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Pig Husbandry PDF
Pig Husbandry PDF
Ministry of Agriculture,
Animal Industry and
Fisheries USER
GUIDE ON
PIG HUS-
BANDRY
National Agricultural
Advisory Services
Pig Husbandry NAADS - July 2011
PIG HUSBANDRY
Pigs are kept for the production of pork and bacon. Most breeds, if properly
managed and fed are capable of producing either pork or bacon. The pig industry in
Uganda is characterized by low input low-output poorly managed pig production
enterprises. Small-scale producers in the rural areas have largely sustained the
industry. These producers keep on average 2-5 pigs under very poor hygienic and
management conditions. There are just a few commercial pig farmers in the country.
Unlike the dairy and beef industries, the pig industry has largely been unable to
attract any foreign and internal investment. This has been exacerbated by the
high costs of inputs especially in intensive pig production. The major constraints
to production include; diseases and parasites, poor breeding, capital investment,
inadequate advisory services, inadequate research, lack of organized marketing, lack
of processing plants and poor product quality.
• Pigs grow very rapidly from 1.5kg at birth to 90kg in 170 days only
• Pigs can be raised on small land especially where land holdings are small
• They produce many young ones.You can raise 20 pigs from one female pig
(sow) in a year
• Pig production has low labour requirements.
• Pigs are mainly fed on maize and other grains and root tubers which can
normally be bought at very low prices during peak seasons of harvesting.
• Pigs can also be raised on pasture and other crop residues and agro-
industrial by products
• Pigs give quick returns on your investment
a) Large White
It is white in colour with erect ears and a ditched face. It produces many
piglets and is fairly hardy
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NAADS - July 2011 Pig Husbandry
b) Landrace
Has drooping ears, white in colour with long and big body. It has a long
straight snout. It is commonly crossed with the large white
c) Duroc breed
It is mahogany to red in colour. Has good mothering ability. It is resistant to
stress and is adaptable to various environmental conditions. It is very useful
in crossbreeding programmes.
d) Crosses
It is common to find crosses of Largewhite and Landrace. These crosses
are very good when used as sows for breeding
• Select good gilts from sows of a superior breed that wean 9-10 piglets per
litter and that are known to be good mothers.
• Selected gilts should have at least 12-14 teats so that a large litter can be
easily nursed.
• Gilts should be healthy with strong legs and well developed body and thigh
muscles
• Beginners in pig farming are advised to start with about 1-2 gilts/sows and
progress as more experience and skill is gained
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Pig Husbandry NAADS - July 2011
Management of pigs
• Housing
Before you venture into pig production decide on the management system
you would wish to practice depending on the resources available. Both semi-
intensive and intensive systems will require pigs to be housed.
Housing is very important in pig production for the following reasons:
o It helps in disease and parasite control
o It reduces the labour in husbandry and management tasks
like feeding and handling
o It protects the pigs from harsh environmental and climatic
conditions
o Housing keeps out unnecessary intruders
o The pigs are easily observed when housed
Pig houses.
a) Local materials: wooden poles, bamboo poles, grass thatch etc. These are
cheap but do not last long.
b) Manufactured/purchased materials: Blocks/bricks, cement, galvanized iron
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NAADS - July 2011 Pig Husbandry
sheets etc. These are expensive but are the best to use because they are
more long lasting.
Whatever material you use for the construction of a pig house it is advisable to use
concrete for the floor or to compact the floor hard.
Your pig house should besides the common pens have a farrowing pen (place
where the sow delivers).This should be clean, disinfected, dry and warm before
farrowing. Leave it for at least 7 days before sow is moved in. Provide fine
bedding e.g. shavings, sour grass, sawdust, sand or bagasse etc. It should be
maintained dry and soft.
Day of farrowing
Many piglets die at this time. Up to 35% of your piglets born alive may die
before weaning. The commonest causes of death at this stage are due to:
o Crushing of piglets by the mother
o Starvation
o Born weak
o Diarrhea
o Chilling (cold) etc.
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Pig Husbandry NAADS - July 2011
• Management of piglets
o Once farrowing is completed make sure all piglets are nursing. Any
excess piglets for the number of functional teats should be transferred
to another sow. If there is no other sow, bottle feed with cow’s milk
sweetened with glucose. Transfer at 3-4 days of age without masking
odours.
o Clip the needle teeth, cut the navel cord leaving about 2.5 - 3.5cm
(1-1.5 inches) of which should be dipped in a 7% iodine solution.
o After 2-3 days treat piglets for anaemia with 2-3ml of injectable iron.
o Provide creep feed at 7 days of age. Change feed daily.
o Treat with iron again after 2 weeks.
o Deworm after 3-5 weeks and then move sow and piglets to nursery.
If litters are mixed in a nursery, litters should not be more than one
week difference in age and do not mix more than four litters per pen.
o Wean at 56 days (8 weeks).
o Remember to remove the sow from the piglets and not vice versa.
o Deworm piglets regularly
o Spray them for lice and mange mites prior to moving them out of
nursery at 7-8 weeks.
o Replace the sow after the 6th litter or after 4-5 years of age. If its
production is still good, leave it until its production falls below the
average of the herd.
o Seek advice from your extension worker/veterinarian wherever
possible.
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NAADS - July 2011 Pig Husbandry
Piglets
8
Pig Husbandry NAADS - July 2011
Health
Always keep your pigs healthy and look out for signs of disease.
Poor performance of
Antihelmintics Deworm pigs every
the pigs with low growth
Worms like Levamisol three months after
rate, coughing in case of
and Piperazine weaning
lungworms
Mastitis,
Sow fails to release milk after
Metritis and Use antibiotics Good hygiene in
farrowing. The udder may be
Agalactia and oxytocin the pig pen
swollen and painful
(MMA)
Give ferrous
Signs appear mostly in piglets Put red soil in pig
sulphate
Piglet of 3 weeks of age, pale pen or give iron
injections
anaemia mucous membranes and skin, injection to young
or oral
dullness and diarrhoea piglets
formulations
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NAADS - July 2011 Pig Husbandry
• Slaughter
Foot and Fever and vesicles on the of pigs in
Advisable to
Mouth coronate and sometimes on the affected
institute control
Disease the lips and tongue houses.
• vaccination
Give zinc
Similar signs to those of formulations Ensure that there is
Parakeratosis mange but with no itching like zinc enough zinc in the
and scratching carbonate or diet.
zinc sulphate
Records are essential for monitoring both technical and economic efficiency. They
should cover the following aspects;
• boar performance
• sow productivity
• weaner growth
• grower/finisher efficiency
10
F A R M I N G
Sustainable Livelihoods
for Rural Youth Project
Pig Farming
Breeding and keeping pigs for income and
food in the Solomon Islands
P I G
Russ Grayson
CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Farming pigs in the village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
How to keep pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Types of pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Breeding pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Pig houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Feeding pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Managing your pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CASE STUDIES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Malu’u farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Kwailabu village farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Ferasubua village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Suva’a bay free range system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Keeping pigs
Choose a pig keeping system that suits you.
Breeding pigs
Pigs must be selected carefully for breeding. Select types that suit
the hot tropical climate of the Solomon Islands. The Solomon Island
bush pig can be bred with imported varieties to produce a strong,
productive animal.
Pig houses
Pigs need shelter from the hot sun, rain and cold wind. A house with
a slatted or a concrete floor is best. Pigs kept in pens where the soil
gets muddy will get worms.
Feeding pigs
Like people, pigs need a balanced diet with the right amount of body
building (protein), energy (carbohydrate) and protective (vitamins
and minerals) food. Giving them plenty of food and water will make
them put on weight quickly and will get them ready for market.
We can grow much of their food in a pig food garden near the pig
house.
Make sure they get enough of the different food groups each day. We
want our pigs to put on weight fast so they are ready to sell.
Income
selling for money,
breeding more pigs
Kastom
feast, bride price, Food for family
compensation
lactation: the period after farrow when the sow produces milk for
its piglets
heat period: the time during which a female pig will accept a male
pig
confinement feeding: pigs kept and fed in a pen without being let
outside
All pigs are covered in hair and use their snout for digging in the
soil for roots and worms.
tail
eyes
snout
ham
jaw
Common breeds
The most common breeds found in the Solomon Islands include:
• Duroc – round, brown body with floppy ears
• Land Race – long, white body with floppy ears
• Large White – long, white body with erect ears
• Large Black – long, black body with erect ears
• Bush pig – smaller, grey/ patchy coloured body with long head
and snout
• local cross-breeds – bush pig cross-bred with imported pig.
Landrace
long, white body
with floppy ears
Large white/
Large black
long, white or black
body with erect ears
Bush pig
smaller, grey/
patchy coloured
body with long
snout, thick
hair coat
Introduced breed lines that have been cross-bred with local breeds
should be adapted to the climate. They combine the hardiness of
local breeds with the productivity of imported breeds.
Breeds that are established in the Solomon Islands and that have
adapted to local conditions include:
• Land Race
• Duroc
• Large Black
• Large White
• local breeds.
Keeping pigs in a house all the time makes management easier. The
pigs can easily be fed, checked for disease and the house cleaned.
Pigs of the same size should be kept together so the bigger pigs do
not get all their food.
The house will have to be big enough for all your pigs.
An extra pen or two can be made for sick pigs if they have to be
separated from the other pigs.
The roof of the pig house can be made of galvanised iron or leaf.
Leaf roofs cost less.
Materials:
• posts: 8 pieces (4 x 4) 10 ft long
• bearers: 4 pieces (4 x 2) 10 ft long or bush sticks
• floor joists: 8 pieces (4 x 2) 12 ft long or bush sticks
• floor joists: 8 pieces (4 x 2) 12 ft long or bush sticks
• rafters: sticks or bamboo 12 pieces (2 x 2) 12 ft long
• flooring: 18 pieces (6 x 2) 10 ft long
• leaf panels: 20 pieces - 2m long
• nails: 4” - 2kg; 3” - 2kg; 2” - 1kg
• bush rope - 1 bundle.
Materials:
• floor: 3 bags of cement
• posts: 8 pieces (4 x 4) 10ft long
• rafters: 12 pieces (2 x 2) 10 ft long
• walling: 12 pieces (6 x 1) 10ft long
• leaf panels: 20 pieces - 2m long
• nails: 3” - 1kg
• bush rope - 1 bundle.
leaf roof
garden for
growing
pig food
concrete floor
Concrete floor pig
houses last a long time
and are easy to clean
Materials:
• posts: 8 pieces (4 x 4) 10 ft long
• walling: 12 pieces (6 x 1) 10 ft long
• rafters: 12 pieces (2 x 2) 10 ft long
• flooring: 5 x 40kg sawdust
• leaf panels: 20 pieces - 2m long
• some stones.
leaf roof
frame and
sides made of
bush poles of
cut timber
Protective foods
Body building foods — protein
Types of feed
Energy foods
Give the correct types and amounts of feed to the different types of
pig so that they grow healthy and fast.
Here is a guide for feeding pigs using energy food such as cooked
sweet potato or some other root crop with a body building food such
as fish meal.
Feed containers can be made from a hollowed log. Make the corners
round for ease of cleaning. Raise it off the ground so the pig cannot
put its feet into it.
Feeding
• pigs of the same size should be fed in a group; this prevents the
larger pigs eating the food of the smaller pigs
• pigs should be fed at the same time each day;
- feed in the morning (energy, body building foods)
- give green leaves at midday
- feed in the late-afternoon (energy, body building foods)
• pigs should be given fresh, clean water each day.
Housing
• make sure young pigs are sheltered from cold winds
• the pig house should provide shelter from hot sun and rain
• sweep or wash the pig house floor every day to prevent lice, ticks
and other diseases
• keep smaller pigs in a separate house to larger pigs
• sows should be kept in a separate pen that is dry and protected
from cold wind; a farrowing rail will keep the newly born piglets
in a separate area so that the pig does not lay on them.
Check pigs
• check the pigs for signs of disease when you feed them each
day
• check that they have plenty of clean water and food; the pig’s
skins will start to crack after two days without water and they
may develop sores.
Location:
Malu’u, North Malaita.
Type of system:
Intensive; pigs kept in houses.
The size of the garden where food for the pigs is grown is 15 x
20m.
Breeds:
John keeps imported breeds.
Products:
• pigs for sale every three months
• family and customary use
• pig manure used on vegetable garden to make soil fertile
• sells pigs at Christmas.
Number of pigs:
• up to 10
• at present: 5 adults – 3 sows, 1 boar, 1 gilt kept in a separate pen.
Piglets are weaned at eight weeks, removed from the mother and
put into a separate room.
John says a farmer can start with three to five pigs and increase
the number to 10 when enough food is grown in the garden to feed
them.
Feeding:
Feed from garden and manufactured food from PNG. Imported feed
adds to cost of keeping the pigs.
The food garden is 15 to 20 metres from the pig houses. The pigs are
given left-over food grown in the garden.
Categories of food:
• body building feed - fish meal, Leucaena
• energy feed - banana, cassava, grain, meal run, sweet potato,
kang kong taro
• protective feed - green leaf tips, grass, banana leaf, sago palm
insides.
Management
Daily activities
Morning Midday Evening
Pigs given all categories Pigs given green leaves. Feed of all categories
of feed – body building, given.
energy, protective.
Pigs washed – sprayed
Water given. with water every day
to avoid the disease
Pig rooms cleaned
scabies.
– waste is sprayed away
with a hose. Rooms washed.
