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    1997 KennethDionisio ReinforcedConcreteDesign PDF

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    viii 3118? 023 ee8 blOy REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Also available from McGraw-Hill Schaum’s Outline Series in Civil Engineering Most outlines include basic theory, definitions and hundreds of example problems solved in step-by-step detail, and supplementary problems with answers. Related titles on the current list include: Descriptive Geometry Dynamic Structural Analysis Engineering Esonomics Engineering Mechanics Fluid Dynamies Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Introductory Surveying Mathematical Handbook of Formulas & Tables Reinforced Concrete Design Statics & Mechanics of Materials Strength of Meterials Structural Steel Design (LRFD Method) Schaum's Solved Problems Books Each title in this series is a complete and expert source of solved problems with solutions worked out in step-by-step detail Related titles on the list include: 3000 Solved Problems in Calculus 2500 Solved Problems in Differential Equations 2500 Solved Problems in Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics 3000 Solved Problems in Linear Algebra 2000 Solved Problems in Numerical Analysis 700. Solved Problems in Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics 800. Solved Problems in Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics Available at most college bookstores, or for a complete list of titles and prices, write to Schaum Division ‘The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. LI West 19th Street New York, NY 10011 Conforms to 1995 ACI Codes REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN THIRD EDITION Kenneth M. Leet Northeastern University Contributing Author Dionisio Bernal Northeastern University ‘THE McGRAW-HILL COMPANIES, INC. New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogoté Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto McGraw-Hill 2 A Division of The McGraw Hill Companies REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Copyright © 1997, 1991, 1982 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, In. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission ofthe publisher. ‘This book is primed on acid-free paper. 1234567890SEM BKP909876 ISBN 0-07-037100-8 This book was set in Times Roman by Publication Services, In: The editors were B. J. Clark and John M. Morriss; the production supervisor was Kathryn Porzio. The cover was designed by Carla Bauer. Project superision was done by Publication Services, Ine. Quebecor Semline was printer Quebecor BookPress was binder Cover photo ert: Photo by Ezra Stoller © Esto Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Leet, Kenneth Reinforced concrete design: conforms to 1995 ACI codes/Kenneth Lect; contributing author, Dionisio Bernal. —3ed ed. p. om Includes inden. SRN 0.07-097100.8ISRN 04.07-097101-6 fam) 1. Reinforced concrete constuction. I. Bernal, Dionisio. UL. Tile, ‘TAGS3.2.L36 1997 624.1'8341 420 9631173 Itp:/fwww.mnbcollege.com Chapter 1 Ld 12 13 14 LS 16 17 18 19 1.10 Chapter 2 21 22 23 Chapter 3 3 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Preface Introduction Overview Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Units of Measure Codes Service Loads Duetility versus Brittleness Strength and Serviceability Elastic versus Strength Design ‘The ACI Design Procedure Overview of the Design Procedure References Questions Problems Materials Concrete Mechanical Properties of Concrete Reinforcement References Questions Design of Beams for Flexure Introduction The Uncracked Cross Section; Computation of the Cracking Moment Working-Stress Design; Service-Load Stresses Limit of Elastic Behavior for an Underreinforced Beam Deflections under Service Loads Control of Cracking under Service Loads Failure Modes and Flexural Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams The Plastic Hinge and Moment-Curvature Diagrams CONTENTS 39 42 48 51 63 68 5 v 39 3.10 3. 3.12 3.13 3.4 3.15 3.16 3.17 Chapter 4 4 42 43 44 45 46 47 43 Chapter § 34 5.2 33 34 55 56 57 58 Chapter 6 61 62 63 64 65 6.5 Minimum Reinforcement to Prevent a Brittle Failure Balanced Failure of a Beam with a Rectangular Cross Section Strength Design of Rectangular Beams for Moment ‘Trial Method Balanced Steel for Beams with Nonrectangular Compression Zones Design of Beams with Compression Steel Design of T-Beams One-Way Slabs Temperature and Shrinkage Steel References Questions, Problems Shear and Diagonal Tension Introduction Description of a Shear Failure in a Beam Reinforced for Moment Design Procedure for Shear Design of Beams with No Shear Reinforcement Design of Shear Reinforcement Modeling of a Reinforced Concrete Beam as a Truss Punching Shear Shear Friction References Questions Problems Torsion Introduction Distribution of Shear Stresses Created by Torsion on a Rectangular Cross Section Prediction of Shear Stresses on a Rectangular Cross Section Due to Torque ‘Computation of the Cracking Torque Ter Reinforcing for Torsion Design Equations for Torsional Reinforcement Summary of Design Procedure for a Member Stressed by Torsion, Shear, and Moment Equilibrium and Compatibility Torsion References Question Problems Bond, Anchorage, and Reinforcing Details Scope of Chapter Bond Stresses Distribution and Variation of Bond Stresses Mechanics of Bond Strength Nominal Bond Strength Development Length of Tension Steel 1 81 95 100 103 12 8 n9 121 121 122 130 130 132 136 144 146 160 165 167 168 169. 169 12 172 173 175, 178, 192 183, 190 196 199 199 199 202 202 203 204 205 209 2 67 68 69 6.10 6.11 6.12 Chapter 7 Td 72 73 14 15 16 17 78 19 7.10 7 712 713 714 Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 83 84 85 8.6 8.7 * Chapter 9 OL 9.2 93 94 95 96 Development Length of Compression Steel Standard Hooks Anchorage of Steel at Simple Supports and Points of Inflection Cutoff Points Splicing Reinforcement Comprehensive Design Example References Questions Problems Design of Columns Introduction Fundamentals of Column Behavior Braced and Unbraced Frames Effective-Length Factors for Columns of Rigid Frames ‘The ACI Procedure for Classifying Beam-Columns Strength of Short Axially Loaded Columns Plastic Centroid Strength of Short Columns for Axial Load and Moment. Design Procedure for a Short Column Design of Long Columns Magnification of Moments in Braced (Nonsway) Columns with Unequal End Moments Magnification of Column Moments in Unbraced Frames Stability of Unbraced Frames Supporting Gravity Loads Biaxial Bending References Questions Problems Footing Design Introduction Types of Foundations Soil Pressures Design of Footings for Vertical Load Design of a Wall Footing with a Uniform Load Design of an Axially Loaded Two-Way Footing Design of a Combined Footing for Two Columns Reference Problems Retaining Walls Introduction Earth Pressures on Retaining Walls Behavior of a Cantilever Retaining Wall Design Procedure for a Cantilever Retaining Wall Load Factors and Design Assumptions Design Example References Problems 222 223, 227 230 234 238 243 243 248 248 253 256 258 261 265 270 272 284 291 295 300 303 307 313 313 313 318 318 319 321 325 326 330 336 344 347 347 350 354 355 337 359 37 372 vii ‘CONTENTS vill Chapter 10 16.1 10.2 10.3 10a 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 Chapter 11 ALL 12 13 na nS 11.6 7 118 119 1.10 Wl Chapter 12 11 12.2, 123 12.4 ins 12.6, 12.7 12.8 12.9 1210 12.11 12.12, 12.13 12.14 1215 1216 12.17 The Design and Analysis of Multistory Building Frames Introduction Factors That Influence the Configuration of Floor Systems Behavior of Rectangular Slabs Supported on Four Sides Lateral Bracing of Buildings Preliminary Design Analysis of Multistory Building Frames Positioning Live Load for Maximum Moment Analysis by ACI Coefficients Moment Redistribution Steel versus Reinforced Concrete for Building Frames Reference: Problems Design of Two-Way Slabs Introduction Forces in Two-Way Slabs Midspan Moments in a Rectangular Slab Supported at the Comers Subdividing a Building into Two-Dimensional Frames The Equivalent Column Minimum Thickness of Two-Way Slabs to Control Deflections Analysis of Two-Way Slabs Design Moment for Columns ‘Transfer of the Floor Load into Columns Shearhead Reinforcement Openings in Slabs References Problems Prestressed Concrete Introduction Description of the Prestressing Procedure Prestressing Methods ‘Materials and Allowable Stresses Flexural Design Requirements for Prestressed Beams Forces Exerted by Stressed Tendons Elastic