenses M

duplicated chromosome 4

in a condensed state
centromere

DNA
double helix

sister chromatids

Each duplicated chromosome contains Sister chromatids separate and

two identical DNA double helices. become independent daughter
Each sister chromatid contains a DNA chromosomes during anaphase.
double helix. Each chromatid carries an
identical DNA double helix.

Figure 5.1  Chromosome duplication and condensation

1 A chromosome consists of DNA molecule and
protein.
2 DNA carries the genetic material that organisms
inherit from their parents.
3 A DNA molecule consists of hundreds or thousands
of genes.
4 When the chromosomes are not condensed and
visible as thread-like structures, they are called
chromatin.
5 During the S phase, the DNA molecule replicates,
forming two identical DNA double helices.
6 The replication of DNA produces a duplicated
chromosome with two sister chromatids.
7 Each DNA double helix is contained within a sister
chromatid. Hence, the two sister chromatids
contain identical copies of DNA molecules.
8 During mitosis, the two sister chromatids separate
and each becomes an independent daughter
chromosome.
9 When cell division begins, the chromatin becomes
condensed, coiled and folded. At this stage, the
chromosome becomes compact and thick and
can be easily seen under the light microscope.
It has a narrow region in the centre called the
centromere.

111 Cell Division

 The cell cycle
1 The cells of a multicellular organism progress
through a well-defined sequence of stages
leading to the division and formation of new
F cells.
O
2 A cell cycle extends from the time a new cell
5
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is produced until the time the cell completes a
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division.
4 3 The cell cycle is divided into two major phases:
(a) Interphase (G1, S and G2 sub-phases)
(b) Mitotic cell division or the M phase
4 The different phases of the cell cycle are outlined
in Figure 5.2.
Interphase
1 In humans, the cell cycle occurs gradually and
continuously for 8 to 24 hours.
2 Interphase accounts for about 90% of the cell
cycle.
3 Interphase is also the stage at which cells grow
larger and prepare for cell division.
4 During interphase, the nucleus is big and well
defined (Photograph 5.2).
5 The chromosomes are not condensed and are
visible as thread-like structures called chromatin.
Photograph 5.2  A cell at interphase
Cell Division
6 A pair of centrosomes (found only in animal
cells) is also formed in the cytoplasm. Each
centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles.
7 Each pair of centrioles will later migrate towards
the opposite poles of the cell and help in the
formation of the spindle fibres.
THE CELL C
8 After a period of time, depending on the type
of cell and the nutrients available, the cell will
start to divide.
9 Interphase is divided into three shorter stages
or sub-phases:
(a) G1 phase (gap or growth phase 1)
(b) S phase (DNA synthesis)
(c) G2 phase (gap or growth phase 2)
10 The events that take place at each sub-phase
are detailed in Figure 5.2.
What is DNA replication?
When one DNA double helix replicates, two identical
DNA double helices are formed. Each DNA double
helix has the original strand and a new strand.
Two identical DNA double helices
112
 • During this stage, the cell begins to acquire and synthesise the materials required for cell division.
• Proteins and new organelles are being synthesised.
• The metabolic rate of the cell is high.
• G1 is a crucial phase because during this phase, cells will decide whether or not to divide and
complete the cycle to form new cells. If the external conditions are conducive for growth, then
the cell enters the S phase.
• During G1, chromosomes are extremely fine and cannot be seen under the light microscope. At
this stage, the chromosomes are known as chromatin.
G1 SPM F
SPM
’05/P1 (growth phase 1) ’11/P1 O

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CYCLE 4

S phase
(DNA synthesis)
• Synthesis of DNA (genetic material)
G2 occurs.
(growth phase 2) • The DNA undergoes replication.
• The cell continues to grow and • A duplicated chromosome consists
remains metabolically active. of two identical sister chromatids.
• Enzymes and proteins are • Both sister chromatids contain identi-
synthesised for cell division. cal copies of the chromosome’s DNA
• The cell accumulates energy and molecule.
completes its final preparations for
division.
Figure 5.2 The cell cycle consists of G1, S, G2,
mitosis and cytokinesis

113 Cell Division

 The processes of mitosis and cytokinesis SPM
’09/P2

1 After the interphase stage, the dividing cells

enter the M phase.
2 The M phase or mitotic cell division phase can
be divided into two major parts:
(a) mitosis
(b) cytokinesis
3 Mitosis can be further subdivided into four
phases, namely,
(a) prophase
(b) metaphase
F
O (c) anaphase
5

R (d) telophase
4 The phases are continuous, with each merging
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into the next one.
4
The phases of mitosis in animal cells:

PROPHASE METAPHASE
SPM SPM SPM
’10/P1 ’11/P1 ’09/P1

spindle
fibres centromere spindle
fibres
nucleolus
• The chromosomes
condense and become
tightly coiled.
The chromosomes
become shorter, thicker
chromosome
and visible under a
metaphase
light microscope. centrioles
plate
centromere sister
• Each chromosome chromatids
consists of two sister Figure 5.3(a) Prophase
Figure 5.3(b) Metaphase
chromatids joined together
at the centromere. • The centromeres of all the
• In the cytoplasm, spindle fibres begin to form between the chromosomes are lined up on
centrioles. the equator of the cell called the
• Each pair of centrioles then migrates to lie at the opposite poles metaphase plate.
of the cell. • The spindle fibres are now fully
• Each pair of centrioles acts as a central point from which the formed.
spindle fibres radiate. The central point is known as the spindle • The chromosomes are arranged
pole. randomly at the metaphase plate.
• The spindle fibres from the opposite spindle poles are attached to • The two sister chromatids of each
the centromeres of each sister chromatid. chromosome are still attached to each
• In plant cells the spindle forms without the presence of centrioles. other at the centromere.
• At the end of prophase, the nucleolus disappears and the • Metaphase ends when the centromeres
nuclear membrane disintegrates. divide.