Diseases:
Pigs are sprayed with water every day to avoid the skin disease
scabies.
Wastes:
The slatted-floor pen is raised off the ground and is above a stand of
bananas. Wastes trickle down to provide manure to the bananas.
The area below the pens is cleaned and the manure put on a
vegetable garden to provide nutrients. The manure becomes compost
and nutrients for the crops.
Location:
Kwailabu village, North Malaita. The
village is situated on a small island off
the coast of North Malaita
Type of system:
Intensive; pigs kept in houses.
Rose has two pig houses. One is 5 x 2.5m and has three rooms. The
other 4 x 2.5m and has two rooms.
Breeds:
Rose keeps imported breeds and a local pig used for cross
breeding.
Products:
Pigs are bred, reared then sold. The pigs are sold for Solomon dollars
or for shell money.
Rose says that people travel to find pigs. They come to the village.
Number of pigs:
Rose started with nine pigs. She first bought a pig from her uncle.
She mated it and produced eight piglets.
Rose says that three to four pigs are all that can be kept because
there is not enough food for more.
Feeding:
Rose has made a pig food garden next to the pig houses. It measures
30 x 20m.
The garden soil is not very fertile. This limits the amount of food
she can grow and the number of pigs she can keep. Water is given
every day.
Types of food:
• body building food – fish
• protective food – cassava leaf, the large leaf of a local vine known
as ‘salu halu’ that climbs coconut palms
• energy food – sweet potato, taro.
A large plastic bowl is used to serve food. A large clam shell serves
water.
Housing:
The pig house:
Management:
Daily activities
Diseases:
Location:
Farasubua village, North Malaita. Ferasubua is a village on an
artificial island off the east coast of North Malaita.
Type of system:
James has managed the system for two years.
Products:
Fattened pigs and young weaners are sold.
Housing:
The pigs are kept in a deep litter, concrete floor housing and pen.
Management:
Daily activities
Morning Midday Evening
Water given. Pigs released to forage. Fish meal and meal run.
Diseases:
None reported.
Information supplied by Charles Bole, Sustainable Livelihoods for Rural Youth Project.
60m
Pig house
fence fence
100m
Kokorako house
with laying box
kokorako
(chickens) are
let out to forage
in the afternoon
fence
Pigs live in the forest. The villagers throw food over the wall for the
pigs. The pigs also find food by foraging.
1
2
Smallholder – Pigs
The wean to finish period
This short manual provides for a start in pig production in Uganda
3
Medicine and needles – the basics 59
Clinical signs of health and ill health 60
Disorders of the pig by age – an introduction 61
Monitoring the pigs
Weight estimation of pigs 63
Growth rates 64
Moving the pigs to market 65
Cleaning the building after the pigs go
Cleaning the house 66
Lime washing 67
Budget examples
Building costs 68
Wean to finish budget 69
Adopt a pig concept 70
Notes 71
Index 72
4
Basic Breeds of Pigs
Flopped ears. Roman nose Pointed ears. Dished face
White body
Duroc Tamworth
Belted colour
Saddleback Hampshire
Other
5
Swine, Pigs and Hogs – The basics
Animal terms:
Boar – entire male pig
Castrate/ Barrow – male pig castrated
Gilt – female from birth to having her first piglets
Sow – a female who has had piglets
Piglet – young pig which has not been weaned
Weaning – Removing the piglets from the lactating
sow
Weaner – a pig after weaning – generally 18-24 days
of age until 30 kg (66 lbs)
Grower – a pig older than 30 kg (66 lbs) – feeder pig
Finisher – a pig older than 60 kg (120 lbs)
Farrowing – giving birth - parturition
Lactating – producing milk
Gestating – the period from weaning to giving birth (dry sow period elsewhere)
Litter – each group of piglets from a sow
Parity – each parity refers to each separate farrowing – a 3rd parity sow has had three litters
Mummified piglet – fetus which died during gestation born in a state of mummification
Stillborn – piglet born dead – but otherwise normal
Fostering – moving piglets between sows to assist them getting enough milk
Colostrum – the first milk after farrowing – full of antibodies
Processing – the variety of procedures carried out on piglets – castration, tail docking, teeth
clipping, ear notching and an iron injection.
Pre-weaning mortality – the number of piglets who die in the farrowing house
Post-weaning mortality – the number of weaners/grower or finishers who die in the post-
weaning period until slaughter
Breeding/service – the mating process
Weaning to breeding interval – the days between weaning until the next breeding
Repeat – a sow or gilt who fails to conceive
Conceive – to become pregnant
Farrowing rate – number of animals bred / number of animals who actually farrow
Culling – removal of an animal from the farm
Body condition score – a method of estimating amount of body fat 5 point scale 1-5
Food conversion ration – FCR – the rate of growth (g) / amount of dry food eaten (g)
Growth rate – number of grams increase in bodyweight per day
Types of production:
Farrowing house – the room where sows and gilts give birth and lactate
Gestation barn / dry sow house – where the sows live while pregnant
Nursery – the room where pigs live from weaning to about 30 kg
Grow/finish – the room where pigs live from 30 kg until slaughter
Wean to finish – a room where pigs live from weaning to slaughter
All-in/all-out – the process where buildings are emptied of one group of pigs, thoroughly
cleaned and then populated with a new group of pigs
Batch – one group of pigs
Batch farrowing – a group of sows and gilts breed to farrow in a group
6
Three site production – a system where pigs are reared on three separate farms – classically
gestation and farrowing on one farm/site : nursery on another and grow/finish on a
third site.
Two site production – a system where pigs are reared on two separate farms – classically two
forms – a) gestation, farrowing and nursery on one farm/site and the grower/finisher
on another farm/site.
b) gestation and farrowing on one farm and wean to finish on another
Some variations in gestation housing:
Crates/stalls, ESF (Electronic sow feeding), trickle feeding (feeding small amounts over
a short period of time), outdoor – housed outside in arcs.
Weaning
Grow/finish
Farrowing
Breeding
Nucleus farm
7
KNOW YOUR WAY AROUND YOUR PIG
Remember that the male also has the prepuce on the ventral surface.
8
Introduction to the Pig
The Basic Economic Life Cycle of the pig
9
Pig Products in Uganda
What are the four main products that pigs produce and how long can it take before I get any
return on my investment?
1. Manure or Compost
Pigs produce faeces, this
combined with plant
material and any wasted
feed can be placed into a
compost pile. Pig manure
can be solid or liquid
depending on the type of
plant that requires the
manure.
Within 4 weeks even young pigs will start producing manure/compost for sale or use in your
own garden produce.
2. Meat
The second purpose of pigs is to produce meat. Weaned pigs at 15 kg will cost around 25,000
shillings and a 70 kg meat pig can raise about 150,000 shillings. But note this difference is not
all profit – there is feed, labour and possible medicines to pay for.
However, how long does it take to go from a weaned pig to a sale pig? With the proper feeding
routines – this can be as short as 5 months – but will poor feeding this can take 12 months. We
are going to assume good feeding routines.
Good pigs growing well Emaciated pigs on a poor diet Ready for the Pork joint
3. Weaned piglets
The ultimate goal is to
produce your own piglets!
But while this seems
extremely high value – if you
wean 10 piglets each worth
25,000 shillings – this is
250,000 shillings!! But it
takes around a year before
you get this money - can you
wait that long before
earning? Lots of babies Lots of weaned pigs
Why does it take this long?
Weaner purchased – 2 months old Gilt mated – 8 months old Gilt farrowed 13 months old
Piglets weaned 1 month later. Thus from purchasing your weaners it will take 12 months
And the weaners are sold some 5 months later – this is 17-18 months after your initial purchase!
4. Labour
Pigs can be utilized to help clear land of trees
and till the soil. This was a traditional use of
pigs.
10
Handling and Moving Pigs
Most pigs are not used to being handled. They become very vocal when caught and will not settle easily.
Pigs will work as a herd or as individuals, before moving a group of pigs think of escape routes you would
take and then try to block them.
Handling
Young pigs may be picked up and will generally settle
Older pigs examine within a crate or restrain using a loop around the upper jaw behind the canines
Moving
Pigs can be moved as a group Design passageway to prevent Young pigs may be easier to move in
escapes. a barrow
Walls 850 mm high
Pigs have a wide angle 310 degree vision which allows them to see behind themselves without turning their heads.
They are easily distracted by objects to the front and sides and sharp changes in floor texture and appearance. A shaft
of sunlight is sufficient to affect pig movement.
11
When moving growers pigs use a pig There is never any need to use Pigs move much easier in a quiet
boards, hands and your voice. Avoid violence - the pig will object controlled environment
electric prods
Pigs can be trained to a harness. Boars can be trained to walk to heel Take special care with boars or
This is how they are used to hunt and follow a route lactating sows. Pigs are armed
truffles. with razor blades
12
Mixing pigs
Care is needed because:
1 Pigs will fight whilst they establish their ‘pecking order’. This happens whenever the group
is disturbed.
2 It takes 1-2 days to establish the pecking order, and performance may be compromised
during this period.
3 Pigs need time and space to work out their pecking order. After this, the weaker pig will
back down.
For sows:
1 Allow plenty of space (eg if mixing sows, you need 3.5 m2 per sow) so that there is enough
space to get away if chased or threatened. Sows will mostly chase for less than 2.5 m.
2 Ideally only mix sows at weaning. Avoid mixing sows 5-21 days after service as this is when
the eggs implant and stress can result in high numbers of returns.
3 Use physical barriers in the pen such as big bales or plastic sheeting suspended from the
roof. This allows a beaten pig to get out of sight and quickly ends the fight.
4 Time mixing to fit in with management routines to best allow supervision, however mixing
in the evening may be best if you can arrange to be there to oversee this.
5 Use fresh straw at mixing – it acts as a cushion if fighting occurs and increases surface grip.
6 Consider ad lib feeding when mixing.
7 Consider allowing physical contact eg through a gate, between a dynamic main group and a
sup-group to be mixed into it, prior to mixing. This may reduce fighting when they are
introduced.
8 Avoid re-mixing groups. If practical mix sows back into their original groups post weaning.
9 Avoid mixing in any form of cubicle system. Sows can be trapped easily and injured –
consider a specialist mixing pen.
10 Consider breaking up the edge of the lying area with divisions so that sub-groups can have
their own areas.
11 Try closing off a section of a large yard system for a few days then penning the sub-group in
this area when mixing. This helps to establish a new territory for the smaller group.
13
Small holder’s sustainability plan for 3 years
Year 1
5 x 10 finishing unit
10 pig 10 pigs every 4 weeks
finishing
shed
Year 2
3 x 50 finishing units
5 sows farrowing every different
3 weeks breeding farm communities
supplying weaners 10 pigs per week
Year 3
14
Sustainable pig farming – making a start
If you are not used to raising pigs from scratch – breeding, farrowing, looking after piglets- it is
best to start just learning about the animal – its habits, feed, water and cooling requirements.
Start with weaners and aim to produce good compost and excellent finished pigs. Along the
way, some farmers will start wanting to produce their own pigs but that is the topic for a
different day.
Basic pig building
Once we have decided not to have big sows and boars, we can radically simplify the building
design.
The building will be 3m wide and 7m long- thus providing 21 m2 – enough room for 10 pigs.
Floor plan view:
2.5m
high
1.5m
high Gate
Water collection Wall Sleeping area Sloping exercise Monopitch Outside Feed/water
Insulated floor 1-2 degree Wallow Fence
15
The building design can be modulated – making expansion easy.
Compost area
West
Wind
direction
3 m wide
3.5 m 3.5 m
7 m in total length
Orientation
In Uganda the big issue is hot pigs. Orientate the building so that the sleeping area is at the
west end of the building – thus providing shade from the afternoon sun. The other
consideration is the wind direction to provide maximum ventilation.
Water collection
Collecting water from the roof can significantly reduce the amount of water which needs to be
brought to the pigs.
Ideally keep the water high so
that it can flow to the
individual pens and have an
over flow tank anyway for long
term storage. The tanks should
be sealed to reduce algae
growth.
Ensure the gutter and pipes are
well maintained
Biosecurity
Ensure that there is a 2 metre clear walkway around the building to reduce rodent and other
vermin/pests from entering the unit.
16
Timber protection
All timber which is placed in the ground should be protected from being eaten and rooting,
particularly from termites.
Peel back the bark Carefully cover the end in burnt engine oil.
Use a rag to rub the oil into the wood
17
Example of a similar building – although thatch roof is used in this example
Side view of the entire house. Note the 2 metre biosecurity zone around the building
18
How does this fit into a three year plan for the community?
Year 1
Month 1
Build building for 10 finishing pigs – learn the ropes of pig production
Income from composting.
Months 2 to 6
Build four more 10 finishing pig buildings – this provides 5 buildings – each with one month
supply of pigs. Thus income now coming in every month from pigs.
10x 150,000 shillings per month – net 15,000,000 shillings a year.
Year 2
Build 4 more community finishing units
Income now 10x 150,000 shillings per week – net 65,000,000 shillings a year
Year 3
Build a 5 sows a week breeding unit- supplying 50 pigs a week to one of the community
finishing units. Control the cost of producing the piglets – net 78,000,000 shillings a year
19
AREAS AND VOLUMES
H V = BW (H/3)
W
B
A = BW
B H
W
V = 0.262DDH
B
D
W
V = BW H
H
D
A = 0.785DD
H V = 0.785DDH
V = (B W H)/2
H
H
B W
A = (W H)/2
W
20
BASIC MEASUREMENTS
When on the farm, it can be useful to make estimates about the size of objects. However,
there are times when a tape measure is not easily available
Within reason it is possible to make some assessment using your own body features
For example:
2.5 cm (1”) is approximately from the
tip of your thumb to the knuckle
Get to know your own measurements and note the exact measurement.
