R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

Θc

Shot Receiver
Water Bottom Multiple
RC = -1

+100 +10

-1
-10

RC = +.1
RC = +.1

Geophysics 629 Courtesy of1ExxonMobil Courtesy of ExxonMobil

1
Seismic Waves & Rays
• Seismic energy propagates out from the source as a
spherical wave
• Energy reflected at a boundary radiates up as if there was a
source at the reflection point (Huygen’s Principle)
• We can think of energy propagation in terms of wavefronts
or as raypaths

Energy Energy
Source Source

 
 

Energy Propagation Energy Propagation

as Waves as Rays
Geophysics 629 2
Zero Offset
Shot Receiver
• Offset is the lateral distance
between a source and a receiver
• Our discussions thus far have
been exclusively for zero offset,
i.e., zero distance between the
source and the receiver
• It is computationally simple to
have the source and the
receiver at the same location,
but this is not how we operate
in the real world

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A Major Problem: Noise

• We acquire our data in a very noisy environment:

– On land: traffic, weather, equipment, etc.
– On sea: waves, weather, ship noise, etc.
• Noise is any signal picked up by the receivers that is
not related to primary reflections from subsurface
acoustic boundaries
• We can overcome random noise problems by getting
multiple measurements for each subsurface point
• In theory, and in practice, when we add several
measurements for the same subsurface point, the
‘geologic signal’ that we want adds constructively
and the random noise that we do not want gets
canceled - Fantastic!

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Repeated Measurements

There are two ways to get 4 repeat measurements for

the same subsurface point (the red box)

Use the same shot point Use 4 different shot points

location and the same and 4 different receiver
receiver location 4 times locations, as shown

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The Practical Solution
S4 S3 S 2 S1 R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4
• We will talk more about
seismic acquisition in lesson 8
• For now, suffice it to say that,
in the field, it is much more
practical and economical to use
option two
• For the RED subsurface box,
we get information from:
– Shot 1 into receiver 1 (S1  R1)
– Shot 2 into receiver 2 (S2  R2)
– Shot 3 into receiver 3 (S3  R3)
– Shot 4 into receiver 4 (S4  R4)

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Trace Offset
880 meters
The offset values 550 meters
are different for 220 meters
these four 110 meters
measurements
S4 S3 S2 S1 R1 R2 R3 R4

0 500 meters

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Water Bottom Reflection

Consider the water bottom reflection for 1 shot

point and 5 receiver locations at sea level

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

The zero-offset time,

from the shot into
V = 1500 m/s receiver 1, is:
(2 * 800 m) / 1500 m/s
The ‘bounce’ point which equals 1.067 s
D = 800 m

0 1 km
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Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset

Offset (meters)
0m 200 m 400 m 600 m 800 m

1000
1067
1100
Time (milliseconds)

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

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Water Bottom Reflection

Consider the shot into receiver 2

The ‘bounce’ point is midway between the shot and receiver

Shot R2 R3 R4 R5 Travel distance down (T)

200
is the hypotenuse of a
x right triangle
D Dd = √ D2 + x2
Dd
V = 1500 m/s Total travel distance =
travel down + travel
D = 800 m up = 2 Dd

Time = 2 Dd / V
0 1 km Time = 1.099 seconds
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Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset

Offset (meters)
0m 200 m 400 m 600 m 800 m

1000
1067
1099
1100
Time (milliseconds)

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

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Water Bottom Reflection

For the shot into receiver 3

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
200 200
Dd = √ 8002 + 2002

Time = 2 Dd /1500

V = 1500 m/s
Time = 1.193 s
D = 800 m

0 1 km
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Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset

Offset (meters)
0m 200 m 400 m 600 m 800 m

1000
1067
1099
1100
Time (milliseconds)

1193
1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

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Water Bottom Reflection

Consider the shot into receivers 4 and 5

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
200 200 200 200
For R4
Time = 1.333 s

V = 1500 m/s
For R5
Time = 1.508 s
D = 800 m

0 1 km
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14
Time vs. Offset Plot

We will display seismic traces as a function of offset

Offset (meters)
0m 200 m 400 m 600 m 800 m

In Time-Offset space,
1000 seismic reflections are
1067
1099
hyperbolic
1100
Time (milliseconds)

1193
1200

1300 1333

1400

1500 1508

1600

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Generalized Equation

We can generalize the formula to calculate the reflection

time for the depth of the first layer to:

Time = -2 * SQRT {(Depth)2 + (Offset/2)2 } / Velocity

Note that for the zero-offset case the term with offset is
zero and we get:
Time = -2 * SQRT {(Depth)2 } / Velocity or

Time = -2 * Depth/Velocity

Why the 2 and why the minus sign?