Cell Division 114

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ANAPHASE TELOPHASE

nuclear cleavage
membrane furrow

pole

daughter chromosomes
Figure 5.3(c) Anaphase
• The two sister chromatids of each chromosome
separate at the centromere.
• The sister chromatids are pulled apart to the opposite
poles by the shortening of the spindle fibres that
connect the chromosomes to the poles.
• Once separated, the chromatids are referred to as
daughter chromosomes.
• Anaphase ends when the chromosomes reach the
poles of the cell.
• Since the sister chromatids are identical copies of the
original chromosomes, each pole of the cell will have
a set of complete and identical chromosomes as in the
parent cell.
nucleolus
Figure 5.3(d) Telophase
• Telophase begins when both sets of chromo­
somes reach the opposite poles of the cell.
• The chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to
their extended state (chromatin) again.
• The spindle fibres disappear and a new
nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes.
• The nucleolus re-forms in each nucleus.
• The process of mitosis is now complete.

115 Cell Division

 Cytokinesis
1 Following mitosis, the cytoplasm of the cell
divides through a process called cytokinesis
to form two daughter cells, each having one
nucleus.
2 Through cytokinesis, the daughter cells formed
have all the organelles, nutrients and other
components needed to survive and maintain
themselves.
3 Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasmic
division.
4 It usually begins before nuclear division is
complete, that is, towards the end of telophase.

Cytokinesis in animal cells

F
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5

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CHAPTER

4
cleavage
furrow
1 2 3
Actin filaments in the The cleavage furrow The cleavage furrow
cytoplasm contract pinches at the equator deepens progressively
to pull a ring of the of the cell. until the cell separates
plasma membrane into two daughter
inwards, forming cells.
a groove called the
cleavage furrow.
Photograph 5.3  The formation of a
Figure 5.4  Cytokinesis in an animal cell cleavage furrow in an animal cell

Cytokinesis in plant cells

1 Although plant cells undergo the same stages of mitosis as in animal cells, cytokinesis in plant
cells occurs by a process which is different from that of animal cells.
2 After cytokinesis, the cell enters G1 of interphase, thus completing the cell cycle.
cell wall cell plate newly formed
cell wall

vesicles

1 2 3
• Membrane-enclosed • The cell plate grows outwards • Eventually, the cell plate
vesicles collect at the until its edges fuse with the divides the cell into two
equator between the two plasma membrane. daughter cells.
nuclei. • New cell walls and plasma • Cellulose fibres are
• The vesicles join to form membranes are formed from produced by the
a cell plate. the contents of the cell plate. cells to strengthen the
new cell walls.

Figure 5.5  Cytokinesis in a plant cell

Cell Division 116

 The importance of controlled mitosis
1 Cells must divide in a controlled and orderly
manner and be precise in distributing an exact (a) Normal cells
copy of each of their chromosomes to the new
cells.
2 This is important because the genetic infor-
mation carried by the chromosomes is necessary
for the proper functioning of an organism.
3 Mitosis ensures that the genetic content and
the number of chromosomes in the parent
cells are maintained in the daughter cells from (b) A tumour F
one generation to the next. Figure 5.6 A layer of normal cells that divide
O

5
4 The rate and timing of cell division is im­ - R
uncontrollably to become a tumour

CHAPTER
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portant for normal cell growth, develop­ment
and maintenance. 6 Cancer cells can intrude on and spread to other 4
5 Different cells divide at different frequencies. tissues which then lead to the malfunction of
For example, human skin cells divide the tissues and ultimately death.
throughout their lifespan while liver cells only 7 Cancer can be caused by many factors such as
divide when necessary to replace damaged and (a) damage to the DNA
injured tissues. Nerve and muscle cells do not (b) changes in genes (mutation) that control
divide at all once they mature. cell division
6 The entire cell cycle and cell division is closely (c) ionising radiation, for example, X-rays,
regulated. ultraviolet rays and gamma rays
(a) Each cell has a system consisting of (d) certain chemical compounds like tar in
specific proteins which control and direct tobacco smoke
the sequence and progression of phases in (e) carcinogenic com­pounds (cancer-
the cell cycle. causing com­ pounds) such as formal-
(b) The control system within the cells dehyde
ensures that cell division is complete and
the cell divides in a controlled manner. Table 5.1 The differences between normal cells and
(c) Certain genes are also involved in the cancer cells
synthesis of certain proteins that can
stimulate the replication of chromatin Normal cells Cancer cells
during the S phase. Controlled growth Uncontrolled growth
Multi-layered and
A single organised layer
The effects of uncontrolled mitosis
SPM
’05/P2
SPM
’08/P2
disorganised
Cells are differentiated Cells are undifferentiated
1 When a cell divides by mitosis repeatedly, and carry out specialised and do not have
without control and regulation, it can produce functions. specialised functions.
cancer cells.
2 Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled The nuclei and number The nuclei and number
mitosis due to severe disruption to the of chromosomes are of chromosomes are
mechanism that controls the cell cycle. normal. abnormal.
3 Cancer cells divide freely and uncontrollably
without heeding the cell cycle control system.
4 Cancer cells compete with the surrounding
The application of knowledge of mitosis
normal cells to obtain sufficient nutrients and
energy for their own growth.
in cloning
5 A cancer cell that is not destroyed will
divide uncontrollably to form a tumour, an The knowledge of mitosis is applied in cloning
abnormal mass of cells (Figure 5.6). and the tissue culture technique.

117 Cell Division

 Cloning

1 Cloning is the process of producing clones or
genetically identical copies of a cell, tissue or
an organism through asexual reproduction.
2 Animal cloning involves the transfer of the
nucleus from a somatic cell to an ovum or
embryonic cell with the nucleus removed.
3 Many animals have been successfully cloned
ever since the first mammal, a sheep named
Dolly, was cloned in 1996 (Figure 5.7).
4 Cloning is a form of asexual reproduction
F
O
because the organisms produced have the same
5
genetic content and chromosomal number as
the parent organism. This is a common charac-
teristic of asexual reproduction.
5 The nucleus that directs the development
of the offspring comes from a diploid cell
produced through mitotic cell division and
not through the fusion of gametes produced
by meiotic cell division.
6 The successful cloning of Dolly has demonstrated
that under the right conditions, inactive genes
of specialised adult cells can be expressed and
made functional once again.