However, on a day to day basis using these simple measures will help you estimate
depth of water, length of a feeder or the rough dimensions of a pen
21
Basic tools required to build and run the unit
Builder tools
The essential tools to building the building
Machete/Panga Saw
22
Hammer Chalk
23
Basic materials to build the structure
Stones Bricks
Nails String
Concrete Sand/aggregate
24
Equipment in daily use
25
Composting manure
Forms Solid
Liquid
Solid
Site The area needs to be well drained
selection Under shade
Protect from wind, sun and running water
Equipment Four pits
1 x 2 metres and 15 cm deep. Can be built up to any height
Ensure that the bottom of the pit soil is loosened to ensure good contact
between composting material and organisms
Method Run four pits
Pit 1 Vital to get the initial mixture right – working to a carbon/nitrogen ratio
Preparation of 30:1
Ensure all plastic materials are removed from anything going into the
compost heap
Move pit 1 contents to pit 2(once system in progress)
Place the following layers onto the loosened soil
Hard plant materials – maize corn stalks
Green grass materials
Soil plus ash (to neutralize acid in faeces)
Dry grass waste – animal bedding
Animal manure and animal feed wastes
Green grass materials
Soil plus ash
Repeat the next day for one month.
After making each days compost cover heap with grass to stop drying
Pit 2 After one month move pit 2 contents to pit 3
Maturation Fill pit 2 with the contents of pit 1
Add water to the pit
Cover with grasses
Pit 3 After one month move pit 2 contents to pit 3
Aeration Each day turn pit 3 and add water each day.
Cover with grasses to stop compost drying out
Pit 4 After one month move pit 3 contents to pit 4
Storage Pit 4 is a storage pit. Prepare the solid compost for use or sale.
Note If you have large amounts of
faeces the compost piles may
have to work once a week rather
than monthly.
26
Initial layers
Covering
Soil
Manure
Water
Dry grass
Soil/ash
Green Grass Pit 1 Pit 2
Covering Prepare compost in layers – month 1 Allow compost to mature –
Repeat month 2
Pit 3 Pit 4
Aerate the compost each day – month 3 Store and prepare for sale/use
Liquid
Method Obtain a large water container – cleaned drum
Liquid manure will be made with a ratio of 3:1 water to faeces
Place manure into a sisal sac
Tie the sac top with a rope
Suspend the sisal sack in a container full of water
Leave for 2 weeks
Prepare liquid manure for use or sale
Pole
String
Water
Faeces in
Sisal sac
Container
Uses
Solid For all crops. Ideally place before crops grown
Very useful for Banana crops
Liquid Apply to fruit crops at the roots. Do not apply to the leaves
Ideal for tomatoes, peppers etc
Ideal for restricted environments ie pots or plastic bags
27
Security fencing
Making your farm secure is important. Not only to keep unwanted human visitors but also to
reduce animal visitors and to stop your animals from straying, essential to maintain
biosecurity.
The type of fencing may vary with species. Pigs for example will burrow under fencing if
required and therefore the fence must go into the ground. Birds will obviously fly over a fence.
Basic Fencing - Natural products
To stop animals
Electric fencing – here powered by solar power to Fox and other small predators
protect bee hives. Note the above fence is not placed into the ground
Electric fencing can be extremely useful in the and will not stop pigs. To stop pigs place the fence
farming of pigs 0.5m underground
Stopping human
Humans are extremely difficult to stop. In general the fence will be extremely expensive.
Barb wire is not a real deterrent to people Razor wire will reduce humans
28
Feed and water for growing pigs
The provision of food and water is an obvious essential for production animals.
In pig the average daily feed intake dry matter can be estimate to be 4% of the bodyweight of the pig.
The pig’s average daily water use can be estimated to be 10% of its bodyweight.
There are two main types of pigs feed – a dry feed – whose water content will be below 20% and a “wet” fed
where water is added deliberately and/or the water content is high initially – for example vegetables or swill is
being fed.
With these guides expected intake can be calculated per pig in the group.
Food preparation
If swill feed is used, it is essential to boil the food thoroughly for at least 30 minutes. This is to kill any viruses that
might be present in the feed – potentially African and Classical Swine Fever virus – both which can result in
extremely high mortality in pigs. Feed should be used within 48 hours of collection.
Swill being boiled for a minimum of 30 minutes Feeding records for wet feeding – 5 times a day and
one additional water only feed
29
Northern Uganda Feed Ingredients
Food Positive Negative characteristics Weaner Grow Adult
characteristics finish
Cassava - Meal Good energy Very low minerals No 40% 40%
source Very low protein – 1% of of
Cyanide in tubers need ration ration
processing – roasting and
drying
Cassava - Good protein – Low sulphur aminoacids No 10% 40%
leaves 21% Cyanogenic compounds
Rich in lysine Sun drying – wilting,
Good minerals chopping removes 90% of
these compounds
High fiber
Sweet Potato – Energy high Protein low 5% of 50% 50%
meal Low in sulphur aminoacids grain of of
Lysine low grain grain
Trypsin inhibitor – heat
treat
Sweet Potato – Good minerals 40% 40%
leaves Good protein – grain grain
20%
Silage good for
sows
Maize bran Low in protein High in fibre
Rice bran Low in protein High in fibre
Ground nuts Good fat 2x Low in methionine, lysine 5% 10% 10%
soya and tryptophan roast
Good energy Tannins
Good protein Roasting and grinding help
Good lac sow
Beans High protein Low B vitamins 50% 50%
20% Trypsin inhibitors of of
Good lysine Tannins soya soya
Haemaglutinins
Steaming helps – 75
minutes
Mukene – little High in protein Watch salt levels 15%
dried fish
Blood meal Rich in leucine Minerals low 2% 5% 5%
Rich in lysine Low in isoleucine
Brewers waste May contain high salt
Greens – High in fibre
Dodo, boo, High in water
Cabbage, content
napier, lablab,
mucina,
callandra,
lukoko
30
Bones, hooves,
horns
Millet
Sorghum
Sunflower – Good protein Poor lysine 100% 2/3 100%
meal Good energy Supplement sulpha and soya soya soya
tryptophan
Sunflower – High in energy High fiber 17% 15% 10% 25%
leaves Medium
protein
Banana Rich potassium Protein low (peeling helps 50% 50% 50%
(not many in Good B6 but not time element)
Northern Ascorbic acid Poor minerals
Uganda) 30% protein Green should be chopped
Better ripe or crushed
Per day:
Growing pigs
will eat 5-6kg
Finishers 9kg
Sows in
lactation 20kg
Banana silage Made in 4 days 50% 50% 50%
and lasts 6 diet grain grain
months
31
GUIDE TO THE BASIC MAKEUP REQUIREMENTS OF PIG DIETS
Body Energy Crude Total Dig Crude NDF Ash Vit A Vit D3 Vit E
Diet weight DE protein lysine lysine Fibre
kg MJ/Kg % % % mg/kg
Units
1st Creep 7-12 16 22 1.8 1.6 1 3 7.5 10,000 2,000 250
2nd Creep 12-18 16 22 1.8 1.6 1.5 4 6.0 10,000 2,000 250
Weaner 18-30 15.5 21 1.5 1.3 2.0 6 5.5 10,000 2,000 150
Grower 30-65 14.5 19 1.5 1.3 3.0 10 5. 10,000 2,000 65
Finisher 65-110 14 19 1.25 1.1 4.0 13 5 7,500 1,500 40
Gilt rearer 60-130 13.6 14 0.85 0.7 5 15 7 10,000 2,000 100
Gestating 12.5 16 0.7 0.52 6.5 24 7 10,000 2,000 60
sow
Lactating sow 14 18 1.0 0.85 4.5 16 6.5 10,000 2,000 100
Boar 12.5 16 0.7 0.52 6.5 24 7 10,000 2,000 60
32
Swill – collection and distribution
Swill is made from kitchen byproducts – this can be from the home or from restaurants.
Hospital waste should be avoided due to the possible contamination by human diseases and
pathogens.
All feed from kitchens can be collected – this can include alcohol products. Include all
vegetable peelings, egg shells and bones. Ideally food not containing pig meat is preferred but
this option is not always available. Therefore, it is best to assume that all kitchen feed contains
pork products. It is then essential – absolutely essential-- that the kitchen wastes are
thoroughly boiled for at least 30 minutes before it can be fed to the pigs.
The kitchen wastes should be as fresh as possible. Ideally do not use food over 48 hours old.
Boiling also helps to preserve the kitchen wastes. Rodents and other vermin will also eat this
kitchen waste and the storage of the prepared products needs to be clean and secure.
Any feed not eaten by the pigs must be cleaned up thoroughly and disposed. Ideally any feed
not eaten should be included in the composting pile.
Collection – 2 or 3 x a week
Motor bike collection Small trailer for a bike Truck for larger amounts
Preparation
33
Feeding
Ideally feed 5 times a day
little and often. Have one
additional “meal” as water
only each day. Record eat
feeding time
With swill feeding it is fed as a restricted feeding option, therefore all the pigs need to eat at the
same time. This requires a long feed trough.
Commercial liquid/wet feeding with sufficient Watch the pigs eating. Ensure there is sufficient
room – highly efficient space for all to eat. Note any pig which is reluctant
to eat (as shown) and then check to ensure the pig
is healthy
34
Building a feeder
1 Calculate:
The number of pigs in the pen
The type of feeding system – adlib or restricted
Final weight of the pigs
2 Determine the length of feeder required.
For examine for 10 pigs each @ 70kg on restricted feed- they require 3 metres
3 Place the feeder in the pen so that the pigs can be fed from outside the pen
35
12 bricks in length – 3 metres
1.5 bricks
10-14 cm wide
36
Variety of pig diet specs which might be of use in Uganda
How to use these tables:
Four different diets are presented –Creep for weaned pigs, Grower diets for growing and finishing pigs and sow diets. The fourth category is a general pig diet
In each category if the reader follows each column different options are given for ingredients in % of the diet – making a total of 100%.
These diets come from various sources and farmer’s opinions. They are presented in order to provide the reader with feeding options depending on what food stuffs are available in
the locality. The diets are chosen to provide a range from a more “commercial” maize, soya, fat and mineral diets to a more local by-product range of diets.
Creep diets
– high in protein and lysine Grower diets – moderate protein Sow and weaner diets General pig diet recommendations
Bananas 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Barley 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 0 0 0 25 25 10 10 0
Blood meal 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 0 3 3 0 1
Bone Ash 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brewers
Residue 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cassava dry 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21
Cassava
leaves 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cotton seed
cake 14 16 5 14 20 0 0 0 17 18 6 17 0 0 21 23 4 4 4 5 0
Field beans 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19
Fish meal 11 12 10 11 5 9 0 0 7 8 8 7 8 5 5 6 0 0 0 0 5
Ground nut
cake 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lucerne meal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maize 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37 25 0
Maize bran 71 27 40 70 68 9 0 0 70 27 48 70 10 15 68 26 17 20 0 0 0
Meat and
Bone meal 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 3 5 0 0 12 6 6 12 3
Oat 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 37 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Red Ant hill
soil 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Restaurant
waste 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
37
Creep diets – high in protein and
lysine Grower diets – moderate protein Sow and weaner diets General pig diet recommendations
Rice bran
polish 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
Salt 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shells 4 4 0 4 5 0 0 0 5 5 0 4 0 0 5 6 0 0 0 0 0
Soya fat 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Soya meal 0 0 20 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sunflower
meal 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sunflower
meal 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
Sweet Potato
leaves 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sweet potato
meal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17
Vitamin
premix 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wheat 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 42 20 30 0
Wheat
bran/pollard 0 41 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 41 0 0 10 15 0 39 0 0 20 18 0
Wood Ash 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
38
Dry feed mixing
39
Which of these feed stuffs can be fed to pigs?
40
Home brew residue Meckene - fish Egg shells
NO OK OK + NO OK OK+ NO OK OK+
Fish heads and remains Ground Nuts Sugar Cane and Molasses
NO OK OK + NO OK OK+ NO OK OK+
42
Sycamore fig fruit Maize cobs Wheat, Barley, Oats
NO OK OK + NO OK OK+ NO OK OK+
This photomontage aims to illustrate the wide variety of items that can go into a pig’s diet and
a few items which cannot. Many items need further processing- but boiling for 30 minutes is a
great general start. Consult your local advisor or Green Warrior if you are concerned about a
particular food product or how to process the food to make it suitable for your pigs.
43
Obtaining the pigs
Which pig to take home?
It is human nature to feel sorry for the weak and defenseless.
However, it is nature’s way to remove the weak and defenseless from the
genetic pool
Do not buy someone else’s problem
Do not buy a sick or sorry pig
Avoid pigs with a listless manner which hang back into the group
Only examine the pig in a well-lit area. Walk the pig on an even coloured floor.
Pigs do not like to cross lines, shades or wet areas.