Analysis of Prestressed Beams Kern Points ‘The Cracking Moment Behavior of a Prestressed Beam Loaded to Failure Strength Design for Flexure Design of a Cross Section for Moment Design for Shear Deflections End-Block Stresses Loss of Prestress Prestressing Columns References Questions Problems 373 373 375 377 319 380 380 384 386 391 394 395 395 397 397 399 403 409 412 430 431 437 438 438 439 442 447 450 450 461 465 466 467 469 474 480 485 490 499 499 499 500 Chapter 13 13.1 13.2 133 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 moa Introduction to Yield Line Analysis Introduction The Critical Yield Line Pattern Basic Assumptions Yield Line Patterns Analysis Using the Virtual Work Principle Flexural Strength along Yield Lines Rotation at Yield Lines Concentrated Loads Computation of Internal Work Using Plate Element Rotations Design Formulation References Questions Problems Appendixes Conversion Factors Bar Area and Spacing in Slabs. Distribution Factors for Moments in Two-Way Slabs Properties of Standard Prestressed Concrete Beam Cross Sections Notation Answers to Questions ‘Answers to Selected Problems Index 504 504 506 506 507 509 513, 514 517 519 519 521 522 522 523, 523 524 525 526 528 535 539 542 ix CONTENTS PREFACE Engineering and architectural students who complete this book will have acquired the back- ‘ground necessary to design the majority of reinforced concrete structures commonly encountered in professional practice. ‘My goal in writing this text was to clarify the behavior and simplify the design of reinforced concrete—a topic that can be quite complex if not presented in an orderly sequence. NEW FEATURES OF THE THIRD EDITION New ACI Code provisions: Pleased that many instructors have found the second edition of Reinforced Concrete Design “ery teachable,” have retained the underlying framework of the text and have concentrated on updating the topics already presented, incorporating the latest technological changes in materials and design philosophy contained in the most recent edition (1995) of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-95). Among the major changes in this third edition, reflecting the new pro- visions of the Code, are design procedures for the following topics: Torsion: Chapter 5, Torsion, has been completely revised to conform to the new Code provisions. The new design procedure for torsion treats members with solid cross sections as hollow thin-walled tubes to establish the internal shear forces. Once these forces are determined, the reinforcement is sized by assuming forces are transmitted through a three-dimensional space truss in which diagonal concrete struts carry compression and steel reinforcement acts as tension ‘members. Development length of bars in tension: Chapter 6 contains the new Code provisions for ‘ensuring safe anchorage of tension steel. Unlike the previous provisions, which mandated three steps to determine the required development length of a bar, the new design procedure has been reduced to a single equation with four factors that account for the influence of thickness of cover or spacing between bars, bar size, epoxy coating, and depth of concrete under bars. Analysis and design of slender columns in unbraced frames: The new Code provisions affect many sections of Chapter 7. These provisions establish the appropriate value of moment of inertia to be used to classify columns as long or short and to analyze indeterminate frames. New procedures are given for the magnification of moments in unbraced frames that are analyzed xil by first-order computer programs to account for secondary (P-delta) moments. Also various ctiteria are established to ensure that columns in unbraced frames have adequate stiffness to prevent excessive deflection under both gravity and lateral loads. Many new examples have been added to illustrate the new Code provisions. Minimum flexural steel for high-strength concrete members: To ensure a ductile failure of lightly reinforced beams constructed of high-strength concrete, the provisions for minimum flexural steel in Section 3.9 have been expanded to express minimum steel requirements in terms of the compressive strength of the concrete. This section also contains new provisions that crease the minimum steel requirements for T-beams whose flanges are stressed in tension. Design of shear reinforcement using the truss analogy: A new Section 4.6 has been added to develop the truss analogy for sizing shear reinforcement. This method is based on the observation that a beam on the verge of failure behaves like a truss. The new procedure, now Utilized to design stirrups for vertical shear in the latest edition of the bridge code of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), will in the near future probably replace the current ACT design provisions for calculating shear reinforcement. The truss analogy is also utilized in Chapter 5 to establish equations for sizing torsion reinforce- ment. Expanded coverage of SI metric units: Since most engineering firms in the United States work exclusively in U. S. customary units (USCU), the majority of the examples and homework problems in this text use this system. However, to permit the American concrete construction industry to compete globally in future years, the engineering profession can expect increasing numbers of engineering projects to be carried out in metric units. Therefore, in this transition period, I have expanded the use of metric units in the present edition—particularly in the first seven chapters—so that instructors can provide students with the background needed to design basic structural elements (beams, slabs, and columns) in S/ metric units. To this end, tie book now contains tables listing properties of metric bars, provides all basic equations in both USCU and SI metric units, adds examples in which material properties, dimensions, and other design information are given in metric units, and supplies a variety of homework problems in metric units. Based on my own experience, I believe that students who have acquired a solid under- standing of reinforced concrete behavior will feel comfortable working in metric units after a brief exposure. Revised homework problems and design examples: A large selection of homework problems has always been an important feature of earlier editions. Where helpful to the student, Thave incorporated additional design examples and have added new and stimulating homework problems throughout. From my many years of teaching, I have culled design problems and examples that have enabled students to grasp the essential concepts most easily. I have chosen whatever worked best in my own classroom over the years, selecting examples that get to the heart of the concept under discussion. In the third edition, most homework problems in Chap- ter 3 (on bending) have been revised and many additional problems added. Other chapters—on shear, bond, torsion, and columns—also contain many new or revised homework problems. GOALS OF THE TEXT In writing this introductory text, my primary aim was to enable the student to develop a clear understanding of the basic principles—the critical groundwork that must be laid in a first- year course. In a carefully sequenced, step-by-step approach, each topic is broken dowr into its simplest and most essential components so that students, in turn, learn how to break down and deal with any structure—no matter how complex—by looking at the basic behavior of each ‘component, ‘All design equations are derived from a few fundamental principles of staties and engineer- ing mechanics that should be familiar to the average engineering student with a background in these areas The text, which has been class-tested for over 20 years, is geared toward the average stu- dent's needs, questions, and difficulties, yet the more advanced problems will challenge even those students who wish to specialize in reinforced concrete design. Encouraging students to take into account the basic behavior and characteristics of rein- forced concrete allows them to understand the rationales behind the provisions of the ACI Code and prepares them to deal knowledgeably with design situations not covered by the Code. COURSE LEVEL AND TEACHING SUGGESTIONS This text contains sufficient material for two semesters of reinforced concrete design. The ma- terial for the first course, which provides the essential background for proportioning members and detailing reinforcement, is covered in Chapters | through 7. If time permits, Section 10.8, on the analysis of continuous members by ACI coefficients, may be