R
CHAPTER

4
How is animal cloning carried out?
An animal is cloned using a nucleus obtained from an adult tissue.
Dolly, the sheep, is genetically identical to the somatic cell donor. SPM
’07/P1

Dolly, which is a clone of

a somatic cell donor parent,
was born in July 1996.

1 2
Somatic cells (from the
An unfertilised egg
mammary gland cells)
cell is obtained. The
are removed and grown
nucleus is sucked out,
in a low culture medium.
leaving the cytoplasm
The starved cells stop
and organelles without
dividing and enter a
any chromosomes.
non-dividing phase.
5
3
An electric pulse The embryo is then
stimulates the fusion implanted into a
between the somatic surrogate mother
cell and the egg cell (the same breed of
without nucleus. sheep as the ovum
donor sheep).
4
The cell divides Dolly, the cloned
repeatedly, forming sheep of the somatic
an embryo. cell donor, is born.

Figure 5.7  The cloning of Dolly

Cell Division 118

Tissue culture technique
1 Many types of plant and animal cells can be
extracted from organisms and cultured in a
nutrient medium outside the organisms.
2 Tissue culture technique involves the growth
of cells or tissues outside the organisms in
a suitable culture medium, which contains
nutrients and growth hormones (in vitro
methods).
3 In vitro literally means ‘in glasses’. The term
refers to experiments conducted outside the
body of an organism, namely in test tubes or
conical flasks.
4 The main purpose of tissue culture is to
produce plant and animal cells through
asexual reproduction.
5 Each cell has the full genetic potential (just
like a zygote) to form all parts of a mature
organism. This means a single plant cell can
develop to become a complete plant.
6 Different parts of plants that can be cultured
include young shoots, meristematic tissues, leaves,
roots, seeds, embryos, cells and proto­plasm.
7 In Malaysia, the tissue culture technique is
used to propagate plants such as oil palm, F
rubber trees, orchids and tomatoes. O

5
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4
How is the tissue culture technique carried out?
SPM SPM
’11/P1
1 ’06/P2
• Small pieces of a plant’s leaf, shoot, bud, stem or root
tissues are cut out.
• These cut out plant tissues are called explants.
2
• Alternatively, enzymes are used to digest the cell walls isolated
of tissues, for example, the mesophyll tissue from a leaf. cells
• This results in naked cells without cell walls called
protoplasts. 1 Explant 2 Protoplasts

3
• The explants or protoplasts are sterilised and then 3 Explant/protoplasts
placed in a glass container which contains a nutrient in a culture medium

solution with a fixed chemical composition. A culture

medium or growth medium normally consists of a
complex mixture of glucose, amino acids, minerals and
4
other substances required for the growth of the tissues.
• The culture medium and the apparatus used must be in
sterile conditions and free from microorganisms which aggregates callus
of cells
can contaminate the tissue culture.
• The pH and temperature of the culture medium also
need to be maintained at optimum levels.

4 5
• The explants or protoplasts begin to divide by mitosis.
• Cell division produces aggregates of cells.
somatic plantlet
• The aggregate of cells develop into a callus; an embryo
un­differentiated mass of tissue.

5
• The callus develops into a somatic embryo.
Figure 5.8
• The embryo develops into a plantlet which can later be
transferred to the soil for growth into an adult plant.
• All the plantlets produced this way are genetically
identical. Therefore, all the adult plants that develop
from them share the same traits.