What to look for:
Pigs with exceptionally long and coarse hair coats
Pigs with heads that appear too big for their bodies
Pigs which are stunted, compared with their litter mates
Look for bright clear open eyes – avoid small shrunken eyes
Avoid pigs which are excessively dirty – housed too hot
Avoid groups of pigs who are too huddled – housed too cold
What to listen for:
Note any sniffling and sneezing in the pigs
Avoid groups of pigs which present with discharges from the eyes and noses
Avoid groups of pigs who are coughing, particularly when they first rise up
Touch the prospective pigs
Examine the head carefully – avoid any pigs with twisted, swollen or misshapen
snouts
Examine the jaw line in detail, looking for knots or swellings. Do not think you can
easily lance an abscess. This will only result in a scar and may release the causal
agents onto your farm
Examine the skin, looking for lice, a greasy feel and lots of wax in the ears – while
treatable this is probably a sign of mange.
Examine the legs – watch the pig in motion – which should be ‘free’
Note if the pig is housed in deep bedding, move the animal to a solid concrete floor
and if necessary hose off the feet so they can be easily examined.
Don’t take a pig with a stiff gait
Avoid front legs which are too straight
Avoid hind legs which are too tucked under the body
Avoid knocked knees
Avoid front legs which are too close together
Run your hands down over all four legs looking for swellings in the joints,
muscles and feet – which may indicate injury or arthritis
Examine the feet – do not select pigs with toes of uneven size.
Examine the feet for lines, cracks, under run heels or bruised soles
Length of the pig – note 3 nipples in front of the prepuce in males and note position
and number of the teats
Ensure the gilt has an anus
If the boar is intended for breeding examine the testes, size, shape and consistency.
Any defect you note in a weaner or young grower is not going to be missed by the
butcher 20 weeks later.
44
Take a breath
Stand back and consider your prospective pig
Leg at each corner
Good loin development
Ideally a line dipping along the back – indicating lean
Ideally a hollow in front of the tail and shape of the ham
Good growth for its age
Does it look like its breed, note its colour distribution and markings
Hair coat bright and clean
Additional questions to ask:
Date of birth?
Diarrhoea as a piglet?
Vaccine programme? – mother and piglets
In-feed and water medication programme
What is it currently being fed on? Can you have 5kg to help settle the pig at its new
home?
Movement form available?
Required blood tests have been completed?
45
Settling your Pig into its New Home
Biosecurity
Always review the biosecurity arrangements for the pig – particularly if
there are already pigs in the household – isolation and acclimatisation will be
required.
Treat the pig for mange (Sarcoptes scabiei). Unless told otherwise, it is
always wise to assume the pig is positive. Two injections of ivermectin 7-14
days apart should eliminate this and other parasites. (except tapeworms)
Preparing the pen
The pig will want to sleep in a dry draught free area. Allow the pig to select
this area. Place a loosely broken bale of straw and allow the pig to make its
own nest. Even newly weaned pigs will make their own nest.
In the area designated as the toilet area, make the area damp with some
damp straw.
Observe the pig over the first few days to ensure it agrees with you regarding
the layout of the pen. Healthy pigs are determined by minimizing stress.
Ideally the source farm should supply 5kg of food to reduce the risk of
digestive upset.
Ensure the water supply is clean and accessible.
In the hot months, with pigs over 30 kg, the provision of a wallow or other
cooling aid will be necessary.
First day
Plenty of dry straw
Provide water as soon as the pig settles in the pen
Provide food at the end of the day – make sure the pig knows the position of
the feeder.
The addition of milk to the feed (2:1) may help encourage appetite. If the pig
is over 30 kg the addition of a 0.5 litre of beer/ale to the food will assist the
pig to sleep.
Remove the feeding bowl
Turn all the lights out 1 hour after feeding.
Allow the pig to get a good night’s sleep.
Get to know the pig
Give him or her a name and use it.
Gentle handling will equate to tender pork
Get to know his (her) eating and other behaviours.
As a stockperson you can still enjoy pork and the company of pigs
46
What is not suitable?
Dirty poorly prepared accommodation Damp bedding full of mould which was intended
The floor is dirty and broken for sleeping
Unclean polluted water supplies – with water Contaminated (rodent droppings) old feed –
from the cleaning programme from the last pigs who left 3 weeks ago!!
Neglect – the pig cannot be saved – the kindest Abuse (staged photo). If the pig will not do what
treatment is euthanasia. it asked – it’s our fault not the pig’s. They have
the right to be difficult
47
Introduction and medication for your pigs
Bringing new pigs to the farm is always a worry. If there are no other pigs on the property
then this worry is less. But if there are other pigs already there it is always best to keep the
new pigs separate for the first 2 weeks at least. This obviously causes problems, especially
when the pigs are very young, with housing.
Requirements
All new stock should be healthy on arrival.
You should not buy any pigs which look
sick – see selecting pigs.
Separate boots and ideally covers for your
clothing should be worn in the isolation
area
Consult with your local veterinarian regarding any specific pathogens that might be
present in the area and take necessary precautions.
48
Hand Washing Instructions
Before and After handling the Pigs
49
Lying pattern as an indicator of comfort
Too cold
Lie on the floor with their legs tucked under
their body to reduce floor contact. Lie huddles
with other pigs. Lie close to a wall
Pigs may shiver, The pigs may become hairy
With larger pigs they seen unable to adopt this
tucked position for very long and tend to lie
semi-recumbent with their legs tucked into their
body.,
Too hot
Pigs will be panting > 40 per minute
Pigs are generally dirty.
Lie away from other pigs, sometimes
against a cold wall.
They do not pile
Lie in any wet/cooler area
Pigs will dig into earth/bedded floors.
50
Defecation behaviour
Pigs are inherently clean animals and avoid lying in feaces. From a few days of age pigs will
become toilet trained to defecation in a specific area of the environment.
The defecation pattern of the pen provides a good long term indicator of comfort. The veterinarian
can see the area even without the pig’s presence. Abnormal defecation patterns indicate a chronic
reduction in optimal environment.
Where the pen is coolest Where the pen has a draught – the pigs will defecate under the
cold dropping air (blue in the picture)
Where the pen is wettest – note Where the pen is darkest Where the pen is most private –
the faeces under the drinker this can lead to a blocked feeder
Hot pigs will specifically choose to wallow in
faeces and slurry to assist cooling. Sometimes,
this is unavoidable, but its occurrence should be
minimised. Once pigs become ‘dirty’ they can be
extremely difficult to retrain – even when
provided with ‘ideal’ environments.
51
Pigs at Play
Any stockperson watching a group of pigs will soon be amused to observe their play activities.
Play prepares them for situations and teaches survival skills.
Pigs are extremely intelligent animals with a degree of complex behaviours that match and
may even surpass a domestic dog. Unlike cattle and sheep, pigs exhibit greater inquisitiveness
and individualist behaviour patterns. This can be practically demonstrated when moving a
group of pigs. In many ways pigs are more like people than they would wish to admit.
Providing an environment where pigs can explore their play behaviour can help relieve stress
and allow the pig to cope better if their environment is temporarily adverse.
Company
Pigs will gain comfort and support from other
pigs and other animals. Pigs should not be
kept in isolation. There may be obvious
exceptions when the pig is under treatment
for meningitis or a severe lameness. However,
once the pig is over the critical stage of the
condition it should be housed with other pigs
of a similar weight and age.
Environmental enrichment
Adult pigs
Adult pigs have a generally lower requirement
to play with items placed in their pen.
However, playing music to adult sows can
have a calming effect and has been used to
reduce savaging of piglets by gilts.
Farrowing sows can be provided with
chopped paper, straw and hay to allow them
to act out their nesting behavioural
requirements. Adult sows can be provided
with some chopped straw even while being
housed in stall accommodation. Note that the
bedding materials can cause disturbance to
the slurry system which if blocked would lead
to other significant problems.
52
Wean to finish pigs
All wean to finish pigs should be provided
with toys within the pen.
The simplest toys are often the most
effective. Pigs love to play with chains,
rattles, large plastic bottles, rubber belting,
old boots and feedbags.
Large balls became popular in the 1990’s
and while these can be useful pigs can also
become bored with them. In addition they
can be placed in feeders and block feed
access.
Pen layout/shape
Pen layout can encourage play behaviour.
However, note that in pens which are long
and narrow this can result in a running
game with large numbers of pigs running at
high speeds. As the pigs attempt to turn at
the end of the pens individuals may slip
and become injured – including long bone
fractures. When designing the pen ensure
that this running behaviour is catered for
by providing chicanes which will slow the
pigs down.
53
Daily job list
1 Say hello to the pigs
2 Observe their behaviour
3 Enter pen
4 Clean up all faeces – place outside the pen
5 Clean up any spilt feed – place outside the pen
6 It may be necessary to wash down urine areas
if urine pools evident
7 Feed the pigs
8 Watch pigs behaviour when eating
9 Watch pig’s defecation and urination
behaviour
10 Ensure the pig’s bed has plenty of bedding.
Replace any bedding moved by the pigs.
11 Fill water only bowl
12 Mark chalk board for first feed.
13 Move faeces and waste food to the compost
pile. Turn compost pile 3
14 Prepare feed for the day
15 Ensure all utensils are thoroughly cleaned
16 Check the outside run – including the wallow
17 Repeat from point 7 5 times during the day
18 At around midday provide a water only “feed”
19 At the end of the day provide last feed
20 Look at the behaviour of the pigs
21 Say good night to the pigs
54
Daily Checks – the basics
Clean up any spilt food Prepare the food and feed Watch pigs eating
the pigs
Place faeces and food in Clean all utensils Check outside run – and
compost check compost pile repair as required
55
Weekly job list
Friday
1 Do normal daily tasks
2 After the feed has been prepared
ensure all the utensils are cleaned
3 Ensure there is no split feed to clear
up
4 Move compost piles to next week
5 Clear up any rubbish around
buildings
6 Ensure that there will be sufficient
water for next week
7 Check the roof
8 Check the walls and buildings from
any issues
9 Repair any issues where possible
10 Check the outside area and clean if
necessary
11 Check the week completed section
on the chalk board
56
Stockmanship – the basics
Take time to scratch their ears
57
Stockmanship – the basic signs of ill-health
Animal Behaviour Stage of the disease Action required
Does not get up quickly Early Caution
Stomach not full Early Look further
Agitated Early Look further
Rapid breathing Fairly early Look further
Looks gaunt Fairly early Intervene
Does not come to eat Fairly early Intervene
Remains at back of group Fairly early Intervene
Arched back Fairly early Intervene
Hair stands on end Fairly early Intervene
Pale, long hair Fairly late Intervene
Straggler Late Intervene
Losing weight Very late Improve process
Slow growth Very late Improve process
Small in the group Very late Improve process
58
Medicines and treatment of pigs – Basics
Consult with your veterinarian regarding
what medications to administer to the pigs
Note needles are very sharp and care
needs to be taken so that medicines and
needles are not used or stored casually so
any person may become hurt
Keep medicines out of the reach of
children
Where do you inject pigs?
In the neck as this area is the cheapest
joint
Inject in neck
Never use dirty needles and syringes.
Never use needles which are blunt
59
Stockpeople basics
Normal and Abnormal Clinical Signs
Normal expected signs
60
Major Disorders of the Pig by Age/Group
Piglet
Nursery – weaning to 30 kg
61
Grow/finish – 30 to 110 kg
62
Monitoring the pigs
If any pig appears to slow down, examine the Plot on a convenient surface – note pig Maria
pig in detail. If necessary feed separately. was 3 weeks younger than Blessing
63
Growth Rate
100
80
Weight 60
kg
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Age in weeks
64
Transportation of pigs
65
Cleaning a building after the pigs leave
1 Pigs leave the building
2 Remove all faeces, left feed, bedding and other easily removed materials
3 Compost all of the removed materials
4 Wash water down over all the surfaces
5 Leave for 30 minutes
6 Examine the outside area
7 Remove all faecal materials from the outside area
8 If the outside area has been dug up, replace the soil as required.
9 It may be necessary to turn-over the soil surface
10 Repair the wallow area if required. Drain if possible and allow to dry
11 After allowing the floor area 30 minutes to soak
12 Brush the floor thoroughly with hot/warm water with soap added to the
water
13 Clean thoroughly the floor, bedded area, feeders and waterers
14 Allow the floor to dry
15 Examine the building and repair where necessary
16 Make up lime-wash – 3:1 Calcium carbonate
17 Wash all the floor and wall surfaces to 1 metre high with lime wash
18 Allow the floor to dry
19 The new pigs are not to enter the building until the lime wash is totally dry –
minimum 24 hours
66
Application of Lime Washing
1 Wear goggles and gloves
2 Obtain a large plastic bucket
3 Mix Burnt or Builders Lime (CaCO3) with 6 litres of
water into a pasty liquid. Mix one third lime with 2/3
water
4 Add lysol (a disinfectant) to the mixture
5 Brush onto the surface using a soft household brush
6 It is possible to dedicate a pressure washer to assist
the painting of lime, use the washer as a spray gun
7 Leave to dry for 24 hours. If this time span is not
available, do not lime wash any surface the pig is
going to lie on as this will result in burns
67
Building costs
Estimation of the building costs. The excel spreadsheet is embedded, double click to
customize.