logically introduced after Section 3.16 has been covered. This permits students who are not familiar with indeterminate analysis to calculate design moments in continuous one-way ‘members. If time is limited, or if the instructor wishes to develop certain topics in more detail, Chapter 5, on torsion, may be omitted from a first course without any loss of continuity. Ina second course, the material of Chapters 8 through 13 will give the student an under- standing of the design of typical reinforced concrete structures and prestressed concrete. Chap- ters 8 and 9, on foundations and retaining wall design, provide the student with the opportunity to apply many of the design procedures introduced in the first seven chapters to a number of relatively simple but common structural elements. Chapters 10 and 11, on building design, de- scribe how the analysis of large, highly indeterminate three-dimensional building frames for gravity load can be simplified by subdividing the structure into smaller two-dimensional sub- systems. Finally, Chapter 12 contains an extensive treatment of prestressed concrete, which provides certain advantages over reinforced concrete because cracking can be eliminated and higher-strength materials can be used more efficiently. TWO TYPES OF EQUATIONS ‘This text contains two types of equations. The first type, derived from principles of mechanics, is used to relate internal stresses to applied forces. The variables in these equations may be expressed in terms of any set of dimensionally consistent units. In the second type of equation, which is usually based on experimental studies, the variables are restricted to specific units. For example, except for the equation predicting crack width under service loads, all ACI equations in U. S. customary units require that the compressive strength of concrete f, and the yield point of steel f, be expressed in pounds per inch squared (Ib/in”).. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deep appreciation to colleagues, friends, students, and reviewers of the text, who have contributed greatly to the development of this book over the years. PRERCE xiv PREFACE In particular, I would like to thank Judith Leet, who edited the initial draft of the first edition; ‘Saul Namyet and Robert Taylor, who reviewed many of the chapters of the first edition and offered many valuable suggestions; Walid Najjar and Chia-Ming Uang for their contributions to the second edition; and J. P. Paniagua who provided the second-order computer analysis of an unbraced frame, in Chapter 7 of the present edition. Chapter 13 of the third edition, on yield line theory, was written by Dionisio Bernal of Northeastem University, who also prepared the initial draft of Chapter 5. I would also like to thank Kris Engberg and Matthew Harris of Publication Services, Inc., for their help in expediting the production of the third edition. Finally, I would like to acknowledge with appreciation the support over the years of both Northeastern University and Mishac Yegian, chairman of the Northeastem Civil Engineering Department. For this third edition I would like to express my thanks to the following reviewers: Dr. P.R. Chakrabarti, California State University at Fullerton; Patrick Findlay, U.S. Military Academy James Nau, North Carolina State University; Irving Oppenheim, Caregie-Mellon University: Andrew Scanlon, Pennsylvania State University; and R. P. Silvan, University of Arkansas. Kenneth Leet Northeastern University CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Cascade Orchards Bridge over the Wenatchee River, Leavenswonth, Washington, Continuous prestressed concrete bridge with slender beams designed by Arvid Grant Associates. (Photograph by Arvid Grant.) 1.1 OVERVIEW In almost every branch of civil engineering and architecture, extensive use is made of rein- forced conerete for structures and foundations. Engineers and architects therefore require a ba- sic knowledge of reinforced concrete design throughout their professional careers. Much of this text is directly concerned with the behavior and proportioning of the components that make up typical reinforced conerete structures—beams, columns, and slabs, Once the behavior of these individual elements is understood, the designer will have the background to analyze and design a wide range of complex structures, such as foundations, buildings, and bridges, composed of these elements. Since reinforced concrete is a nonhomogeneous material that creeps, shrinks, and cracks, its stresses cannot be accurately predicted by the traditional equations derived in a course in strength of materials for homogeneous elastic materials. Much of reinforced concrete design is therefore empirical; ic., design equations and design methods are based on experimental and time-proven results instead of being derived exclusively from theoretical formulations, 1 2 REINFORCED CONCRETE Desi A thorough understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete will allow the designer to convert an otherwise brittle material into tough, ductile structural elements and thereby take ad- vantage of concrete’s desirable characteristics—its high compressive strength, its fire resistance, and its durability. 1.2 CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE Concrete, a sionelike material, is made by mixing cement, water, fine aggregate (often sand), coarse aggregate, and frequently other additives (that modify properties) into a workable mix- ture. In its unhardened, or plastic state, concrete can be placed in forms to produce a Lange variety of structural elements. Although the hardened concrete by itself, ie., without any reinforcement, is strong in compression, it lacks tensile strength and therefore cracks easily. Because unrein- forced concrete is brittle, it cannot undergo large deformations under load and fails suddenly without warning. The addition of steel reinforcement to the concrete reduces the negative ef- fects of its two principal inherent weaknesses, its susceptibility to cracking and its brittleness. Although steel isa stiff, high-strength material, it also has several weaknesses that can be min- imized or eliminated by encasing it in concrete. Concrete surrounding steel protects it from corrosion by moist air or salt water. At temperatures over 1200°F, the tensile strength of steel reduces rapidly. Since concrete is a good insulator, steel that is protected by several inches of concrete cover will retain its strength during several hours of exposure to intense heat. Thus steel and concrete form a synergistic relationship; i.e., each material improves the usefulness of the other. When properly combined by the designer, weaknesses of each are largely eliminated while all desirable characteristics are retained. ‘When the reinforcement is strongly bonded to the concrete, a strong, stiff, and ductile con- struction material is produced. This material, called reinforced concrete, is used extensively to construct foundations, structural frames, storage tanks, shell roofs, highways, walls, dams, canals, and innumerable other structures and building products. Two other characteristics of concrete that are present even when concrete is reinforced are shrinkage and creep, but the neg- ative effects of these properties can be mitigated by careful design. 