119 Cell Division

 8 Through the tissue culture technique:
(a) thousands of new young plants or cloned
plants with desirable characteristics and
traits such as strong resistance towards
diseases can be produced from somatic
cells taken from the parent plant.
(b) thousands of identical young plants, all
having the same characteristics and genetic
content as the parent plant can be produced.
(c) a large number of identical plants can
be grown or propagated for commercial
F
purposes.
O 9 With the latest developments in genetic
5
R engin­eering, the genes of a plant can be altered
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10 These transgenic plants carry a foreign gene
4
that has been introduced into their genetic
constitution so that they possess new and
different traits.
11 Transgenic plants have improved food quality.
These plants can be propagated through the
tissue culture technique.
12 Transgenic crops like wheat, soya bean and
cotton which are resistant to herbicides, pests
and diseases have been successfully created by
biotechnologists.
Advantages of cloning
1 Cloning allows biotechnologists to multiply
copies of useful genes or clones.
(a) For example, the bacterium Escherichia
coli has been genetically manipulated to
produce bovine growth hormones.
(b) The clones of these bacteria can synthesise a
large amount of the hormone.
(c) The hormone can then be injected into
cows to increase the quality of their milk.
2 Clones can be produced in a shorter time and
in larger numbers.
(a) In medicine, for example, the Escherichia
coli strain can be cloned to produce insulin.
(b) Insulin is a hormone that lowers the level
of blood sugar by converting excess glucose
into glycogen in the liver.
(c) Insulin is produced by the pancreas. A lack
of insulin can cause diabetes mellitus.
(d) People with diabetes mellitus require a
constant supply of insulin.
(e) In the past, insulin was obtained by
extracting it from the pancreas of
animals such as cows after they had been
slaughtered.
Cell Division
(f) The insulin is then purified and used in the
treatment of diabetes mellitus.
(g) The problem with this method is that it is
costly and the amount produced cannot meet
the demand for insulin.
(h) Today, through genetic engineering, the gene
that codes the synthesis of human insulin is
inserted into the bacteria’s genome.
(i) The genetically modified bacteria are then
grown on a large scale.
(j) The bacteria multiply rapidly by binary
fission, and the human gene replicates
together with the bacteria’s own genes.
(k) The bacterial clones or transgenic bacteria
that are being produced are identical
because each clone contains the gene to
synthesise insulin.
(l) The bacterial cells are then lysed so that
insulin can be extracted. Because bacteria
multiply rapidly and can be grown in large
numbers, insulin can be produced on a
large scale for commercial purposes.
(m) Insulin produced in this way can be made
in large quantities, is less expensive and
more readily available.
3 (a) Plants that reproduce from seeds take
a long time to grow and produce fruits.
Cloned plants, however, can produce
flowers and fruits within a shorter period.
(b) Furthermore, as clones reach maturity in a
shorter period of time, less time and effort
are needed to properly supervise them in
the earlier stages.
4 Many transgenic crops like wheat, soya bean
and cotton which are resistant to herbicides,
pests and diseases have been created.
(a) Plants are also engineered to produce better
quality yields. For example, a gene from
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
is transferred to the cotton plant to create
a new transgenic cotton plant which is
resistant to the Bt larvae. This gene codes
the synthesis of the Bt protein which kills
the larvae that feed on cotton plants.
(b) Delayed ripening in tomatoes is another
example of the beneficial traits possessed
by transgenic plants. This type of tomato
appears fresh and firm and has a longer
shelf life (Photograph 5.4).
(c) Transgenic plants can be cloned using
the tissue culture technique to produce
thousands of plantlets (clones) with similar
resistance to pests and diseases. Farmers are
now planting many of these genetically
modified (GM) crops.
120
 6 Certain transgenic bacteria can be used to
Photograph 5.4 A delayed-ripening tomato (left)
does not rot when compared to a
normal tomato (right) which rots
after being kept for two weeks.
5 (a) Cloning and tissue culture techniques
involve vegetative reproduction which
does not need pollinating agents.
(b) Thus, propagation can take place at any
time without the need for pollination.
Disadvantages of cloning
Disadvantages of cloning
Many ethical and moral issues regarding cloning have been raised. Many religious groups and
organisations have questioned and strongly opposed cloning. Among the issues raised are as follows:
1 The long-term side effects of using
genetically modified viruses and bacterial
clones in various fields such as medicine
and industries are not yet known.
For example, many vaccines, antibodies
and hormones are produced by genetically
modified bacteria. The period of use and
their side effects on humans have not been
established.
2 The long-term effects and safety aspects
of releasing bacterial clones to the
environment to solve problems related to
the environment such as pollution are not
yet known. These organisms may mutate
and become dangerous to the environment
and other living organisms.
3 Clones do not show any genetic variations.
For example, certain plant clones have
adapted to the current environment.
However, if a drastic change to the
environment should occur in the future, the
clones may be wiped out entirely, as they
would be unable to adapt to the changes.
121
control environmental pollution.
(a) For example, the gene for the synthesis of
lipase is isolated from animals and inserted
into the bacterial genome to create a new
strain of bacteria that can clean up oil spills
in the ocean.
(b) There are also some bacterial clones which
are able to break down toxic waste materials
and help clean up toxic waste dumps.
(c) For example, one such bacterium is able to
remove sulphur from coal before it is burnt.
(d) Therefore, transgenic bacteria are able to F
help humans overcome pollution by cutting O
5
down the time and cost of cleaning required R
CHAPTER
M
for the removal of oil spills and toxic
wastes. 4
4 All clones have the same level of
resistance towards certain diseases. If a
new disease or pest emerges, then all the
clones may be eliminated, as they are not
resistant to the new diseases or pests.
5 New clones may undergo natural mutations
which can endanger mankind, as well as
the environment. They may also disrupt the
natural equilibrium of an ecosystem.
6 Certain transgenic crops contain genes that
are resistant to herbicides. These genes
may be transferred to weeds through
viruses. These weeds could then become
resistant to herbicides.
7 For reasons still unknown, cloned animals
have a shorter lifespan. Research is
currently underway to find a solution to
prolong the lives of cloned animals.
Cell Division
 5.1
1 Give the definition of mitosis.
2 State two reasons why mitosis is important in
living organisms.
5.2 Meiosis
F
O The diagram shows a cell at one particular stage of
5
R The significance of meiosis
CHAPTER
M
1 Mitosis produces daughter cells that have
4
exactly the same number of chromosomes as
the original parent cells.
2 If mitosis is the only means of nuclear division,
then each gamete produced by the reproductive
organs would contain a complete set of
chromosomes, that is, each gamete would
have a diploid number of chromosomes (2n).
3 This means that each offspring formed through
the fertilisation of the male and female gametes
would have twice the chromosomal number
of the parent cell.
4 Hence, in order for the offspring to possess the
same chromosomal number as their parents,
the reproductive organs that produce the
gametes must undergo meiosis.
5 The number of chromosomes in the nucleus
of some organisms is given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Diploid chromosomal number of some
organisms
Chromosomal
Organism
number
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) 32
Zea mays (corn) 20
Felis domesticus (cat) 38
Gallus gallus (chicken) 78
Lycopersicon esculantum (tomato) 24
Musca domestica (housefly) 12
Orvis aries (sheep) 54
Equus caballus (horse) 64
Homo sapiens (human) 46
Cell Division
3 Describe the process that takes place during the S
phase.
4 State two advantages of applying the tissue culture
technique.
1
SPM
Clone
’09
mitosis.
Which cell is produced by the cell division?
A B C D
Comments
The stage shown in the diagram is prophase. The
number of chromosomes in the cell is 4. At the end
of mitosis, the number of chromosomes is also 4,
consisting of 2 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
Answer B
The necessity for the production of haploid
gametes
1 Meiosis is a process of nuclear division that
reduces the number of chromosomes in
daughter cells to half that of the parent cell.
2 Meiosis produces haploid gametes. Gametes
SPM are called haploid cells (n) because they
’04/P1
contain half the genetic material or half the
number of chromosomes of the parent cells
(diploid cells, 2n).
3 As each gamete receives only one chromosome
from every pair of homologous chromosomes,
this means, in humans, the gametes contain
only 23 chromosomes or haploid number of
chromosomes (n).
4 During sexual reproduction, the fusion
of two gametes (the sperm and the ovum)
122
 restores the complete number of chromo­ 5 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are still
somes and genetic material, forming a diploid present.
zygote with 46 chromosomes. This means 6 In animal cells, a pair of centrosomes is also
the offspring inherits traits from both parents formed in the cytoplasm. Each centrosome
to ensure a continuation of life. consists of a pair of centrioles (Figure 5.9).
5 If human reproductive organs divide by mitosis,
then the resulting daugther cells (gametes) would
be like somatic cells, having 46 chromosomes chromatin
(2n = 46). Fertilisation of two gametes would
nuclear
then bring the number of chromosomes to envelope
92. If this happens the offspring would not be
human anymore! centrosomes
F
(with centriole
pairs) O

5
The types of cells that undergo meiosis R

CHAPTER
nucleolus M
1 In animals, meiosis occurs in reproductive
organs, that is the testes (in males) and 4
Figure 5.9 Interphase
ovaries (in females).
2 In plants, meiosis occurs in the anthers and
ovaries of flowers.