Water collection Wall Sleeping area Sloping exercise Monopitch Outside Feed/water
Insulated floor 1-2 degree Wallow Fence
Building costs - small building
The yellow boxes can be customised
Number required Cost per unit Total costs
Floor
Stone/bricks 200 95 19000
Concrete bags 3.75 26000 97500
String 1 4000 4000
Walls
Posts 8 1200 9600
Bamboo 8 2500 20000
Gates 1 0 0
Nails kg 3 4000 12000
Roof
Wood supports 0 0 0
Thatch 10 1000 10000
Metal piece 2 28000 56000
Guttering 28g 1 20000 20000
Water container 1 6000 6000
Large water store 1 25000 25000
Outside run
Posts 6 1200 7200
Bamboo 2 2500 5000
Feeder and drinkers
Bricks 14 95 1330
Concrete 0.25 26000 6500
Utensils
Boiling pot 1 12000 12000
Plastic containers 2 10000 20000
Plastic measures 1 5000 5000
Brushes 1 1000 1000
Boots 1 6000 6000
Soap 1 400 400
Lime wash 1 2000 2000
Total costs 345530 shs @ 2200
157 $ US
Other tools which will be required
Iron bar 1 5000
Hammer 1 20000
Saw 1 20000
Trowel 1 3000
Spade 1 4000
Wheel barrow 1 90,000
Plum line 1 5,000
Measuring tape 1 5,000
Total others 152000
68
Budget- wean to finish
Small holder budget costs
Wean to finish costs
69
Adopt a pig
These pig farms are intended to be a community effort.
It is essential that the community takes ownership in the pigs and enjoy the profits of their
venture.
One suggestion is that when 10 pigs are purchased, the pigs are “adopted” by individual homes
or individuals.
It will then be expected that these people will then pay for the pigs initially and help with the
care, management, feed and watering of their pigs.
When the pigs are slaughtered or sold for future breeding, the money is divided between the
whole team. Note this should include any group whose pig unfortunately died during the
growing phase.
Note sufficient money should be set aside to purchase 10 more pigs (or whatever the group
size is) to perpetuate the project.
Planning the project as a All hands to help build and Enjoying the rewards
community run the project
70
A MANUAL ON IMPROVED
RURAL PIG PRODUCTION
I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
V
Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets ........................................................................... 63
1. Housing and comfort zones for piglets ............................................................................... 63
2. Health care of the piglets and sow ...................................................................................... 64
3. Housing, hygiene and feeding ............................................................................................ 66
4. Check list for the lactating sow and piglets ........................................................................ 68
VI
APPENDIX of PHOTOGRAPHS
1. Breeds ................................................................................................................................. 99
2. Selection ........................................................................................................................... 100
3. Pig pens and floors ........................................................................................................... 101
4. Feeders and drinkers ......................................................................................................... 102
5. Nutrition: by-products and crops ..................................................................................... 103
6. Nutrition: traditional feed processing .............................................................................. 104
7. Nutrition: commercial feed practices ............................................................................... 105
8. Piglet care ......................................................................................................................... 106
9. Lactating sows and their piglets ....................................................................................... 107
10. Handling and vaccination ............................................................................................... 108
11. Diseases and abnormalities ............................................................................................. 109
12. Castration ........................................................................................................................ 110
13. Taking samples for laboratory ........................................................................................ 110
14. Large scale pig farming .................................................................................................. 111
15. Other pig pictures ........................................................................................................... 112
VII
Chapter 1: Pig breeds
This type of pig can be found throughout the country. It has a small body size compared
to other local pig types. Its name varies from region to region, for example: Muchid,
Mukadone, Muboua, although it is generally called Muladt.
The age at first heat is around 8 - 9 months with a body weight of 21 - 30 kg. The mature
live weight of females is about 42 - 48 kg. The age at first farrowing is 12 months, with a
farrowing rate of 1.5 per year and a litter size of 7 - 8 piglets. Piglets are weaned at 2 - 3
months and weigh around 7 - 8 kg. The male pig becomes mature around 6 months at 30 kg.
Muladt type 1
1
Local pig (type 2):
Pig type 2 is larger than type 1. The age of first mating is around 1 year at body weight of
about 39 kg. At maturity the weight is about 47 - 61 kg.
Muladt type 2
Muladt type 3
2
Chapter 1: Pig breeds
The most common pig breeds for commercial pig production are the Large White,
Landrace and Duroc breeds or crosses. These 3 breeds produce lean meat combined with
efficient feed conversion (3 kg of good feed is needed to produce 1 kg of pork). Compared
to local pig breeds, these commercial breeds are less resistant to diseases and suffer more
from hot weather and low quality feeds. Pure exotic breeds generally do not perform well
in rural pig production systems.
Large White
3
Landrace:
The Landrace originates from Denmark and adapts well to Lao conditions. It can reach
80 - 90 kg live body weight at 5 - 6 months. The sow is a good mother with litter sizes of 10
- 12 piglets. This breed has a rapid growth and good quality of carcass. The breed is
mainly used as dam line crossing as the sows have a long body and udder with many teats.
Landrace
Duroc:
The Duroc breed originates from North America. It has a rapid growth rate and good
ability to adapt to varied tropical climatic conditions. The litter size is small: about 7 - 8
piglets per litter. They are used mainly as sire line for producing crossbreed pigs.
Duroc
4
Chapter 1: Pig breeds
3. Crossbreeds
Improvement of local breeds:
Breed improvement is important in obtaining improved and high yielding animals. The
main purpose of breed improvement is to introduce a positive characteristic into a local
breed. For example: by crossbreeding an indigenous sow with an exotic boar; the
offspring is likely to inherit the body shape and good growth rate from its father and the
tolerance to environmental stress from its mother. Inbreeding between father and
daughter, mother and son, brother and sister, etc. must be avoided.
Selected sows of the offspring can be mated with the imported boar breed-line. Commercial
piggery uses this breeding system for 4 - 5 generations to reach the desired improved breed.
5
Singji pigs from China:
The Singji pigs originate from Southern China. They are an improved cross-breed;
crossed between local breeds of China and exotic breeds (mainly the Duroc). Singji pigs
are suitable for keeping under village conditions with improved husbandry practices
(using clean pig pens, strict vaccination control and good home-made feeds mixed with
commercial feeds). With these improved husbandry practices they can withstand the hot
and wet Lao climate much better than the exotic breeds. Although the initial crossbreeds
are black, mating between Singji sow and Singji boar can produce a litter with many
black piglets but also some of other colors like brown, spotted or striped.
6
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems
This kind of pig raising system is most common in rural areas for keeping local pig breeds.
Advantages:
• Low cost of inputs and low use of labor.
Disadvantages:
• Requires a large area and may destroy cash crops.
• Pigs are difficult to control and can be infected easily with diseases.
• Low output and public nuisance.
7
The semi-intensive system (confined within a large area) can be found in suburban areas
or with communities specialized in fattenning local pigs.
Advantages:
• Simple pig housing (only shelter against rain and sun).
• Low cost of inputs as by-products and kitchen waste are used for feeding the pigs.
Disadvantages:
• Low output and requires a large area.
• Pigs are difficult to control (e.g. catching for veterinary treatments).
• Pigs can easily be infected with diseases (especially when new pigs are introduced into
the same area).
This system is adapted by farmers with a sense for improved pig production. Often these
farmers can be found in areas where they have access to commercial feeds. Usually these
farmers are in semi-urban areas and raise exotic and crossbreed pigs for the local market.
Advantages:
• Easy to handle (feeding, water supply, monitoring health, detecting heat, farrowing,
etc).
• Easy to undertake vaccinations and treatments.
• Low risk of diseases when the farmer adheres to good sanitation practices.
• The environment is kept clean and crops are not destroyed by scavenging pigs.
• The manure can fertilize fish ponds or fertilize the field crops (or garden) of the farmer.
Disadvantages:
• High costs of inputs (housing material, feeds and labor).
• Farmer requires more management skills.
8
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems
Fish ponds can be fertilized with pig manure; algae are produced which can be utilized by
the fish. As long as sufficient water is available for the ponds, pig sties can either be con-
structed above the pond so that the manure can drop straight into the water, or nearby the
pounds so that the slurry can be channeled into the ponds. The various species of Tilapia
are the most commonly used fish, often mixed with a small population of carp and catfish.
Special care is needed when Ivermectin is used to control mange or internal parasites.
Small residues of Ivermectin excreted through the manure can kill the fish in the pond.
Take care that the manure of treated pigs does not enter the pond for one week (e.g. use
gunny bags to cover slats and shovel away manure). Or alternatively, wash pigs with
mange problems outside the pen with Neguvon.
9
2. Pigsty buildings
Site selection:
10
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems
cemented floor
Floor systems:
Distance between the slats should be 0.5 - 1.0 cm. A slatted floor should preferably be
sloping for easy cleaning.
11
Partition:
Many types of partitions can be used like wood, bricks, iron pipes, etc. Partitions should
prevent piglets from escaping and still allow easy manure removal.
different partitions
12
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems
The feeding trough should be firmly anchored to the floor to prevent overturning and
wasting feed.
feeders
cm
40
20 cm
1m
cm
20 15 cm
60 cm
Drinkers:
The feeding trough can also be used to supply water. At large farms automatic drinkers
are used (bowls or nipples).
13
3. Pens, floors and space requirements
Pens with flat, solid floors:
A flat, solid floor is usually made from cement (but not polished to avoid slipping) or from
hard soil. The floor should be sloping away to the rear to facilitate cleaning with water. It is
suitable especially for fattening pigs but also for pregnant and farrowing sows and boars.
0.8 m
0.8 m
1.0 m
1.0 m
2.0 m
2.5 m
2.0 m
The floor is usually made from locally available wood or timber. Large scale pig farms can
have slatted floors that are commercially available (made from cement, iron rods, plastic, etc).
Pens with slatted floors are suitable for keeping all types of pigs.
0.2 m
1.0 m
0.5 m 1.0 m
1.4 m 0.4 m
2.5 m
2.0 m
14
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems
3m
2m
1.0 m
Pregnant sows:
Per sow 1.5 - 2.0 m2
0.6 m
2.0 m 0.4 m
15
Lactating sows:
Per sow 4 - 6 m2 2.0 m
2.0 m
0.6 m
0.8 m
Weaner piglets:
Per piglet 0.3 - 0,5 m2
Breeding boars:
Per boar 6 - 8 m2
16
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems
The roof of the pigsty can be of grass thatch, bamboo sheets, galvanized iron sheets, tiles, etc.
Roofs made of grass thatch or bamboo sheets are cheap and good for ventilation, but these
roofs are not durable. The costs of tiles or galvanized iron roofs are high, but these roofs last a
longtime. In hot climates, a galvanized iron roof can make the pigsty very hot during the day.
The site of the pen and the roof system should protect the pigs from hot sun and rain.
The roof should give enough shadow at the hottest time of the day.
17
Single sloping roof:
This roof system is cheap and easy to
build. It provides good ventilation,
but the pen can be penetrated by too
much sun and become hot. During
the rainy season, strong wind and
heavy rain can come in.
18
Chapter 3: Feeding systems
Feeds should meet the animal’s needs for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Good
pig feed contains sufficient energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Rice bran, broken rice,
maize, soya-beans, cassava, vegetables and distillers’ residues are often used in pig feed.
Maize:
Soya beans:
Soya is a crop which has a high
nutritional value and is very good
for pig feeding. It contains 38%
protein (=very high). It should be
dried, milled or well cooked in
combination with other feedstuff
like rice bran, broken rice and
maize.
soya plant
19
Leucaena, Acacia and other tree leaves:
Leucaena and Acacia are traditional, locally available tree-crops. The leaves are rich in
protein. After drying, they can be mixed and fed to pigs with other feeds.
long bean
cassava
leucaena
Vegetables:
Vegetables are used as supplementary feeds for pigs by boiling and mixing with other feeds
such as rice bran, broken rice and maize. They can also be given fresh. Suitable vegetables are:
Copra residues:
coconut
20
Chapter 3: Feeding systems
Rice bran:
Broken rice:
Also broken rice is very suitable for pig
feeding. It can be mixed with other feeds
up to 15 - 20%. Broken rice contains broken rice
about 8% protein.
21
Forest products:
Pig feed can also be prepared with forest products (wild vegetables, wild bananas, wild
taro, etc). At the same time, food waste can be used (soup, rice, noodles etc). Below is an
example of a locally prepared supplementary pig feed from a forest product (taro).
measure
mix mix
22
Chapter 3: Feeding systems
Different feeds are mixed and boiled to make the pig feed more palatable. There are 2
types of traditional processing:
1. Mixing all different feeds together (rice bran, broken rice, crushed maize and soya,
dried and crushed cassava, dried acacia leaves, etc) in proportion and giving it di-
rectly to the pigs.
2. Cooking the different raw materials together to improve digestibility and to break-
down toxins from some feeds as raw cassava, wild taro, banana stem, maize and soya
grains, beans, kitchen waste, etc.
taro plant
vegetable
save money
rice bran
kitchen waste
broken rice
23
3. Commercial feeds
Complete feed:
feed for piglets feed for fattening pigs feed for lactating sows
Concentrated feed:
24
Chapter 3: Feeding systems
A major problem with improving rural pig production is improving the different feeding
systems that are based on locally available products. Many regions or ethnic groups often
have their own traditional feeding systems. But often these traditional feeding systems
need improvements in cases like:
• keeping (local) pigs in pens,
• keeping pig crosses (or even exotic pig breeds).
breeder local
feed available
fattener breeder feed
feed feed
Improved rural pig production systems, the use of crossbreeds of exotic breeds and a mix
of commercial feeds with local cheap available feeds (like rice-bran, maize and beans) is
preferably used. Lactating sows, piglets and weaners should have a rich home-made pig
feed ration, containing some commercial feeds.