13 UNITS OF MEASURE Although the United States has been committed for several decades to converting its system of measurements from U.S. customary units (foot, pound, second) to SI units (meter, newton, sec- ond), litle change has taken place in the American concrete industry to date. At present (1997), structural engineering offices in the United States work almost exclusively in U.S. customary units. Today the United States is the only developed country in the world that has not converted fully to the metric system. However, itis now clear that metrification can no longer be delayed by the American construction industry if itis to compete globally. To encourage conversion to the metric system in the United States, a number of federal agencies now require that ergineers use metric units exclusively in all new designs under their control Over the next four to five years, the United States will likely be in a major transitional pe- riod during which the construction industry will shift to metric units (SI) for all new designs in order to be compatible with the rest of the world. To avoid fractions and permit modular con- struction, this switch to metric units will also require that manufacturers modify the dimensions of reinforcing bars and other products used in reinforced concrete construction. ‘The American Concrete Institute (ACI) Code, which contains the specifications that govern the design and construction of reinforced concrete structures in the United States, is currently published in two versions. In one edition, equations are expressed in U.S. customary units; in the other edition, equations are formulated in SI units. The normal units used in the equations of each system are listed in Table 1.1. Some conversion factors are given in Appendix A. TABLE 1.1 Units used in ACI Code equations US. customary SI Length in ‘mm (millimeter) ft ‘m (meter) Load Ib N (newton) Stress Tofin® ‘MPa (megapascal) Density Tole (weight) kg/m? (mass) Since engineers are frequently required to establish the strength of existing structures, many of which have been designed in U.S. customary units (USCU), structural designers must be able to work in both USCU and SI units with equal facility. Therefore, in addition to working a number of problems in metric units, we will give basic data, important equations, certain design aids, and a number of examples in both systems, with the SI units typically in parentheses after the U.S. customary units. Because of round-off in the coefficients of the ACI metric equations may give values differing by several percent from those given by equivalent equations in U.S. customary units 14 CODES ‘A code is a set of technical specifications and standards that control important details of design and construction. The purpose of codes is to produce sound structures so that the public will be protected from poor or inadequate design and construction. ‘Two types of codes exist. One type, called a structural code, is originated and controlled by specialists who are concerned with the proper use of a specific material or who are involved with the safe design of a particular class of structures. For the structural engineer we list several important codes: ‘The American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building Code 318-95, covering the design of re- inforced concrete buildings ‘The American Institute of Steel Construction Specifications (AISC), covering the design of steel buildings ‘The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), cov- ering the design of highway bridges ‘The American Railroad Engineering Association (AREA), covering the design of railroad bridges The second type of code, called a building code, is established to cover construction in a given region, often a city or a state. The objective of a building code is also to protect the public by accounting for the influence of local environmental conditions on construction. For example, local authorities may specify additional provisions to account for such regional conditions as earthquake, heavy snow, or tornados. National structural codes generally are incorporated into local building codes. The ACI Code contains provisions covering all aspects of reinforced concrete manufacture, sign, and construction. It includes specifications on quality of materials, details on mixing and placing concrete, design assumptions for the analysis of continuous structures, and equations for proportioning members for design forces. All design procedures used in this text are consistent with specifications of the ACI Code. ‘The specifications of the ACI Code, based on many years of research and field experience with reinforced concrete, represent the minimum standards required to produce safe, serviceable 3 INTRODUCTION 4 Esian structures, As research provides additional understanding of behavior, the contents of the ACI Code are continually reviewed and updated. Currently the ACI Code committee makes yearly changes by issuing supplementary provisions. Every six or seven years a comprehensive code revision is made, incorporating all revisions since the last edition. The ACI Code, like most codes, makes provisions for departures from prescribed standards if it can be shown by test or analysis that such changes will produce a safe design. All structures must be proportioned so they will not fail or deform excessively under any possible condition of service. Therefore itis important that an engineer use great care in anticipating all the probable loads to which a structure will be subjected during its lifetime. ‘ACI Code §8.2 contains provisions listing the factors that should be considered when es- tablishing the forces in concrete structures. Although the design of most members is controlled typically by dead and live loads acting simultaneously, consideration must also be given to the forces produced by wind, impact, shrinkage, temperature change, creep, support settlements, earthquake, and so forth The load associated with the weight of the structure itself and its permanent compenents is called the dead load. The dead load of concrete members, which is substantial, should never be neglected in design computations. The exact magnitude of the dead load is not known accurately until members have been sized. Since some figure for the dead load must be used in computations tosize the members, its magnitude must be estimated at first. After a structure has been analyzed, the members sized, and architectural details completed, the dead load can be computed more accurately. Ifthe computed dead load is approximately equal to the initial estimate of its value (or slightly less), the design is complete, but if a significant difference exists between the computed and estimated values of dead weight, the computations should be revised using an improved value of dead load. An accurate estimate of dead load is particularly important when spans are long, say over 75 ft (22.9 m), because dead load typically constitutes major portion of the design load. Live loads associated with building use are specified by city or state building codes. Instead of attempting to evaluate the weight of specific items of equipment and occupants in « certain area of a building, building codes specify values of uniform live load for which members are to be designed. Typical values of live load for standard buildings are listed in Table 1.2. After the structure has been sized for dead and live or gravity load, itis checked for wind in combination with dead and live loads as specified in the code. Wind loads do not usually control the size of members in buildings less than 16 to 18 stories, but for tall buildings wind loads become significant and cause large forces to develop in the structures. Under these conditions, economy can be achieved only by selecting a structural system that is able to transfer herizontal loads into the ground efficiently. In seismic zones, analysis for dynamic effects due to ground motions must be considered. Dynamic forces in the structure are a function of the building’s mass and the acceleration im- parted to the building by ground motions. For buildings located in zones of low to moderate seismic activity, the provisions of the main body of the ACI Code produce sufficient ductility to permit a concrete structure to withstand the shaking due to ground motions. In regions where large earthquakes have a high probability of occurrence, concrete structures must be designed and detailed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 21 of the ACI Code in order to ensure high ductility and toughness. When members are subjected to large lateral forces, reversal of stfesses may occur, and regions which would normally be in compression under gravity load are stressed in tension, For members subject to reversal of stress, reinforcement must be provided oon both sides of members, 5 INTRODUCTION TABLE 1.2 Typical live-load values! imum uniformly Type of use Apartment buildings: Private units 40 1.92 Public rooms 100 4.80 Corridors 80 3.84 Office buildings: Offices 30 2.40 Lobbies 100 4.80 Corridors above first floor 80 3.84 Garages (cars only) 50, 2.40 Stores: First floor 100 48 Upper floors 75 36 Warehouse: Light storage 125 60 Heavy storage 250 120 1.6 DUCTILITY VERSUS BRITTLENESS A major objective of the ACI Code is to design concrete structures with adequate ductility since concrete is brittle without reinforcement. The term ductility describes the ability of a member to undergo large deformations without rupture as failure occurs. A structural-steel girder is an example of a ductile member that can be bent and twisted through large angles without rupture. Ductile structures may bend and deform excessively under load, but they remain, by and large, intact. This capability prevents total structural collapse and provides protection to occupants of buildings. On the other hand, the term brittle describes members that fail suddenly, completely, and with little warning. When a brittle member fractures, it usually disintegrates and may dam- age adjacent portions of the structure or overload other members, bringing on additional failures. The ability of a ductile structure to undergo large deformations before collapse produces visible evidence of impending failure and may give occupants the opportunity to relieve distress by reducing loads. In contrast, brittle failures occur suddenly, without warning, and with no time for measures to be taken to prevent damage. ‘The need to engineer ductility into the entire structure of a building was demonstrated dra- matically in 1968 when 24 stories of the exterior comer of the prefabricated Ronan Point Tower in London collapsed after a gas explosion on the eighteenth floor had blown out a single load- bearing wall panel.?