2 SPM
Clone

The process of meiosis ’08

1 Meiosis consists of two separate nuclear The diagram shows a pair of homologous
divisions: chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.
(a) meiosis I, which consists of prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I.
(b) meiosis II, which consists of prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II.
2 Meiosis I begins with a single diploid parent P
cell. At the end of meiosis II, four haploid
daughter cells are produced, each genetically
different from the others and from the parent
cell. What is P?
3 In meiosis, even though the cell undergoes two A Synapsis
nuclear divisions, the DNA of each chromo­ B Chiasma
some only replicates once. C Bivalent
D Crossing over
Comments
The stages of meiosis • Synapsis is the process when homologous
Interphase chromosomes pair up.
• A bivalent consists of a pair of chromosomes,
1 The cell replicates its DNA and duplicates its one is of paternal origin, the other is of maternal
chromosomes. origin.
2 After replication, each chromosome consists • Crossing over is the process in which
of two identical sister chromatids, held non-sister chromatids exchange segments of
together by a centromere. DNA.
3 The cell now has twice the amount of genetic • The point at which segments of chromatids cross
material, but the same number of chromo­ over is called a chiasma.
somes as before. Answer B
4 Chromosomes are not condensed and therefore
are not visible under the microscope.

123 Cell Division

 Meiosis I: SPM
’10/P2
Separates homologous Telophase I
chromosomes Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I And
Cytokinesis
SPM
Prophase I ’08/P2
F F
• The chromosomes begin
O O
to condense. They become
5

R R sister
shorter, thicker
M and clearly
chromatids
CHAPTER

CHAPTER

M spindle remain
visible. chiasmata
fibre attached
4 • Homologous chromosomes
4
come together to form pairs
of bivalents through a process
called synapsis. One of the cleavage
chromosomes is of paternal furrow
origin, whereas the other is
of maternal origin.
metaphase
• Each bivalent consists of a sister
plate homologous
chromatids
four-part structure called a chromosomes homologous
aligned at the chromosomes
tetrad. A tetrad consists of centrioles
separate and
metaphase
two homologous chromo- plate pulled to the
somes, each of which opposite poles
is made up of two sister
chromatids. Metaphase I SPM
’04/P1
• Non-sister chromatids ex-
change segments of DNA in • The spindle fibres pull the tetrads to the middle of the cell.
a process known as crossing • Pairs of homologous chromosomes align themselves at the metaphase
over. plate (equator of the cell).
• The homologous chromosomes are lined up side by side as tetrads.
• Crossing over can occur • One chromosome of each homologous pair is attached to fibres from one
at any locations or several pole while its homologue is attached to fibres from the opposite pole.
locations on the chromo- • The centromere does not divide.
some at the same time.
• Crossing over results in new Anaphase I SPM
’11/P1
combinations of genes on a
• The spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes apart from one
chromosome.
another and move them to the opposite poles of the cell.
• The points at which seg- • Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids which move as a
ments of chromatids cross single unit.
over are called chiasmata • This means that each member of the homologous chromosomes is attached
(singular, chiasma). to spindle fibres that pull them towards the opposite poles.
• At the end of prophase I, • At the end of anaphase I, each pole has only two chromosomes (each with
the nucleolus and nuclear two sister chromatids).
membrane disappear.
• The two pairs of centrioles Telophase I
migrate to the opposite • The chromosomes arrive at the poles.
poles of the cell. Each • Each pole now has a haploid daughter nucleus because it contains only
pair of centrioles acts as a one set of chromosomes.
central point from which the • The spindle fibres disappear.
spindle fibres radiate. • The nuclear membrane reappears to surround each group of
chromosomes.
• The nucleolus then reappears in each nucleus.

Cell Division 124

 Meiosis II: Separates sister chromatids
Prophase II Metaphase II
nuclear
membrane
two haploid
daughter cells
1. Cytokinesis usually occurs
simultaneously with telo-
phase I, resulting in two
haploid daughter cells. Each
daughter cell receives one
chromosome from a homo-
logous pair.
2. In some organisms, the newly
formed daughter cells undergo
a short interphase. However,
for most organisms, there is no
interphase between meiosis I
and meiosis II.
3. In both situations, DNA repli-
cation does not take place
and the chromosomes remain
in a condensed state.
4. The events which take place
during meiosis II are identical
to those of mitosis.
Anaphase II
sister chromatids
separate
haploid daughter
cells forming
Prophase II
• The nuclear membrane
disintegrates.
• The spindle fibres re-form
in each daughter cell.
Metaphase II
• The chromosomes, each
still made up of two
sister chromatids, are
positioned randomly at
the metaphase plate.
• Each sister chromatid is
attached to the spindle
fibres at the centromere.
125
SPM
’08/P2
T elophase II
A nd
C ytokinesis
F F
O O
5
R R
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
M M
4 4
four haploid daughter cells
Anaphase II
• The centromeres of the sister
chromatids separate.
• The sister chromatids of each
chromosome are now individual
chromosomes.
• Each individual chromosome moves
towards the opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II
• Finally, the nucleoli and nuclear
membranes re-form.
• The spindle fibres break down.
• Cytokinesis follows and four haploid
daughter cells are formed. Each
haploid cell contains half the number
of chromosomes and is genetically
different from the parent diploid cell.
These haploid cells become gametes.
Cell Division
 The differences and similarity between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Similarity
The process of cell division in which DNA replicates only once.

Differences

Mitosis Aspects/events Meiosis

F All somatic cells Type of cell Cells in the reproductive organs
O
5

R Produces new cells for growth and repair Role Produces gametes for sexual reproduction
CHAPTER

M
Pairing of homologous chromosomes Synapsis Homologous chromosomes pair up
4 (synapsis) does not occur. (synapsis) to form bivalents.

Crossing over between non-sister Crossing over Crossing over between non-sister
chromatids does not occur during prophase. chromatids occurs during prophase I.