25
Measuring the correct amount of feed (weight or volume):
Commercial feeds are expensive and have to be used efficiently. Also, when we make a
homemade feed ratio as above, we have to mix the different components correctly
(correct weight or volume). Farmers need to calibrate the container or scoop (a tin, part
of plastic bottle, etc.) that they use for feeding the pigs to know how many kilograms they
are feeding or mixing.
Replacing distillery waste with commercial feeds for sows, piglets and weaners:
breeder local
feed available
feed
Distillery waste (Lao-Lao waste) is much appreciated in the traditional Lao pig hus-
bandry, especially for fattening pigs. It is advisable however, not to give this high valued
feed to pregnant and lactating sows and to piglets and weaners because of the alcohol
contents in the waste. These animals require high quality of feed and therefore distillery
waste needs to be replaced by other high quality feed like commercial feeds.
26
Chapter 3: Feeding systems
Feed storage:
Some raw materials like cassava,
maize and soya beans need to be
dried well before storing in a
barn or shed. Also complete feed
and mixtures of feeds need to be
stored dried to avoid moulding.
Moulded feeds are unfit for
animal feeding. The store needs
to be well protected against rats.
The growth rate depends on the intake of good quality and quantity of pig feeds. Every day,
each pig must get the right quantity of fresh feed. Stale or dirty feed will reduce their appetite.
27
Good pig appetite is important. Pigs
will eat more fresh clean feed than
if it is contaminated, stale or moldy.
Clean feed troughs daily.
28
Chapter 3: Feeding systems
When pigs reach 20 - 60 kg body weight, they are classified as “growers” and their
feeding regime, using complete feed, is as follows:
• Growing pigs are fed 2 times in the day: morning and evening.
• Growing pigs with 20 - 40 kg body weight: 1.5 - 2.0 kg per pig per day.
• Growing pigs with 40 - 60 kg body weight: 2.0 - 2.5 kg per pig per day.
The above feeding practices are especially applicable to farmers with exotic breeds, good
feed and management.
29
The previously mentioned amounts of feeds are based on commercial feeds. The farmer
needs to calibrate his feeding container to know how much he is feeding. He also needs to
know approximately the weight of his pigs. Estimation of weights can be learned from
others (like traders and butchers) or by using scales.
When the farmer is using a cheap home-made feed ratio, it is difficult to know if the
farmer is feeding his/her pigs with enough energy and protein for maintenance and
growing. In these cases, as a rule of thumb, he/she must feed the pigs till they are satisfied
and do not scream anymore. When the farmer is fattening pigs, he/she should feed them
even a little bit more (one scoop extra).
30
Chapter 3: Feeding systems
Health problems and parasites can reduce growth efficiency by up to 50% and cause
uneven growth.
31
If we cannot get little
piglets to eat enough, then
the best feeds in the world
are useless. You need to cull
(sell) these slow growers as
soon as possible.
When the growing pigs reach 50 kg, their nutritional needs diverge according to sex
(gender). So it is preferable to pen gilts and castrated boars separately.
Good feed, effective disease control and a clean environment (pens) will improve pig growth.
32
Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs
selection of boars
The selection of a good breeding boar is very important for profitable pig production.
Selection criteria are:
• Avoid inbreeding: do not select boars for breeding within same family lines.
• Select offspring from a sow that has consistently farrowed and weaned large litters.
• Select from a sow that has a good size and not less than 12 nipples.
• The boar should have grown fast and be in good health with strong legs.
• The boar should have a good reproductive organ.
Gilt selection:
selection of gilts
Proper gilt selection is important to obtain large litter sizes and piglets that grow fast.
Selection criteria are:
• Avoid inbreeding: gilts should not have been mated by their fathers.
• Select from a sow that has farrowed and weaned large litters (not less than 9 piglets).
• The gilt should have a good size and not less than 12 nipples (same criteria for mother).
• The gilt should have grown fast and be in good health with strong legs.
33
Signs of inbreeding:
2. Productive sows
The sow productivity is calculated from the number of piglets per litter and how many
litters she produces per year. Her lifetime productivity is the total number of piglets she
produced.
34
Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs
Therefore it is important to
know the farrowing and
nursing characteristics of the
sow: ease of birth, mothering
instinct, milking ability, etc.
35
Feed quality and quantity must be balanced so sows do not get too fat in pregnancy or too
thin during the nursing period. Both situations can cause reproduction problems.
local
Under Lao conditions it is breeder feed available
important that pigs from feed
local or improved breeds
can grow on a well balanced
diet from locally available
feed resources. Lactating
sows and piglets also need
some commercial feeds in
their diet.
36
Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs
Growth efficiency, litter size and carcass quality are the main characteristics in the
selection of breeder animals.
Growing pigs must have the potential to grow rapidly and efficiently and produce a high
lean carcass of good quality meat. Below are growing targets for large-scale pig farming
in the Lao PDR using exotic breeds and good (commercial) feeds.
70 - 80 kg
60 kg growth in 3 months
with 180 kg feed
15 - 20 kg
37
An example of the calculation of feed conversion: 180 kg feed was needed to grow the
above pig from 15 - 20 to 70 - 80 kg. Feed conversion = 180 kg feed per 60 kg growth =
3.00 kg feed per 1 kg growth. Thus; the feed conversion is 3.0.
38
Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs
39
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs
1. Gilt management
Gilts are young female pigs ready for first time breeding at around 8 - 9 months old.
Around this time gilts should be placed nearby a boar to stimulate heat, but they should
not be penned together with the boar. Gilts should be fed carefully to avoid over or
underweight. Usually they are fed around 2 - 2.5 kg per head per day. In addition, they
should be given fresh vegetables with the feed.
41
Alternatively, walk a boar
before the gilt pen each
day, under supervision.
Move out any gilts on heat
and mate them in a
separate area.
When the sow has weaned her litter she is called a dry sow. This means she is ready for
the next breeding. Usually, a dry sow comes into heat about 7-15 days after weaning. Dry
sows that have just weaned their litter are often thin because of nursing these piglets.
These sows need to be fed well to remain healthy and come in heat. They need to be
placed close to a boar and their feed intake should be about 2.5 - 3 kg per head per day.
42
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs
In the beginning young boars can be kept together in one pen, but when they reach 50 -
60 kg they need to be separated to avoid fighting and becoming aggressive.
The training of young boars should start when they reach sexual maturity at around 8
months old. The best place for this practice is in the pen of the boar. A mature sow that is
well in heat should be introduced to the young boar. Give them time to get used to each
other. Do not allow the boar to mount the sow in front as such a practice might become a
bad habit forever. In the beginning, young boars should be given help: the farmer can
help inserting the penis into the vagina and let them mate successfully. During mating do
not allow interference by other boars.
Come on boy!
Right idea - wrong end.
43
The breeding boar should
be (made) docile and easy
to handle. Be gentle when
handling animals. Do not
hit and hurt animals. This
boar is too aggressive and
too difficult to manage and
should not be used for
breeding.
Ensure a boar’s first service is accomplished with a right-sized female who is strongly on heat.
Sows come in heat 7 - 15 days after weaning, and then after every 21 days until they
become pregnant. Correct management of the newly weaned sow is essential to ensure
all sows come in heat strongly.
In heat 7-15 days after weaning. In heat every 21 days till pregnant.
44
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs
1. By observing heat symptoms (restless and mounting), vulva (reddish, swollen with
discharge) and touching the sow. Pressure on the back is applied (or one sits on the back)
to determine the correct breeding time. During the correct breeding time, the sow does
not run away and this is referred to as “standing heat”.
45
There are 2 methods of pig breeding, natural and artificial:
1. Natural breeding
When gilts reach 5 - 6 months, they come in heat for the first time. At this early age the
gilts are not suitable for breeding because their reproductive organs are not yet well
developed. Gilts must be bred when they reach 7 - 8 months and come in heat for the
second or third time. The average length of the oestrus cycle is 21 days and this cycle is
repeated when the pig has not been mated successfully.
46
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs
47
5. Practical points regarding heat detection
Check sows for standing heat regularly, at least twice a day – early morning and late
afternoon. The heat of a sow is short (only one day), so it is best to mate sows at around
12 hours interval (early morning and late afternoon).
48
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs
6. Management of mating
49
The vulva becomes redder, more
prominent, swollen and moist.
natural mating
50
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs
A breeding tip:
The age of mating depends on the age and weight of the sow. Well-developed gilts can be
bred at 8 - 9 months and farrow at 12 to 13 months old. Gilts of exotic breeds should
weigh at least 80 kg before breeding. Success of conception is higher at second or third
heat (do not mate at the first heat).
This small gilt was mated A gilt should be well This small gilt was
too early: 3 alive and 3 developed before first mated too early: all 8
dead piglets at birth. mating. piglets born dead.
51
7. Management of the breeding boar
A boar used for natural breeding can mate 2 - 3 times a week and can thus have an
offspring of 750 piglets per year. In comparison, 1 sow will give birth to about 15
piglets per year (2 litters). Proper attention is required regarding the selection and
management of boars to get strong and healthy piglets.
52
Chapter 6: The pregnant sow
53
To keep effective control of
the breeding herd, sows
must properly be identified
(ear tag of ear notching).
Keep a record of
all sows mated.
During gestation the sow should be fed well; for herself and embryos. Based on using
exotic breeds, good (commercial) feeds and high management, the following amounts of
feed are recommended during different stages of gestation:
Gestation stage Amount of feed per sow per day
breeding - 30 days 2.0 kg
30 - 60 days 2.2 kg
60 - 90 days 2.2 - 2.5 kg
90 - 105 days 2.5 kg
105 - 114 days 2.0 kg
at farowing day do not give feed
Remember not to feed brewery waste (Lao-Lao waste) to highly pregnant and lactating
sows and their piglets.
54
Chapter 6: The pregnant sow
Be careful to feed the correct amounts. Too much feed produces a sow that is too fat and
with too little feed the sow becomes too thin. Both situations will lead to farrowing and
suckling problems.
A vaccination program is
essential for good sow
performance.
55
Deworm orally (avoid injections during late pregnancy) and wash the sow as she is moved
into the farrowing crate.
56
Chapter 7: Farrowing
At the end of the pregnancy the sow should be observed closely to determine the start of
farrowing and if necessary to assist the sow and secure the life of the young piglets. On
many farms, 30% of all piglets born are lost in the first 4 days. Correct husbandry can
save many weak piglets.
57
The farmer should attend the
farrowing and assist when
necessary. A clean cloth should be
available for cleaning and drying
the piglets and removing all
mucus from mouth and nostrils to
ensure that the breathing passages
are clear. In that way many piglets
can be saved.
When we observe or assume problems with the birth of the piglets, the farmer needs to do a vaginal
check. Sometimes piglets can be stuck and the farmer can gently assist these piglets to be born.
58
Chapter 7: Farrowing
59
2. Heath care of the newly born piglets and sow
Disinfect the navel as soon as the piglet is born (use Iodine). Clip the eye-teeth and if
required shorten their tails (tail docking).
When piglets are kept on a wooden or concrete floor, the piglets need an iron injection
within 72 hours after birth to prevent anaemia (milk is iron-deficient). This is not neces-
sary when piglets have a walking space with access to soil (soil contains iron). Piglets with
iron deficiency become white and hairy, start scouring and may die.
60
Chapter 7: Farrowing
A warm place for the newly born piglets away from the sow is important. This area
should be 27 – 30 degrees Celsius for the first 4 days and draft free. A piglet box can be
used (60 cm by 60 cm) and or a light to give warmth.
61
Good feeding practices of the sow are very important. The amount of feed needs to be
reduced on the day of farrowing till 1 - 2 days later. After that the feeding should be accord-
ing to the sow’s needs and to the litter size and its condition.
On the day of farrowing no feed must be given to the sow, but ample water should be
available. During the second day and later the sow is gradually given more feed. A sow
needs a ration of around 2.0 - 2.5 kg per day for maintaining her body weight . For milk
production and feeding her piglets, an extra of 0.25 kg is required per day per piglet
(based on exotic/improved breeds with good feeds).
For example: the ration for a sow with 8 piglets is 4 kg per day:
2 kg + (0.25 kg x 8 piglets) = 2 kg + 2 kg = 4 kg per sow per day.
62
Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets
Newly born piglets need a clean, dry, draft-free and warm area or box to keep them
comfortable, avoid diarrhea and prevent weak piglets from dying. Such a comfortable
place can be dried rice straw on the floor with an electric or kerosene light above (at 1
meter height) to provide heat for the piglets.
63
A farrowing crate will prevent many piglets from being laid on.
64
Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets
A solution with a rehydration medicine (or a weak mixture of salt and sugar) can be
given to the weak piglet by a syringe, with or without a tube, or in the feed if the piglet is
able to feed by itself.
65
Prevention is better than cure. Make certain that all piglets receive iron and that the sow
is fully protected by de-worming and that the usual vaccination program against diseases
has been undertaken well before farrowing.
Hygiene standards in the farrowing house must be very high. It is essential to completely
clean, wash and disinfect between successive occupancies.
66
Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets
Male piglets that are not selected for breeding can be castrated at the age of 2 weeks old
(easy to handle and wounds heal quickly).
67
4. Check list for the lactating sow and piglets
1. Vaginal discharge that is white indicates an uterine infection.
2. Udder hot and lumpy indicates infected udder (mastitis).
3. Sow lying on her stomach and not letting the piglets suckle indicates udder discomfort:
congested or sore by piglets not having their eye-teeth clipped.
4. Sow lacks energy and/or is irritated, indicates that the sow is unwell which will cause her to
stop looking after her piglets. Check her temperature!