} This type of collapse, in which the effects of a local failure spread to the entire structure or to a significant portion of the structure, is termed a progressive collapse. Design provisions that reduce the likelihood of progressive failures are contained in ACI Code §7.13. These provisions contain detailing requirements that tie together both cast-in-place and precast concrete structural elements (1) by requiring continuity of the reinforcement be- tween members and (2) by providing for the effective anchorage of the ends of reinforcing bars. Ifa local failure ruptures a member or produces settlement of a column or other supports, ‘fNumbered references appear at the end of each chapter. 6 ‘REINFORCED CONCRETE well-anchored steel that remains bonded to the body of members permits sagging beams and slabs to transmit load by catenary (cable) action. The provisions of ACI §7.13 include: 1, Requiring continuous top and bottom longitudinal reinforcement in perimeter beams. 2. Encircling longitudinal reinforcing bars with closely spaced hoops of steel (stirrups) to pre- vent longitudinal bars from tearing out of the conerete if a local failure occurs. 3. Ensuring that over supports, bottom reinforcing bars from adjacent beams and slabs are well anchored by splicing them together. 4, Providing tension ties in the transverse, longitudinal, and vertical directions and also around the perimeter of a structure to effectively connect individual precast elements. 5, Eliminating all connection and support details between precast elements that depené solely on friction, created by gravity loads, to prevent slippage. 1.7. STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY Members are always designed with a capacity for load that is significantly greater than that required to support anticipated service loads. This extra capacity not only provides a factor of safety against failure by accidental overload or defective construction but also limits the level of stress under service load to provide some control over deformation and cracking. Even if a member can support the design loads, it must not bend to such an extent that its function is impaired. By providing a reserve of strength, the designer recognizes that members may be subjected to loads greater than those assumed in design. For example, during construction, temporary storage of buikling materials may create forces in certain members well above those praduced by normal occupancy. Even after the building has been in use, itis still subject to overload if heavy equipment is introduced into an area that was designed for a smaller load. The extra strength also provides for the possibility that members may be constructed with a lower strength than specified because of understrength materials or poor workmanship. Although it is imperative that structures be designed with adequate strength to reduce the probability of failure to an acceptable level, they must also function effectively under normal service loads. Deflections must be limited to ensure that floors will remain level within required tolerances and do not vibrate, to prevent plaster ceilings and masonry partitions from cracking, and to ensure that sensitive equipment will not be thrown out of alignment. In addition, the width of cracks must be limited to preserve the architectural appearance of exposed surfaces and to protect reinforcement from attack by corrosion, 1.8 ELASTIC VERSUS STRENGTH D 1G ‘Two design approaches for sizing reinforced concrete members are available to the engineer. The first, called elastic design, is based on the prediction of stress in members as they support the anticipated service loads. Service load is the actual or maximum value of load the member is expected to carry, In elastic design, the members are sized so that service-load stresses do not exceed a prescribed, predetermined value of stress. The allowable stress is set as some fraction of the maximum stress that the material can sustain before rupture or yielding occurs. ‘The elastic-design approach requires an understanding of how the member behaves with the service load in place. It typically assumes that materials behave elastically and that stresses induced by loads can be accurately predicted. Elastic design does not take into consiceration the inherent feilure mode (ductile or brittle) of the member or account for the magnitude of the additional strength in a member between service-load capacity and the ultimate-load capacity. ‘Thus the actual factor of safety against failure is, in fact, unknown, The second design approach, called ultimate-strength design or more simply strength de- sign, is based on predicting the load that will produce failure in a member rather than predicting stresses produced by service loads. Using strength design, the designer is concerned with de- termining the load that will bring a structure to complete collapse and with the mode of failure when this load is applied. The preferred mode of failure is to ensure a controlled local failure of the member in a ductile rather than brittle manner. Thus the engineer who uses strength design ives only indirect attention to the state of stress or the deflection that will occur in the member when service loads are in place. Since the design of a ductile structure that will fil locally is a foremost concern in reinforced concrete design, strength design is considered the more desirable approach, By controlling the ultimate strength of each member of a structure, the designer can control the overall mode of failure of a total structural system. In this way it is possible to design structures so that in the unlikely event of unanticipated overload, failures are confined to a limited region instead of causing total collapse of the entire system. In addition, laboratory studies confirm that the controlling failure modes of concrete mem- bers can be accurately and consistently predicted. Although the failure mode can be predicted, the magnitude of the actual stresses in reinforced concrete members cannot be predicted for several reaso 1. Shrinkage stresses produced by the drying of plastic concrete induce a set of self-balancing stresses of unknown magnitude, 2, Under load, concrete cracks in erratic, unpredictable patterns so that the properties of the cross section are not known with certainty. 3. With time, reinforced concrete creeps. The creep causes stress intensities to change; typically stresses increase in the steel and decrease in the concrete. 1.9 THE ACI DESIGN PROCEDURE In strength design, which is the design method recommended by the current edition of the ACI Code, members are sized for factored loads that are greater than the service loads. The factored load is produced by multiplying the service load by load factors, numbers typically greater than 1. The size of the load factor, which represents part of the factor of safety applied to loads, reflects the accuracy with which the design loads can be predicted, A load whose magnitude and distribution can be established with certainty is increased by a smaller load factor than a load whose magnitude is subject to variation or whose exact intensity cannot be predicted with precision, For example, dead load, which can usually be computed very accurately, is increased by a load factor of 1.4; on the other hand, live load, which is subject to greater variation, is increased by a load factor of 1.7. Table 1.3 contains additional load factors for various types and combinations of load. ‘When used in the general sense, the factored load is often denoted by U.