The individual chromosomes are arranged Metaphase of mitosis Homologous chromosomes line up side
randomly at the metaphase plate. Metaphase I of by side at the metaphase plate.
meiosis
Sister chromatids separate to move to the Anaphase of • Homologous chromosomes separate
opposite poles. mitosis to move to the opposite poles.
Anaphase I of • The sister chromatids still remain
meiosis attached to each other.

One Number of cell Two

divisions
Two daughter cells. Number of Four daughter cells (gametes).
daughter cells
produced at the
end of the division
Diploid (2n) or the same number of Haploid (n) or half the number of
Chromosomal
chromosomes as the parent cell. chromosomes of the parent cell.
number of the
daughter cells

Genetic content Different from the parent cell and from

Genetically identical to the parent cell and
one another.
to one another.
There is no genetic variation in any Genetic variation There is genetic variation from one
generation. generation to the next.

Cell Division 126

 The importance of meiosis

1 In species that reproduce sexually, meiosis
ensures that the diploid number of
chromosomes is maintained from one
generation to the next (Figure 5.10).
2 Meiosis provides for genetic variation which
occurs from one generation to the next. Meiosis
leads to genetic recombination in two key
events which occur during meiosis I.
(a) During prophase I, the process of cross­
ing over results in the exchange of genetic
material between non-sister chromatids of a
(b) During metaphase I, each pair of
homolo­gous chromosomes is arranged inde­
pendently and randomly (independent
assortment) at the metaphase plate of
the cell. The paternal or maternal chromo­
somes or homo­logues may be oriented to
face either one of the poles.
3 Both these events produce gametes with
different combinations of chromosomes. The
events that occur during meiosis I and the F
random fertilisation of an ovum by a sperm O

5
bivalent. This results in the formation of new results in genetic variation in a population of R

CHAPTER
organisms that reproduce sexually. M
combinations of genes on a chromosome.
4
haploid gametes (n = 23)

ovum (n)

sperm (n)

Meiosis

Fertilisation
ovary testis

Mitosis and
development

diploid zygote
(2n = 46)

multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

Figure 5.10  The human life cycle

Meiosis increases the genetic variation of the
population. The diploid cell of an organism which
undergoes meiosis can produce 2n different
chromosomal combinations, where n is the haploid
number. In humans, the number is 223, which is more
than eight million different combinations.
5.2
1 State two differences between meiosis I and
meiosis II.
2 Identify the event that occurs during prophase
I which brings about genetic variation in the
daughter cells being formed.
3 Explain what will happen if the cells in the
reproductive organs do not divide by meiotic cell
division.

Refer Form 5, Chapter 6, Unit 6.2

127 Cell Division


5.3 Appreciating the Movement
of Chromosomes during
Mitosis and Meiosis
1 The ability of organisms to reproduce ensures
the continuity of life on Earth.
2 Whether the organisms reproduce through
mitotic cell division or meiotic cell division,
the ultimate aim is to ensure the survival of
each species from one generation to the next.
F 3 Asexual reproduction
F through mitosis pro­
O duces offspring
O that are identical to the
5
R parent; sexualR reproduction through meiosis
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
M M
produces genetic variability in the offspring.
4 Both processes are regulated in a precise
4 4
manner.
5 If meiosis does not occur properly, the gametes
formed will have an abnormal number of
chromosomes. As a result, the zygote that is
1 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division which
results in the formation of two genetically identical
daughter nuclei.
2 Somatic cells (formed through mitosis) comprise all
the cells in an organism except reproductive cells.
3 Reproductive cells are formed through meiosis.
4 The cell cycle is divided into two major phases:
(a) Interphase (G1, S and G2)
(b) Mitotic cell division or the M phase
5 Interphase is the stage at which cells grow bigger
and prepare for cell division. The three sub-phases
are:
(a)  G1 phase – Proteins and new organelles are
synthesised.
(b)  S phase – Synthesis of DNA occurs. DNA
undergoes replication where duplication of
chromosomes occurs.
(c)  G2 phase – Enzymes and proteins are
synthesised.
6 The M phase can be divided into mitosis and
cytokinesis.
7 Mitosis is sub-divided into four phases:
(a) Prophase – The chromosomes condense and
become tightly coiled. Spindle fibres begin to
form.
(b) Metaphase – The chromosomes are arranged
at the metaphase plate.
(c) Anaphase – The two sister chromatids separate
and are pulled apart to the opposite poles.
Cell Division
Refer Form 5, Chapter 5, Unit 5.2
formed would later become abnormal. For
example, Down’s syndrome is the result of an
extra chromosome 21, so that each body cell
has a total of 47 chromosomes instead of 46.
The affected individuals have certain charac­
teristics which include small build and mental
retardation.
6 (a) Certain environmental agents such as
radiation and certain chemicals are
known to be carcinogenic and can disrupt
the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
(b) Food that contains preservatives
such as sodium nitrite, benzene and
formaldehyde are also known to change
the structure of DNA molecules.
7 Ways of preventing cancer would be to avoid
contact with these substances as well as
adopting a healthy lifestyle and a diet rich in
fruits and vegetables.
(d) Telophase – The chromosomes reach the
opposite poles of the cell.
8 Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm
is divided into two daughter cells, each with a
nucleus.
9 Cloning is the process of producing clones or
genetically identical copies of a cell, tissue or an
organism through asexual reproduction.
10 Tissue culture involves the growth of cells or tissues
outside the organisms in a suitable culture medium,
which contains nutrients and growth hormones.
11 Meiosis is a process of nuclear division that reduces
the number of chromosomes in daughter cells to
half that of the parent cell.
12 Meiosis consists of two separate nuclear divisions:
(a) Meiosis I:
(i) Prophase I – Crossing over which results
in new combinations of genes on a
chromosome.
(ii) Metaphase I – Pairs of homologous
chromosomes align themselves at the
metaphase plate.
(iii) Anaphase I – Spindle fibres pull the
homologous chromosomes apart from
one another and move them to the
opposite poles of the cell.
(iv) Telophase I and cytokinesis – Each pole
now has a haploid daughter nucleus. Two
haploid daughter cells are produced.
128
 (b) Meiosis II: sister chromatids separate. The sister
(i) Prophase II – Spindle fibres re-form. chromatids move to the opposite poles.
(ii) Metaphase II – Individual chromosomes (iv) Telophase II and cytokinesis – Spindle
are posi­tioned randomly at the metaphase fibres break down and four haploid
plate. daughter cells are formed.
(iii) Anaphase II – The centromeres of the