5. Sow not finishing her feed may indicate feeding too much, or water is not available, or she
is unwell.
6. Piglets become thin and hairy, but not scouring, indicates lack of milk. If they are white and
scouring, they may suffer from iron deficiency.
7. Piglets always restless and worrying the sow indicates piglets are not receiving enough milk.
8. Too many piglets squashed indicates piglets are too cold and sleeping to close to the sow, or
that they are not getting sufficient milk, or that the sow is not properly contained.
9. Piglets piling-up indicates they are cold and miserable.
10. Scabby face and knees indicate fighting at feeding time because piglets are not getting
enough milk. Knee abrasions only, mean that the floor is too rough.
11. Piglets scouring yellow is milk-scour; the sow may be giving too much milk. White or
reddish scour may be bacterial scour and needs antibiotic treatment.
12. Sow not dunging or manure is in hard balls indicates that the sow is constipated. This leads
to the sow becoming uncomfortable causing milk problems.
68
Chapter 9: Nursing and weaning piglets
Newly weaned pigs are very vulnerable: the acquired maternal immunity plus their own
immunity levels are very low. Only after 5 weeks is their own immunity (by field challenge
and/or by vaccinations) at a reasonable level to give protection against diseases.
Own immunity
Maternal immunity
3 weeks 5 weeks
4 weeks
For the early weaned piglet every thing is critical: health and hygiene, nutrition and
housing. Everything in the nursery pen must be completely cleaned and disinfected
before a new group of weaner piglets is introduced.
69
We must provide comfort zones
for the very young piglets,
especially for the early weaners.
Young piglets have almost no
tolerance to environmental
changes. A draft free and warm
comfort zone must be available
to piglets at all times.
The feeding regime for weaned piglets can be as follows (based on exotic/improved breeds
with good feeds):
• Start feeding newly weaned piglets (4 weeks old) 200 - 250g per piglet per day.
• Increase the ration each following week by 100g per piglet per day.
• At 8 weeks (1 months later) they are fed 600 - 700g per piglet per day (3 times more
than at the start).
70
Chapter 9: Nursing and weaning piglets
The young piglet grows very fast. Under good management it almost triples in size during
8 weeks in nursery. From 4 weeks weighing 6 – 7 kg to 12 weeks weighing 15 – 20 kg (weights
are for commercial pig breeds). Its growth performance during the nursery period, deter-
mines its potential for efficient growth in the fattening period (fattening to 60 - 80 - 100 kg).
8 weeks nursery.
71
2. Feeding and housing of weaners
72
Chapter 9: Nursing and weaning piglets
73
3. Handling and transporting pigs
When a truck loaded with pigs halts for a rest in the shade, pigs can be sprinkled with
water to reduce high temperatures. After arrival, pigs should take a rest for around 30
minutes and then be given water and feed.
74
Chapter 10: Growing and fattening pigs
Respiratory problems
manifest themselves as
coughing, sneezing, snout
distortions due to rhinitis,
pneumonia due to viruses and
bacteria.
75
Intestinal problems, e.g. swine
dysentery and viral intestinal
infections, may result in diarrhea
and/or blood in the manure.
76
Chapter 10: Growing and fattening pigs
77
On large pig farms, self-feeders
are sometimes used. If properly
managed, they save labor and
pigs always have fresh feed.
78
Chapter 10: Growing and fattening pigs
1. Feeder is too small for number of pigs. This gives too much competition at the feed trough.
2. Too many pigs in the pen results in slower and uneven growth, and sometimes social vices
such as tail-biting.
3. Insufficient access to water, usually through too few drinkers per pen. All pens must have
at least two drinkers in case one breaks.
4. Drinkers installed incorrectly so pigs have difficulty getting water.
5. Sick pigs must be treated promptly, or their condition will rapidly deteriorate and they
may die.
6. Bad edges on the slats or slats with gaps too wide will cause foot and leg damage.
7. Pigs showing social vices and their victims must be both promptly dealt with to avoid
losses.
8. Unevenness of size of pigs in a pen must trigger an alarm. Is there too much competition
for space, feeder or water? The cause must be found and corrected rapidly.
9. Dirty pens, especially in the feeding area, indicate pigs do not feel comfortable. The reason
must be found and corrected. Too hot? Too drafty? Floor uneven? Sloped the wrong way?
Pigs ill?
10. Gate divisions (piped fencing) over solid areas of the pen do not help the pig in deciding
where to sleep and where to dung. Use a solid wall on a solid floor for the sleeping area.
79
3. Check list for growing and fattening pigs
80
Chapter 11: Production records and control
1. Record keeping
ear tagging
ear notching
81
Farm records are kept with
the pigs, so relevant
information is available when
tending the pigs. Important is
the “sow production card” to
verify that each sow is
performing satisfactorily.
Also a weekly activity sheet should be maintained to monitor all the stages of production.
This sheet needs to record especially the number of pigs at different ages, breeding herd
productivity and the feed utilization.
82
Chapter 11: Production records and control
2. Production targets
An important factor affecting piglets weaned per litter is the number of live healthy piglets born.
In a growing herd, the pigs must grow fast and efficiently to reach their
desired slaughtering weight. Performance is related to 4 components:
1) minimal mortality, 2) good growth rate,
3) low feed cost, 4) high feed conversion.
83
There are 5 main targets for good
growth rates and a sample of pigs
should be check-weighed at each of
these stages.
Stage Target (white breeds)
1) Birth 1.2 - 1.5 kg
2) 4 weeks 6.0 - 7.0 kg
3) 12 weeks 15 - 20 kg
4) 18 weeks 40 - 50 kg
5) 24 weeks 70 - 80 kg
Pig mortality reduces the number of pigs for sale. Pig mortality
must be minimized in all stages – not just in the suckling period.
Stage Max. allowable mortality
1) Suckling 12 %
2) Nursery 3%
3) Grower/finshers 2%
84
Chapter 12: Health control of pigs
The most import daily routine to keep diseases away is by keeping the farm tidy and
clean. This means that manure is removed every day from the pen (or drops through the
slats). Manure pits or compost heaps should be removed from time to time and put on
the gardens or in the fields to fertilize the plants.
85
Change into work clothes that are
used only in the pig unit. Do not
wear these clothes to visit other pig
farmers. Clothes and shoes can
pass on diseases.
86
Chapter 12: Health control of pigs
For growing pigs maintain strict age separation, so pigs born in the same weeks are kept
together. This will minimize disease spreading from older to younger pigs.
If necessary separate smaller or weaker piglets from dominating bigger piglets. This will
prevent the weaker piglets becoming even weaker as they can not eat enough.
87
2. Principles of disease prevention
There are 3 types of disease prevention:
Intra-muscular (IM)
vaccinations are in the
neck or in the hind-
quarters. Big pigs need
to be restrained.
88
Chapter 12: Health control of pigs
We must be careful as new pigs may carry diseases that can cause problems in our herd.
These new introductions need to be kept for 2 - 3 weeks in a quarantine pen isolated from
the pig farm. During this time it will be apparent if the new pigs have diseases or not.
Provide plenty of good quality feed and water.
Pig Farm
Quarantine Pen
Resident Herd
After quarantine, the new Introductions
animals are introduced to the
herd. They should be allowed
to adjust to each other and the
new environment for a period
of around 3 - 4 weeks, before
they are used for breeding.
89
We therefore need to watch carefully the introductions when they are brought from the
quarantine pen into the pig pen. During this period of 3 - 4 weeks of adjustment they will
be exposed to the resident herd micro flora so that immunity can be acquired.
90
Chapter 13: Pig diseases Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
Foot & Mouth
Disease vaccine
Classical Swine Fever is caused by a virus. It occurs in outbreaks and can result in the death
of many pigs. The virus is transmitted by sick animals and by meat from infected pigs. It
may survive in the environment for a few days and can be destroyed by disinfectants.
8. Dead.
Treatment: There are no medicines which can kill the virus. Affected pigs will die.
Prevention:
• To prevent the disease, pigs should be vaccinated with
Classical Swine Fever vaccine.
• During an outbreak, dead pigs should be buried to Classical
reduce transmission of the virus and healthy pigs should Swine Fever
be kept away from sick pigs. vaccine
• Do not transport sick pigs or meat from pigs that are (freeze-dried)
suspected to have the virus.
91
2. Foot and Mouth Disease
Foot and Mouth Disease is caused by a virus. Outbreaks of FMD occur in cattle, buffalo,
pigs, sheep and goats. In pigs lesions develop on the feet, snout and mammary glands. The
lesions are worse on the feet than on the snout. The walk is painful and pigs want to lie
down. Sows may not allow piglets to suckle because of painful sores on and around the teats.
1. At the snout small blisters 2. Blisters and wounds develop around and
develop into open wounds. between the hooves. The hoof may fall off.
Prevention:
• Vaccination with FMD vaccine will prevent this disease.
• When there is a disease outbreak, animal movement should Foot and Mouth
be stopped so that non-infected animals do not come into Disease vaccine
close contact with infected animals.
92
Chapter 13: Pig diseases Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
Foot & Mouth
Disease vaccine
3. Roundworms
There are many types of roundworms that can live in the stomach, intestine or lungs of
pigs. They cause illness, weight loss and poor growth. The most important is a large
white worm (Ascaris suum). This worm lives in the small intestine and mostly affects
young pigs between 2 - 4 months of age.
Prevention:
• Pigs raised in a clean pen can be treated for worms every
3 months.
• If not kept in a clean pen, pigs should be treated every 4 weeks.
• Newly procured pigs should be treated immediately on arrival. Parasiticides
• Pregnant sows should be dewormed 4 weeks before farrowing.
93
4. Diarrhoea in piglets
This disease can be caused by many different microbes, both bacteria and viruses. These
microbes can enter healthy pigs when they eat feed or water that is contaminated with
faeces from affected pigs. The microbes go to live in the small or large intestine.
Diarrhoea usually occurs in young pigs from the age of 1 week to 3-4 months.
Treatment: Prevent dehydration by giving fluids with a weak mixture of salt and sugar.
Vitamins and antibiotics can also help to make the pig stronger.
Name of Medicine Method, Dose and Schedule
1
2
Prevention:
• Keeping pigs in a clean pen is important
especially for sows with piglets. Nutrient medicines
• Sows with young piglets should be raised
separately from other older, growing pigs.
• Healthy pigs should be kept away from sick pigs.
94
Chapter 13: Pig diseases Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
Foot & Mouth
Disease vaccine
5. Erysipelas
Erysipelas is an infectious disease caused by a bacteria that mainly affects young pigs (it
can also affect humans). Pigs show signs of red diamond-shaped plaques on the skin; the
spinal cord, joints and heart may be affected and it can kill the pig.
Prevention:
• Pigs should be raised in a clean pen.
• During an outbreak, healthy pigs should be kept Antibiotics
away from sick pigs.
95
6. Mange
This disease is caused by a mite that lives in the skin. It is very small and cannot be seen by
the naked eye. The pig becomes irritated and scratches itself frequently. The affected skin
becomes red, crusted and thick. The pig does not eat well and grows poorly.
Transmission
occurs by close
contact with
affected pigs.
Mites live in the skin around the eyes, ears, snout, legs and
body. The pig scratches frequently and the affected skin is red,
crusted and thick. The pig does not eat well and grows poorly.
Prevention:
• Affected pigs should be treated immediately and
kept away from unaffected pigs.
• Pregnant sows should be treated 4 weeks before
farrowing to prevent mange. Parasiticides
• Newly procured pigs should be treated immediately “Ivomec”
on arrival. (Ivermectin)
96
Chapter 13: Pig diseases Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
Foot & Mouth
Disease vaccine
7. Cysticercosis
Cysticercosis is caused by a tapeworm that lives in humans. This tapeworm produces
eggs that are passed in the faeces. When a pig eats human faeces, the eggs hatch to
become larvae that migrate to the muscles where they form cysts. When humans eat pig
meat that contains the cyst, the cyst grows into a large tapeworm in the intestine.
Humans get ill from these worms. More dangerously, when tapeworm eggs are eaten
directly by humans, cysts may develop in the brain causing nervous disease.
Treatment pigs: There is no medicine to kill the worms and cysts in the pig muscles.
Treatment humans: Commonly available parasiticides for humans can kill the large tapeworm.
Prevention:
• To prevent pigs having cysts in their muscles, pigs must be kept away from human
faeces. People should use latrines and pigs should be kept in pens.
• To prevent human ingestion of cysts from pig meat, the meat should be very well
cooked before being eaten to destroy the cysts.
• To prevent human ingestion of worm eggs, people should wash hands after toilet and
before touching food.