+ Factored loads or forces produced by factored loads are subscripted by a lowercase 1. For example, M, represents the moment at a section produced by factored loads. Using factored loads, the designer carries out an elastic analysis of the structure. Structures are usually analyzed both for full gravity loads and for wind in combination with reduced grav- ity loads. Example 1.1 illustrates the loading conditions that must be investigated for a typical building frame. The forces in a member created by factored loads represent the required strength of the member. Example 1.2 illustrates the more extensive computations required when the po- sition of the live load is not fixed. 7 INTRODUCTION 8 TABLE 13 ACI load factors REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Dead load D ....... 14 Live load L ........ 17 Earth pressure W... 1.7 Fluid pressure Fo... 14 Earthquake E ...... Substitute 1.1 £ for Win equations below ‘When the force in & member is due to a combination of wind load Win addition to dead and live loads, the factored load U is produced by considering the following combination of Toad factors: Factored load U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W) Where tke 0.75 reduction factor accounts forthe improbability of having maximum wind and live loacs acting simultaneously on the structure. Since the dead load is always present, the logic of applying the 0.75 factor to itis not clear. However, since most structures designed for wind by the above equation behave satisfactorily, there is little reason to modify the ex- pression If the absence of live load produces a reversal of stress or increases the likelihood of the structure overturning when the wind acs, the following load factors are used to establish the factored load u =09D+1.3W When the structural effects T of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, or tempera- ture are to be considered, the factored load is established by U =0.751.4D+ 147 + 1.7L) _ butnotless than U = 14(D +7) Members are sized so that their design strength will be equal to or greater than the required strength. The design strength is a reduced value of the ultimate or nominal strength of the cross section. The nominal strength of a member is evaluated in accordance with provisions and as- sumptions specified by the ACI Code. Nominal strength is evaluated analytically by considering the state of siress associated with the particular mode of failure (cither the stee! yields or the concrete crushes) or experimentally by studies that relate the ultimate strength to the propor- tions of the cross section and the strength of the materials. Nominal strength is designated by the subscript. In order to account for inevitable losses in member strength due to imperfect workmanship, e.g., undersized members, bars placed out of position, or voids in the concrete and understrength materials, the nominal strength of a member is reduced by multiplying by a capacity reduction factor @, a namber less than 1, to give the design strengeh, Reduction factors are listed in Ta- ble 1.4. The magnitude of the reduction factor is also influenced by the ductility of the member, TABLE 1.4 Capacity reduction factors, Reduction factor Nominal strength o Bending with or without axial tension, 09 and for axial tension Shear and torsion 085 Bearing on coneret 00 Bending in plain concrete 0.65 Columns with spirals o.75¢ Columns with ties 0.704 {For members carrying moment and small values of axial toads (less than 0.1 £ Ay) the reduction factors vary linearly from 0.9 to 0.7 or to 0.75 for tied and spiral columns, respectively. the degree of accuracy with which the member's capacity can be predicted, and the importance of the member to the overall strength of the structure. For example, a flexural failure of a beam involves one member and produces a local failure, but failure of a column may result in the collapse of many floors. The reduction factor constitutes the second part of the factor of safety in strength design. Load factors and reduction factors have been selected for the ACI Code so that failure of structures will initiate in beams by yielding of the tension steel. Yielding of the tension steel in properly designed beams produces sagging and heavily cracked members but does not cause total collapse of the structure. Factors of safety against other less ductile modes of failure are ‘much higher. In summary, the design criteria of the strength method can be stated as Required strength = design strength ay or Required strength = (nominal strength) (2) The above criteria applied to a beam that is stressed only by shear and moment would state that at every section Ves $Vn and = My = My where V, and M,, the shear and the moment produced by factored loads, represent the required strength; and V,, and M,, stand for the nominal shear and the nominal flexural strengths at the same section. To clarify the fundamental ideas of strength design, a short steel column carrying an axial load that produces uniform stress on each cross section i sized in Example 1.3. Since the strength method of design is based on behavior at failure, it does not guarantee that behavior will also be satisfactory under service loads; therefore, the ACI Code has established additional criteria to ensure that members will also satisfy the requirements of serviceability. These requirements for beams will be discussed in Secs. 3.5 and 3.6. EXAMPLE 1.1. Computation of Required Strength. Determine the axial forces for which the ‘member CD in Fig. 1-1a should be designed given the following service loads: (a) dead load of 1 kip/f on girder BC, (b) live load of 2 kips/ft on girder BC, (c) wind load of 20 kips horizontally at joint B. Wind may actin either direction. See Table 1.3 for load factors. Solution. Since the frame is supported at D by a roller, only an axial force equal to Ry develops in ‘member CD. The force Ry may be computed by summing about support A moments of forces due to factored loads. CASE: L + D (see Fig. 1-10) we = 14D + LIL 1.4() + 1.7@) = 4.8kips/tt Analysis gives 48 kips compression in member CD. akin > c » c T Asin ny compression F DL 4h > st 3 ~ faa as ge FIGURE 1.1. (a) Frame; (®) Dead and live load. @ © (continued) 9 INTRODUCTION 10 ‘REINFORCED CONCRETE Skips/ft e , Saipan 6p 255i cpl > canine} © @ FIGURE 1.1 (CONTINUED) (c) Dead, live, and wind loads create compression in DC; (d) Dead and wind; wind creates tension in DC. CASE 2: L + D+ W (wind induces compression, see Fig. 1.1) (0.75(1.4D + 1.7L) = 0.75{1.4(1) + 1.72)] = 3.6 kips/ft W, = 0.75(1.7W) = 0.75(1.7)20 kips) = 25.5 kips acts to right Analysis gives 48.75 kips compression in member CD. CASE 3: D+ W (wind induces tension, see Fig. 11d) W, = 0.9D = 0.9(1) = 0.9 kipsitt W, = 1.3W = 1.320 kips) = 26 kips acts to left Analysis gives 4 kips tension in member CD. CONCLUSION. Member CD must be designed with a compressive strength of 48.75 kips and a tensile strength of 4 kips. EXAMPLE 1.2. Computation of Nominal Strength for a Beam Supporting a Moving Load. ‘The beam in Fig. 1.2a carties service loads that consist of (1) a uniformly distributed dead load ws = 1.429 kips/t acting over its entire length and (2) a concentrated live load P; = 24 Kips that cean act anywhere on the span. Using the ACI load factors in Table 1.3 and the reduction factors in ‘Table 1.4 determine the required nominal flexural strength Mz, at both point B and at point C. Solution. Compute factored loads by multiplying service loads by the appropriate load factors Wa = L4wg = (1.4)1.429 = 2 kipsft Py = ATP) = 1.7024) = 40.8 kips 1, MAXIMUM POSITIVE MOMENT AT B. Apply factored loads to the beam (see Fig. 1.2b). To ‘maximize the positive moment at B, position the concentrated load at that point. Analysis of the beam, as shown by the shear and moment curves, establishes the required flexural strength M, = 291.5 ft- kips. To compute the nominal flexural strength M,, we set My = dM, — where @ = 0.9 291.5 = 09M, My = 323.9 ft- ips ‘To investigate the possibility of negative moment developing at B, we shift the concentrated load. to the tip af the cantilever—the position that creates maximum negative moment in span ABC. As shown in Fig. 1.2c, M, = —14.5 ft-kips at B, and accordingly M, = —16.11 ft-kips. Thus the beam. ‘must be designed to carry both positive and negative moment, that is, we must reinforce both the top ‘and bottom of the cross section with longitudinal steel 2, MAXIMUM NEGATIVE MOMENT AT C. Position the live load at D (see Fig. 1.2c). Analysis shows that at point 229 fi-kips. Setting My = &M,, we compute M, = ~254.44 ft-kips. TT] Ty + Trsasnips t stesnips tasstips t e225 ups as 508; 10 835 Shear, Vy