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A Real Shot Record – Marine Case
Offset (feet)

Seafloor Reflection
Time (milliseconds)

Other
Reflections

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Other Seismic Events

• Seismic reflections are the types of seismic events that

we need to image the layered subsurface
• You will be using seismic reflections to map
subsurface faults and stratigraphic surfaces
• Unfortunately, our seismic records contain other types
of events
• We will briefly discuss 4 other types of seismic events:
 Direct waves
 Refractions
 Diffractions

 Multiples

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Direct Waves

• A direct wave is a P-wave that travels near the

surface (ground or water) directly from the source to
the receiver
• On a shot record, it appears as a straight line
• The slope of the line is dictated by the average
velocity of the near surface

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
200 200 200 200

V = 1500 m/s

D = 800 m

0 1 km
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Geophysics 629 19 19
Direct Waves

Receiver Distance Time Time

1 0 0/1500 0.000
2 200 200/1500 -0.133
3 400 400/1500 -0.267
4 600 600/1500 -0.400
5 800 800/1500 -0.533

Offset (meters)
0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Time (seconds)
-0.100

Slope = Δx/Δy -0.200

= (600 – 0)/(0.4 – 0) -0.300

= 600/0.4 -0.400
= 1500 m/s -0.500

-0.600

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Example: Direct Wave

Direct Arrival

WB Reflection

C. Liner, 2004
Geophysics 629 21
Refraction or Head Wave

• When velocity increases across a boundary, another

type of seismic event is possible, called a refraction or a
head wave
• Refractions occur when the angle of incidence exceeds
a ‘critical’ angle (Θc)

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
250 250 250 250

1500 m Θc
2500 m/s

5000 m/s

Geophysics 629 22
Some Equations

Critical Angle: Θc = sin-1 (Vabove/Vbelow)

Critical Distance: xc = 2z / √ (Vbelow-Vabove) - 1

xc xc
750 m Θc 750 m
1500 m/s 1500 m/s
2000 m/s 2000 m/s Θc
1500 m 1500 m
2500 m/s 2500 m/s

5000 m/s 5000 m/s

Θc = 48.6° xc = 4500 m Θc = 30° xc = 3000 m

Geophysics 629 23
Refraction

Refraction

WB Reflection

C. Liner, 2004
Geophysics 629 24
Diffractions

• Diffractions are generated by an abrupt change in

subsurface impedance
• Using light as an analogy, it is like having a mirrored
ball in the middle of a dance floor

Shot Record

Geophysics 629 25
Diffractions

• We don’t have many ‘buried balls,’ but we do have

abrupt changes in subsurface impedance
• Where there is a large impedance discontinuity,
diffractions will be generated
Stratigraphic Cut Patch Reef and
Offs at Faults Edge of Salt Body

Generates
Diffractions
Generates
Diffractions

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Primary Reflections & Multiples

• A primary reflection is one whose path goes directly

down to the reflector and back to the receiver – only
one reflection point
• A multiple is any event which has experienced more
than one reflection in the subsurface
• There are two types of multiples: free surface multiples
and internal multiples
Shot Receiver
Water Bottom Multiple

Primary Reflection

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27
Free Surface

• By the free surface, we mean the air/ground boundary

or the air/ocean boundary
• The RC at the air/ground boundary or the air/ocean
boundary is close to -1
• This means acoustic waves traveling up to the free
surface will be reflected, the reflected energy will be
almost 100% of the incident (up-going) energy, but the
polarity will be reversed (RC ~ -1)
• This fact leads to free surface multiples

Geophysics 629 28
Water Bottom Multiple

• Let’s assume:
– The source sends out a minimum phase pulse of 100 units that
has a lead PEAK
– The water bottom RC is +0.10
– Reflected energy hits the air/sea interface where the RC = -1

Shot Water Bottom Multiple Receiver

RC = -1

+10
+100
-1 + = Peak/Trough
-10 - = Trough/Peak

RC = +.1
RC = +.1

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Example of Water Bottom Multiple

Water
Bottom

WB
Multiple

Geophysics 629 30
Other Free Surface Multiples

• One is related to the source, another is related to the

receiver
• They can occur for both land and marine surveys
• They occur if the source and receiver are not exactly at
the surface
• They are referred to as ‘ghosts’

Geophysics 629 31
Source Ghost
Time delay ~ (6m)/(1500m/s) ~ 4 ms
Source Ghost
Shot RC = -1
Receiver
5 to 10 m

Source
Ghost

+100
+10
Primary

RC = -1
-10
+ = Peak/Trough
- = Trough/Peak

RC = +.1

Geophysics 629 32
Receiver Ghost
Time delay ~ (6m)/(1500m/s) ~ 4 ms
Receiver Ghost
Shot RC = -1
Receiver
5 to 10 m

Receiver
Ghost

+100
+10
Primary

RC = -1
-10
+ = Peak/Trough
- = Trough/Peak

RC = +.1

Geophysics 629 33
Ghosts

Source Ghost Receiver Ghost

Polarity Reversal Polarity Reversal

Direct + So. Ghost + Re. Ghost

Direct Double Ghost
Direct + Source Ghost
Direct

Source
Ghost

Direct
Direct

Geophysics 629 34
Internal Multiples

• The seismic wave can get ‘rattle around’ within some of

the stratigraphic layers
• When the wave travels more than once within a layer, it
is called an internal multiple or, more commonly, peg leg
multiples
Peg Leg Multiple

3 Reflection
Path Duplicated Points
within this layer

Geophysics 629 35
Summary

Types of Seismic Events

Direct
Primary W Bottom

Reflection Free Surface

Events Multiples Ghosts

Diffraction Internal

Refraction (Head Wave)

Geophysics 629 36
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