5F F
O O
Multiple-choice Questions

5
R R

CHAPTER

CHAPTER
M M

5.1 Mitosis 4 4

1 Stages K, L, M and N in Diagram 1 occur during mitosis in a cell. 4 Diagram 4 shows the process of
SPM
Clone
SPM
Clone
cloning a sheep.
’08 ’07

K L M N
Diagram 1
Which of the following shows the correct sequence of mitosis?
A K, L, M, N C M, K, L, N diplod cell ovum
B N, K, M, L D N, M, K, L

2 Diagram 2 shows a type of cell division.

embryo

surrogate
mother

Diagram 2
Which cell undergoes this type of cell division? offspring Z
A Skin cell C Secondary oocyte
Diagram 4
B Red blood cell D Embryo sac mother cell
Which of the following is the
3 Diagram 3 shows the phases in the cell cycle. offspring Z?
SPM
Clone
Prophase P Anaphase Q A C
’06
Diagram 3
Which statements about the chromosomes at stages P and Q are correct?
Stage P Stage Q B D
A Each chromosome consists of The homologous chromosomes
two sister chromatids. form pairs of bivalents.
B The chromosomes condense The sister chromatids separate
and become tightly coiled. and move to the opposite poles.
C The chromosomes duplicate to The chromosomes are long 5 If the chromosomal number of
form sister chromatids. and not visible. an organism is 12, what is the
chromosomal number of gamete
D The chromosomes line up at The chromosomes reach the cells, somatic cells and embryonic
the metaphase plate. opposite poles of the cell. cells of the organism?

129 Cell Division

 Gamete Somatic Embryonic 10 At which stages of the cell cycle do these events occur?
cells cells cells Breakdown of nuclear Division of
A 12 12 12 DNA replication
membrane centromere
B  6 12  6 A Prophase Prophase Anaphase
C  6 12 12
B Interphase Anaphase Metaphase
D 12 6 12
C Interphase Prophase Anaphase

6 G1, M, G2 and S are the phases of D Interphase Interphase Anaphase

Clone a cell cycle in an organism.
SPM

’05 11 Which of these human cells 14 Which of these illustrates the

do not have the correct condition of a somatic cell and a
S G1 chromosomal number? reproductive cell of an insect after
F undergoing mitosis and meiosis
O Chromosomal
G2 M Human cells respectively, if the number of
5

R number
chromosomes in a diploid cell is 4?
CHAPTER

M A Red blood cells 0

Diagram 5
After mitosis After meiosis
4
B Ova 23
Which sequence of the phases A
during the interphase is correct? C Intestinal cells 46
A G1 → S → G2 D Skin cells 23

B G1 → G2 → S
C M → G1 → G2 12 Diagram 7 shows a cell at B
D M → S → G2 metaphase during mitosis.

7
• Nuclear membrane
disintegrates.
• Spindle fibres are formed.
During which phase in mitosis do
the events take place?
A Interphase C Metaphase
B Prophase D Anaphase
8 The diploid chromosomal number
Clone (2n) of an animal is 42. If one of
SPM
’08 the homologous chromosome
pairs does not separate
during meiosis I, how many
chromosomes can be found in
the gametes?
A 19 C 21
B 20 D 42
9 Diagram 6 shows an animal cell
Clone undergoing mitosis.
SPM
Diagram 7
What is the chromosomal number
in the daughter cells after cell
division is completed?
A 2 C 8
B 4 D 16
13 Diagram 8 shows the different
stages of mitosis.
C
D
15 If mitosis continues to occur without
cytokinesis, the daughter cells will
A lack nuclei
B grow unusually big
C have more than one nucleus
D not undergo interphase
16 Which phase in the interphase is
SPM
Clone responsible for the synthesis of
’11 DNA?
A G1 C S
B G2 D M

’09 5.2 Meiosis

17 Which sequence of meiosis I is

SPM
Clone correct?
’11
A Prophase I  →  Anaphase I →
Metaphase I → Telophase I
Diagram 6 B Metaphase I  →  Telophase I
Diagram 8
What is the stage of the mitosis? → Prophase I  →  Anaphase I
A Prophase What are the correct sequence of C Anafase I  →  Metaphase I →
B Metaphase stages? Telophase I  →  Prophase I
C Anaphase A P, Q, R, S C Q, R, P, S D Prophase I  →  Metaphase I →
D Telophase B S, R, P, Q D S, R, Q, P Anaphase I  →  Telophase I

Cell Division 130

 18 Crossing over occurs between
A two different kinds of
chromosomes
B two different kinds of bivalents
C sister chromatids of the same
chromosomes
D non-sister chromatids of a
bivalent
21 Diagram 10 shows a sequence of 24 During which stage of meiosis
SPM
Clone stages during meiosis. do hormologous chromosomes
’04 separate?
A Prophase I C Prophase II
B Anaphase I D Anaphase II
25 Diagram 11 shows a stage during
cell division.