c (ips) 19.5 41.65 “3145, 2915 {_lo"_} Moment, M, — (f-kips) - a We kips) 14s “209 ® © P= 408 kips = 2hips/fe FIGURE 1,2. (a) Beam dimensions, (4) dead load acts over entire span; live load positioned to maximize positive ‘moment at point B, (c) live load positioned to maximize negative moment at points # and C. EXAMPLE 1.3. Design of a Short Steel Column by the Strength Method. Determine the mini- mum cross-sectional area A of a shor steel column required to support a live load L = 133.44 kN (30 kkips) and a dead load D = 177.93 KN (40 kips); see Fig. 1.3. Failure is assumed to occur when the average stress on the cross section reaches the yield-point stress f,. Use a reduetion factor = 0.7 and load factors of 1.4 for dead and 1.7 for live load. [f, = 344.7 MPa (50 kips/in?),] Solution, Multiply the service loads by the respective load factors to produce Py, the failure load, ‘which also represents the required axial strength Py = LAD + 1.7L = 1.4(177.93) + 1.7(133.44) = 475.96 KN (107 kips)~ ‘The design strength 6, of the column in terms of the area ofthe cross section A and the yield strength of the steel f, is OP, = Af, = 0.7A(344,7) = 241.294 MPa (BSA kips) | ib LEXELEA Suess t Swain FIGURE 1.3 (a) Failure impends @ 0 (©) stress-strain curve for steel. n ENFORCED CONCRETE ‘To establish the required area of the cross section we equate the required strength P, to the design strength $P,, to give 475.96 KN = 241.294 MPa A = 1972.56 mm? (3.06 in?) Of course, when the full service load of 311.37 KN (70 kips) acts, the stress is well below f, and behavior is elastic, The service stresses are P__31137X10°N 5 7 Toresesc Tom 7 157.85 MPa 22.9 kipsin®) Go 1.10 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURE Before the analysis and design of individual elements (slabs, beams, and columns) of multistory structures are discussed, the overall design procedure from conception to final drawings will be outlined briefly. Although the following discussion focuses on building design, which tra- ditionally involves close coordination between the architect and engineer, the same procedure is applicable to the design of those structures, such as dams, water-storage tanks, and bridges, which are traditionally the exclusive province of the engineer; i. the engineer conceives of the structural form as well as performs the structural design and analysis. The notable bridges of Maillart or shells of Nervi are well-known examples of an engineer establishing a structural form that is much admired. Preliminary Design ‘The major functional requirements of a building, whether they are a complex mechanical support system for a rower plant or unbroken spaces for a basketball arena, largely determine how the architect arrives at a preliminary concept and a preliminary set of plans. The architect must also integrate the interior functional requirements with the character of the specific site chosen for the project, often making use of any natural features of the location that can contribute to the desirability ard therefore the value of the building. For example, if a site permits a view across valley ora harbor, the architect could take advantage of this feature and design a building that provides a panoramic view for as many occupants as possible. Conversely, if a building faces a blank wall, the architect will work to minimize this negative feature. The architect's preliminary plans will roughly indicate how the floor areas of the building will be divided. These layouts also establish ceiling heights and the location of walls, entrances, stairs, and elevators. Once the geometry of the building has been roughly defined by its main function and by the constraints of the site, the architect will consult with a structural engineer to establish the best-conceived structural solution to the architectural problem. During this preliminary design stage, the designer will investigate and weigh the best al- tematives. Considering all possiblities of materials, structural systems, relative costs, time con- straints, and availability of construction materials, the engineer searches for the structural system that will best suit the architectural scheme and will pick that system which represents 2 rational, efficient, and sound use of materials. The preferred relationship between the engineer and architect is well expressed by Siegel:* ‘The engineer ought to do more than merely make sure that what the architect designs stands up. . ‘The engineer should act as the architect's critical partner, objecting strenuously wherever the design offends structural logic. ...He should try to make the significance of the structure and its behavior clearer to the architect, so thatthe latter can draw upon [the engineer's] understanding for inspiration, in working out the final design. Final Design ‘After the architect has incorporated the details of the structural system into the architectural drawings, and after the electrical and mechanical engineers have established the location of openings in floors and beams for pipes, conduit, ducts, and other building services, the struc- ture and the design loads are clearly defined. In the final design phase the structural engineer will analyze and design each component of the structure for all possible loading conditions. All information—member size, reinforcement, construction joints, floor slopes, and all other details—required to build the structure will then be incorporated into the structural drawings 2B INTRODUCTION and specifications. REFER! NCES 1, Basic Building Code, Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Chicago, 1978, 2. A. Popoft, Jr. “Design against Progressive Collapse,” Prestressed Concer. Inst, vel. 20, no. 2, p. 4, March-April 1975. 3, Cust Siegel: Structure and Form in Modern Architecture. Reinhold, New York, 1962, QUESTIONS+ 1 1.2, What is ductility and why is itimportant? 1.3. What two criteria form the basis for proportioning struc- tural members? |. Why is concrete design termed empirical? 1.4, Whats a progressive collapse? How can the likelihood of such a failure be reduced? 15. Define catenary action. 1.6. Why is strength design considered more desirable than clastic design? 1.7. What is the major deficiency of elastic design? PROBLEMS 1.1, The beam in Fig. P11 carries uniform service loads of wg = 09 kip/ft and wy = 0.6 kip/ft. The uniformly distributed dead load acts continuously; but the concen- trated and the distributed live loads may or may not be P= 32 kips L. Saar eden sven FIGURE P11 @ i A=22kips i E 1.8. What is a load factor? How is a factored load used? 1.9. What is a reduction factor? What determines its size? 1.10. Define nominal strength, design strength, and required strength 1.11. {If suength design is used to size the members of mul- tistory buildings, which members, columns or beams, will fil first ifthe structure is overloaded? Explain, 1.12 Why isthe load factor greater for soil pressure than for fluid pressure? present. Concentrated live loads of 32 kips also act, termittently at the ends of the cantilevers, Determi the required flexural design strength at midspan and at support B. Hint: Different loading conditions pro- duce maximum positive and negative moments at mid- span. 1.2. The frame in Fig. P1.2 (on next page) carries service loads that consist of a wind load W as well as a uni- formly distributed dead and live load on girder BC. At the section of maximum moment in column AB, deter- ‘mine the required flexural and axial strength when all loads act simultaneously. ‘Answers to questions and selected problems are given atthe end of the book. 14 rexPoRceD CONCRETE DESIGN FIGURE P12 1.3. The beam in Fig. PI.3 carries a uniformly distributed dead load and two concentrated loads, The dead load is always present, but the Tive loads may act separately or simultaneously. Considering pater loading, determine the required flexural strength M, at section B located at the center of span AC. Also determine the required shear strength to the right of support. P.=10kips ea = 05 kips/fe = 20kips Ise FIGURE P13 1.4, Girder ABC of the rigid frame shown in Fig. P1.4 sup- ports a uniform dead load of 600 Ib/ft over its entire length. During a snowstorm a maximum live load of 500 tb/ft can act over all ot a portion of girder ABC. In addition, when the wind biows from left to right, it creates the equivalent of a lateral force of 4 kips at ry Bc 208 D fas np By @ FIGURE PL4 (a) Frame, (b) forces due to wind only. joint A and an uplift of 300 Ib/ft over the entire length of girder ABC (see Fig. P1.4b). Wind from the oppo- site direction need not be considered. Ifthe dimensions of the girder are controlled by moment, determine the value of the required flexural strength Mf, at the section of maximum moment, Assume that the snow and winds loads are not applied simultaneously; that is, consider separately D + Land D + wind, 1.8. In addition to its own weight, the beam in Fig. PLS ‘must carry a 400-KN concentrated service live load that ccan act anywhere on the span. Determine the required flexural strength M, at points B and C, with w. 2400 kg/m’ P= 400KN Fl peer 4 m—s—4 m- FIGURE PLS Concrete is being placed imo forms during construction of floor slab (Photograph by Portland Cement Association.) 2.1 CONCRETE Concrete is a carefully proportioned mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate, and coarse ag- ‘gregate, To these basic components a variety of admixtures, i.e., chemicals that influence the reaction or modify the physical properties of the hardened concrete, are frequently added. As soon as the components of conerete have been mixed together, the cement and the water react to produce a cementing gel that bonds the fine and the coarse aggregates into a stonelike ma- terial. The chemical reaction between the cement and water, an exothermic reaction producing significant quantities of heat, is termed hydration. During the initial stages of hydration, when only small amounts of gel have formed, the ‘concrete is ina plastic state and flows easily. Throughout this stage the concrete can be deposited in forms, worked into the spaces between reinforcement, and compacted to climinate voids, and the surfaces can be leveled and finished. As hydration continues and larger amounts of gel form, the concrete progressively stiffens, loses its workability, and gains strength. Z CHAPTER MATERIALS 15 16 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FIGURE 2.1 Section through conerete showing aggregate. (Portland Cement Association.) ‘The rate at which the gel forms is influenced by the temperature at which the reaction occurs. At high temperatures the reaction is rapid: only 10 or 15 min may be required for the concrete to stiffen. At low temperatures 10 to 12 hours may be required to produce the same degree of stiffness. The final product (Fig. 2.1) consists of the various-sized aggregates surrounded by a mortar compesed of cement and the fine aggregate. Ideally, engineers would like to produce a dense homogeneous concrete that is free of voids, channels, cracks, and other defects. Such ‘a material would have uniform strength properties, be impermeable to water, and present an at- tractive surface appearance. As a practical matter, however, i is not possible to produce concrete that is free of laws: even the most carefully controlled concretes have a variety of small internal and surface defects. Voids are created by air bubbles produced during the mixing process and by segregation of the coarse aggregate from the mortar when concrete is deposited in forms. Since approximately twice as much water is needed for workability than is required to react with the cement, fine channels develop throughout the concrete as excess water rises to the surface when the concrete is vibrated. The rise of the water to the surface is termed bleeding. Surface defects such as pits and honeycomb (the absence of mortar between aggregates) develop when the concrete contains insufficient mortar or when the concrete is not properly compacted in forms. In addition, x-ray and microscopic studies! show that fine microcracks develop as a result of the rupture of the bond between the gel and the aggregate. ‘The break in bond is primarily attributed to drying and carbonation shrinkage (shrinkage produced by exposure to CO). The presence of these internal flaws explains in part the large difference between the tensile and the compressive strengths of concrete. In addition to these small unavoidable defects, with time, restrained concrete members may develop shrinkage and temperature cracks due to fluctuating environmental conditions. Although these cracks can never be eliminated, careful attention to design details and the use of reinforcement, called temperature and shrinkage steel, will control the size and location of ‘cracks so that neither the function nor the appearance of the structure will be impaired. Concrete Materials Most concrete produced in this country is made with portland cements, Termed hydraulic ce- ‘ments because they react with water, they have the ability to harden under water. Portland ce~ ments are available in five ASTM types (Table 2.1). They are manufactured from the same basic materials, but their properties are altered somewhat by the way the raw materials, often clays and limestones, are blended and fired before they are ground into cement powder. Aggregates, which constitute approximately 75 percent of the concrete volume, are usually composed of well-graded gravel or crushed stone. Aggregates passing ano. 4 sieve [the wires of TABLE 21 Types of portland cement "7 Type Name Use or characteristics of cement NATTRATS Normal General-purpose; used where no special requirements exist 0 Moderate Moderate resistance to sulfate attack and moderate evolution of heat during hydration TM Hiighearly Rapid gain in strength; permits quicker removal of forms; speeds construction IV Low-heat Low heat generated: used in construction of massive sections, eg. dams v Sulfate-resisting Used where concrete is exposed to high concentrations of sulfates the screen are spaced } in (6.4 mm) apart] are classified as ine aggregates; larger aggregates are classified as coarse aggregates. Since the presence of dust or chemicals can weaken the bond between the cementing gel and the aggregates, strong, durable concretes require aggregates that are clean and hard. Unreinforced coneretes made with stone or gravel are normally assumed to weigh 145 Ib/ft3 (2320 kg/m’), When reinforcement is added, the weight of concrete and ste! is generally taken as 150 Ib/ft® (2400 kg/m") for normal-weight aggregates. If the designer wishes to reduce the weight of concrete members that are not subjected to heavy wear or abrasion, lightweight aggregates, made from a variety of expanded shales and slags, can be substituted for the heavier stone or gravel aggregates. Coneretes that have a 28- day strength equal to or greater than 2500 Ib/in? (17 MPa) and an air-dry weight less than 115 lb/ft (1840 kg/m?) are termed structural lightweight concrete? If all aggregates (both the fine and the coarse) are lightweight, the concrete is called all-lightweight. If the coarse aggregate is lightweight and the fine aggregate is sand, the conerete is termed sand-lightweight concrete. Unless field practice verifies that concrete with a certain size aggregate can be success- fully placed and compacted to prevent honeycomb or voids, ACI Code §3.3.2 requires that the maximum size of coarse aggregate not exceed 1. One-fifth of the smallest dimension of the form 2. One-third the depth of slabs 3. Three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing between reinforcement Strength of Conerete The water-cement ratio is the major variable influencing the strength and durability of concrete. ‘When the water-cement ratio is large, a dilute, high-shrinking, weak gel is produced. Concrete containing such gels is low in strength and lacks resistance to deterioration by weathering. The variation of the compressive strength f, with the water-cement ratio is shown in Fig. 2.2. The rate of strength gain in concrete can be speeded by using finely ground cement, applying heat, e.g. steam curing, or by adding an accelerator such as calcium chloride. A rapid increase in strength of freshly poured conerete permits early removal of forms and speeds construction. If freshly poured concrete is frozen, the free water present in the pores transforms into ice, producing a volume expansion that causes a significant breakup in the structure of the concrete and permanently reduces its ultimate strength. Where concrete is exposed to salt water or cycles of freezing and thawing, air-entraining agents are typically added to entrain small percent (4 to 8% by volume) of air in the form of small bubbles throughout the concrete mass. This entrapped air produces a major increase in the concrete’s durability. In addition, the air bubbles serve as a lubricant to make the concrete more workable. 18 ‘REINFORCED CONCRETE soo a7 ‘ K 000 Nonsiremined | 04 55 soon |_——-Aietained — nose £ 2000 B79 FIGURE 2.2 Approximate 1000 689 variation of 28

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