19 Which diagram represents

metaphase I?
A
F
O
Diagram 10

5
R

CHAPTER
B M
During stage P, the homologous Diagram 11 4
chromosomes
A become condensed and Which of these statements are
C thickened true about the cells?
B pair up and crossing over I Four chromosomes are
occurs present in each daughter cell.
C separate and move towards II Homologous chromosomes
D the opposite poles separate and move towards
D arrange themselves randomly the opposite poles of the cells.
at the metaphase plate III The number of daughter cells

produced at the end of the cell
20 Diagram 9 shows the different 22 If an insect species has a diploid division for each cell is 8.
SPM
Clone stages of meiosis in a diploid cell,
SPM
Clone number of chromosomes, IV Sister chromatids are attached
’07 2n = 4. ’04 2n = 12, in each of its nuclei, together at the centromere
which is true? and move as a unit.
A I and III C I, II and III
Number B II and IV D II, III and IV
Number of
of nuclear
chromosomes 26 Which statements explain the
division
I II III in gametes importance of meiosis?
during IV
after meiosis I Haploid cells are produced
meiosis
during meiosis.
A 1 6 II The chromosomal number is
B 2 3 reduced to half in the daughter
C 2 6 cell.
II III IV III The chromosomal number
D 2 12
Diagram 9 is maintained after each cell
division.
Which is the correct sequence of 23 During which phase of meiosis IV Causes genetic variation from
the stages? are chiasmata formed? one generation to the next.
A III, II, IV, I A Prophase I A I and II
B I, III, IV, II B Metaphase I B III and IV
C III, IV, II, I C Anaphase I C I, II and IV
D II, IV, III, I D Telophase II D II, III and IV

131 Cell Division

 Structured Questions
1 Diagram 1.1 shows part of the stages of meiosis in an animal cell.
SPM
Clone
’08

Stage K Stage L Stage M Stage N Stage O

F F
O O
5

R R
Meiosis I Meiosis II
CHAPTER

CHAPTER

M M

4 4 Diagram 1.1

The chromosomal behavior during stage N is not 2 Diagram 2.1 shows the nucleus of an animal cell.
shown.
(a) Name the structure labelled P. [1 mark] nuclear
(b) Diagram 1.2 shows process X which takes place
membrane
during stage K.

Diagram 2.1

(a) (i) Name the structures seen inside the nucleus

in Diagram 2.1.
(ii) What is the chromosomal number of the
Diagram 1.2
nucleus in Diagram 2.1? [2 marks]
(i) Draw the chromosomes at the end of
(b) When one nucleus divides, what is the normal
process X.
number of daughter nuclei formed from this
nucleus as a result of division by
(i) mitosis?
(ii) meiosis? [2 marks]
(c) Within the outlines of the nuclei in Diagram 2.2,
[1 mark] draw the correct number of chromosomes of the
(ii) Name process X. State one importance of nucleus shown in Diagram 2.1, as they would
process X to an organism. [2 marks] appear
(c) (i) In Diagram 1.1, complete the diagram to (i) after mitosis (ii) after meiosis
show the chromosomal behaviour during
stage N. [1 mark]
(ii) Explain the behaviour of chromosomes
during stage N. [1 mark]
(d) Cancer cells are formed after normal cells are
exposed to several factors.
(i) Explain the formation of cancer cells.
[2 marks] Nucleus of a Nucleus of a
cell produced cell produced
(ii) State two factors that cause the formation of after division after division
cancer cells. [2 marks] by mitosis by meiosis
(iii) State two ways to prevent the development
Diagram 2.2
of cancer cells. [2 marks] [4 marks]

Cell Division 132

 (d)
Diagram 2.3 shows two homologous
chromosomes and the loci of two genes.

Q Q q q

r r R R

Diagram 2.3

F F
If crossing over occurs between the allele Q
O O
and allele q, and between the alleles R and r, Diagram 3.2 R

5
[2 marks] R
complete Diagram 2.4 to show four possible

CHAPTER

CHAPTER
M M
gametes formed at the end of meiosis. 4 Diagram 4.1 shows two cells, X and Y, undergoing cell
SPM division. 4 4
Clone
’05

Diagram 2.4
cell X cell Y
[4 marks]
Diagram 4.1

(a) (i) Name the structures labelled P and Q.

3 Diagram 3.1 shows three stages of meiosis, K, L and [2 marks]
SPM
Clone
M, in an animal cell. (ii) State the stages of division of cells X and Y.
’07 [2 marks]
(b) If cell X undergoes three consecutive cell
divisions, how many daughter cells are
produced? [1 mark]
(c) (i) Cell Y undergoes the first nuclear division.
Complete Diagram 4.2 to show the chromo-
somes in the daughter cells produced.
K L M [2 marks]

Diagram 3.1

(a) Name the stages K, L and M in Diagram 3.1.

[3 marks]

(b) Explain what happens at stage M. [2 marks]

(c) State the chromosomal behaviour at the

following stages:
(i) stage K
(ii) stage L [2 marks]

(d) Explain the role of mitosis in the cloning Diagram 4.2

technique. [3 marks] F4/28

(e) Diagram 3.2 shows a cell at a certain phase. (ii) State the number of chromosomes in each
If chromosome P is not separated, draw the daughter cell. [1 mark]
diagrams of the two daughter cells which will be (iii) State one organ where cell Y can be found.
formed in the next phase in the space provided. [1 mark]

133 Cell Division

 (iv) If the number of chromosomes in a somatic
cell of an insect is 14, what is the number
of chromosomes in the daughter cells
produced at the end of the type of cell
division shown by cell Y ? [1 mark]
(d) Explain how radiation can stop the growth of
cancer cells. [2 marks]
(e) A farmer plans to produce a large number of
bananas within a short period of time.
(i) Suggest the best technique that can be
employed by the farmer.
(ii) State one aspect that must be considered
before he chooses to use this technique.
[2 marks]

Essay Questions

F 5 (a) Diagram 5.1 shows the process of mitosis.

O
5

R
CHAPTER

Diagram 5.1

Explain the significance of mitosis. [4 marks]
(b) Explain the similarities and differences between
mitosis and meiosis. [6 marks]
(c) Diagram 5.2 shows a tissue culture technique
used to clone or propagate carrot plants.
6 (a) Explain the principles used in the cloning
technique. [3 marks]
(b) Diagram 6 shows how animal cloning is carried
out.

egg
Step 1 Step 2

black-faced sheep

explant in Step 4
explant culture medium egg fused
with cell

Step 3
white-faced sheep
callus somatic cell embryo Step 5

surrogate mother
somatic
plantlet embryo
somatic offspring P Step 6
embryo Step 7

Diagram 5.2 Diagram 6

Based on Diagram 5.2, explain how the process
is carried out.
Explain the advantages of using this method of
reproduction compared to growing plants from
seeds to a fruit grower. [10 marks]
Based on Diagram 6, explain how the cloning of
offspring P is carried out. [7 marks]
(c) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
cloning technique to mankind. [10 marks]

Cell Division 134 COMPANION WEBSITE

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