97
Improved Rural Pig Production
98
1. Á¸-²ñ ¹´ø - Breeds
1 ¹´øì
- ¾©¯½À²© 1 Muladt type 1 2 ¹´øì
- ¾©¯½À²© 2 Muladt type 2
3 ¹´øì
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-
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5 ¹´ø²
-
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-
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-
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-
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99
2. ¡¾£ñ©Àìõº¡ Á¸-²ñ ¹´ø Selection
1 ¹´ø°ì
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3 ¹´øÁ´ú쾩êú©
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7 ìø¡§º©¥½Ã¹û°
ö °½¹ìò©©ó Crosses perform well 8 Àìõº¡¹´øªêúÃó ¹¨úĸ Select fast growing pigs
100
3. £º¡ Áì½ ²£º¡¹´ø Pig pens and floors
1 ®úº§í»ö´
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- ¡
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3 £º¡ ¨
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101
4. »¾¤º¾-¹¾ Áì½ »¾¤Õ Feeders and drinkers
1 §
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3 »
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7 ùûÕÁ®®êö¸
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ú į Simple water supply -2
102
5. º¾¹¾: ¦úò¤À¦©-À¹ùõº¥¾¡¡¾°½ìò©¡½¦ò¡¿ Áì½ ²õ© Nutrition:
by-products and crops
103
6. º¾¹¾: ¡¾¯÷¤Áªú¤º¾¹¾¦ñ©Á®®²®û¾
Nutrition:
traditional feed processing
5 ºñ©ª¾¦ú¸ êú¥
ó ½¯÷¤Áªú¤ Home-made feed ratio 6 Á¯û¤¦¾ìó ¹ìõ Á¯û¤À¢í¾- Milling maize (or rice)
104
7. º¾¹¾: º¾¹¾¦¿Àìñ©»ø® Nutrition:
commercial feed practices
1 º¾¹¾¹´øº
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3 º¾¹¾¹´ø²Á
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ò ©
ñ ªú¾¤Å Different feed companies
5 ¯½¦ö´º¾¹¾Àºö¾Àº¤ Mixing own feed 6 À¢í¾ Áì½ ¦¾ìó Rice and maize
105
8. -¡¾©øÁì À®úò¤Á¨¤ ¹´øûº¨ Piglet care
3 À- §ñ©¹´øº
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5 £º¡ºö®¹´øº
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û ¨ Teeth clipping
106
9. Á´ú¹´ø ùûö´ Áì½ ìø¡ ¢º¤´ñ Lactating sows and their
piglets
3 £º¡À¡ó©ìø¡²®û¾ Local farrowing pen 4 £º¡À¡ó©, £º¡¹´øûº¨ Farrowing pen, piglet box
5 £º¡²®û¾, £º¡¹´øûº¨ Local pen, piglet box 6 ±¾¡ì½¹¸ú¾¤Á´ú - ìø¡ Partition sow - piglets
7 º¾¹¾¹´øº
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107
10. ¡¾-¥ñ®®ñ¤£ñ® Áì½ ¡¾¦ñ¡µ¾¯ûº¤¡ñ Handling and vaccination
3 ¦ñ¡µ¾Ã¹û¹´ø êú£
ó
û÷ Injection quiet pig 4 -¦ñ¡µ¾Ã¹û¹´øêúó«õ¡¥ñ®®ñ¤£ñ® Injection restrained pig
5 ¦ñ¡¡û¾´§¹´øº
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108
11. ²½¨¾© Áì½ £¸¾´°ò©¯ö¡½ªò ¢º¤ »ú¾¤¡¾¨¹´ø Diseases and abnormalities
1 »úº¤»º¨²½¨¾©¯¾¡À¯õº
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109
12. ¡¾-ªº¹´ø Castration
5 À¡ñ®ªö¸µú¾¤Àìõº© µø¹
ú ¹
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¡¾-¯Â£¤-
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Livestock
RuralProject
Pig Production
110
14. ³
- ¾´ìû¼¤¹´øÁ
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1 £
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û ¨Ã£º¡ìû¼¤ Piglets in nursery
3 ¹
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111
15. »ø®²¾®ªú¾¤Å ¡ú¼¸¡ñ® ¹´ø Other pig pictures
3 ¢¾¨¹´ø êúª
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7 ²Ò²
ñ ¡¿ìñ¤¨ú¾¤ Walking boar 8 º¾®Õùû¹´ø ²Ò²
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112
PIG PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR
PIGGERY FARMERS
Contents Page
INTRODUCTION................................................................. 6
Advantages of Pig Production............................................. 6
PIG MANAGEMENT........................................................... 30
Daily routines....................................................................... 30
Management of pregnant Sows ......................................... 32
2
Farrowing and Care of Newborn Piglets ............................ 33
Weaning.............................................................................. 36
Early Weaning..................................................................... 37
Record Keeping................................................................... 38
MARKETING ANDPROCESSING...................................... 60
Marketing............................................................................. 60
Kafanchan Pig Market......................................................... 61
Sources of Piglets............................................................... 62
Processing.......................................................................... 62
Transportation .................................................................... 62
Carcass and Meat Quality .................................................. 63
Meat Hygiene...................................................................... 66
3
APPENDICES.................................................................... 67
Summary of Management Practices .................................. 67
Glossary.............................................................................. 69
An individual Sow Record .................................................. 70
Boar Performance Record Sheet........................................ 71
Herd Performance Record ................................................. 72
Examples of Pig Production Record .................................. 73
Life Time Record for Sow.................................................... 74
4
INTRODUCTION
5
cost and scarcity of grains and concentrates have been major
constraints to poultry and pig production in the tropics. 3. Pigs
are the most efficient animals for converting kitchen wastes and
other non-conventional feedstuffs into meat.
6
PIG PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
The common systems of keeping pigs include the following:
1. Extensive or Free-Range (Scavengers)
The tree-range system is the traditional method of rearing pigs in most
parts of the world. The system is cheap as it requires little investment. It
also requires minimal management. Each family keeps a few (one to
three) sows per herd which are allowed to scavenger or wander freely
and pick up food when and where they can. Feed costs on range
system may be about 20-25% less than with intensive rearing method.
No special housing other than for night shelter is required and there is
minimum disease control (Fig. 1 ).
7
Pigs under this system are given supplementary feeds. This makes
them have attachment to their owners. Examples of feeds given are
kitchen wastes, farm by-products such as cassava peels, brans of
cereals,fiuit pulps and maize cobs. This technique of supplementary
feeding to pigs makes them come back home daily to the farmer. Local
breeds of pigs predominate the free range system because they are
more highly adapted.
The disadvantages of the system though are numerous, losses
are high and productivity is low with the erratic and often seasonal food
supplies. This can result in irregular breeding of sows, slow growth
rate and high piglet mortality. Breeding is indiscriminate as no
particular attention is paid to selection of pigs on desirable traits. They
are particularly susceptible to infestation by parasites from various
sources.
2. Semi-Intensive
In this system, the animals are restricted to a limited area and
therefore the farmer takes the whole responsibility of feeding them.
Once in ‘- while, the pigs are allowed into the fenced larger yard to
graze, wallow and exercise. Housing is mainly of very simple
construction and made from simple and inexpensive materials like
mud, bamboo and elevated thatched roof (fig 2). The animals are fed
on kitchen wastes, food by-products etc, and some level of managerial
skills are required. Productivity is better than under the free range and
therefore the herd sizes are bigger. Indigenous breeds are still
prevalent in this system but crosses between local and exotic breeds
are more commonly available.
Many small holder pig fanners practice the extensive system during
the cby season and the semi-intensive system during the rainy season
to prevent damage to crops. In this regard therefore, no fenced yards
are provided.
8
The housing provided for night shelter during the dry season is the
same as that used during the wet seasons. The semi-intensive system
can be recommended for small holders and beginning pig farmers. The
fanner can expand herd size and grow into a more intensive
management system with experience and a conducive marketing
environment. It is also easier to cut down should the prevailing
conditions demand a reduction in herd size.
9
Fig. 3: A Well Constructed Pig House.
10
Pig houses can be constructed above the ponds so that the manure
can drop straight into the fish ponds. T1lapia species offish are most
commonly used, often mixed with small population of carp and cat fish.
Pig manure can be used as organic manure to enrich soil for vegetable
gardening. While residues from vegetable products are in turn fed to
pigs.
4. Piggery Enterprises
Since profit motivation is the major determinant for commercial pig
production, it is always better to start on a small scale and then expand
as more experience is gained. Essentially, there are four pig
production enterprises.
b. Farrow only - The farmer keeps a sow herd which produces weaners
which he sells to growing and finishing operators.
The beginning farmer or pig producer who wants to expand must take
stock of the market needs of his environment and the level of
resources available to him to decide which of these enterprises to
invest in as wen as the level of investment.
11
PIG HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT
The most productive pigs are likely to be those confined in
athermally neutral environment, where the pig neither uses feed
energy to keep warm nor reduces feed intake to keep cool. The
purpose of housing for pigs is to provide an environment that will
enable the pig to grow or breed optimally.
Pig housing must therefore aim at:
a. Protection from climatic extremes e.g. direct solar
adiation, rain, wind. etc.
b. Allowing for inherent behaviour patterns of the pigs and
minimize over crowding.
c. Provision of dry bedding conditions that do not predipose the
pig to diseases.
d. Allowing accessibility to food and clean water.
e. Ensuring easy movement of the stockman.
f. Effective disposal of effluent.
g. Cost effectiveness in housing construction.
Adequate considerations must be given to factors that will check
effects of excess heat and humidity. It is important to minimize
temperature variations by keeping the pigs cool on hot days and warm
on cold nights. Also, the rapid growth of pigs emphasizes the need for a
specific environment for each class of pigs for optimum growth and
development. The pig producer must have access to expert
information on appropriate housing designs and investment costs for
pig housing in his environment.
1. Choice of Site
The location of a pig unit should ensure that there is free air movement
and good natural ventilation. This can be achieved by facing the
building north-south, to avoid excessive penetration of sun light into the
pens, preventing problems of sun burns, scorching and heat stress.
12
Also, the site should preferably not be too exposed to cold. The
buildings should be on a slight slope to allow drainage and disposal of
eft1uent. The slope also makes it easier to design a pig-flow with the
farrow house at the top of slope and the fattening pens at the lower end.
This prevents cross-infection trom effluent between piglets and the
adult pigs. Again access road, water sources and space for expansion
must be put into consideration.
2. Flooring
Hard concrete or similar floors are recommended even in low
cost buildings made of local materials. This prevents the pigs
from rooting and digging up the ground and also permits cleaning
which minimizes the build-up of diseases and parasites. The
floor should
provide insulation against both cold and damp. Also the nature
of the floor surface is important. If the surface is too smooth
and slippery the animals fall and can cause injuries. If it is too
rough or abrasive, this can result in damage to feet and udders.
3. Walls
The walls should be of strong materials to restrain the pig and
ensure protection. Suitable materials include mud, wood,
bamboo sticks, stones and cement blocks. Provision should be
made for suitable flaps, windows and doors which can be opened
to allow maximum ventilation during hot periods and closed to
contain warmth at colder times. Smooth walls are most ideal.
4. Roofing
This is for shade and protection of the pigs from rain, sun, etc.
They can be made of traditional materials such as grass, reeds,
leaves, straws, thatch etc, which are ideal in the tropics from an
insulation view point.
13
They do have the advantage of keeping the house cooler.
Unfortunately however, they are very prone to tire hazards, and are of
low durability. They can become breeding ground for rats and other
pests. Aluminum or corrugated iron sheets can be used but they should
be sufficiently high that there is room for plenty of air movement. On an
apex roof provide raised bridge or other arrangement to allow for the
escape of hot air and air movement.
5. Space Requirement
Over-crowding is a common cause of depressed performance
and low productivity in pigs. Therefore, this must be considered in
pig house design. Weight, number of pigs per group, air
temperature, methods of feeding, ventilation and floor design are
factors that affect space requirement. About 10-30 animals per
group is desirable during weaning to market weight. See space
recommendation in tables 2A and 2B.
14
Table 2A: Space requirement for various categories of
Pigs.
Liveweight Floor Area per Pig
15
6. Multipurpose Pig Pens
Although there are advantages in providing separate housing for the
different categories of pigs, a multipurpose pig house may be used.
They can be cheaper and more flexible. Removable structures such as
creep barriers and farrowing rails provide protection for the piglets and
make the pens suitable for farrowing. At weaning, these are removed,
leaving a fattening pen in which the weaners can be fattened through to
slaughter. (Fig. 4).
16
Figure 5: A farrowing crate
c. Weaner Cages: The young pigs weaned uom their sows and with a
change in their diet may become susceptible to diseases particularly
digestive diseases which can result in fairly heavy mortality of
weaners. To minimise this problem, weaner cages which are made of
covered solid-floor, sleeping, eating and dunging areas can be used.
Pigs can huddle and generate enough heat for their comfort inside the
covered kennel section of the cage. In hot weather, the pigs keep cold
by laying out on the mash floors and are protected from the sun by an
umbrella roof over all the cages. Dung and urine fall through the wire
mesh or slats, which is easily cleaned. Pigs normally remain in the
cages for 3-4 weeks before being transferred to fattening houses
(Fig.6).
17
Fig. 6: A Weaner Cage
18
Fig. 7: Hurdle for Separating Pigs.
19
Indigenous Breed:
The indigenous pigs (fig 8)are usually of modest size with adults
reaching 100kg maximum but rarely weigh more than 60kg at one year
of age even under the best rearing conditions. In general the
indigenous breeds have smaller and shorter legs than exotic types with
the typical unimproved conformation of a large head, well developed
forequarters and relatively light hind quarters. These render them more
mobile and better able to forage and root for themselves.
They are sexually early maturing and females may show first
oestrus as early as three months of age. The skin is often black, brown
or occasionally spotted but rarely white. Generally, they are adapted to
traditional rearing systems in which the food consists of diverse
vegetable waste products. Indigenous sows show excellent
mothering ability, which results in very low piglet mortality without
sophisticated housing.
20
ii. Exotic Breeds:
Exotic breeds were first brought in from Europe and constitute
the commercial herds being reared under semi-intensive and
intensive management systems. The following exotic breeds have
been tried and are of significance in Nigeria.
a. Large White (Yorkshire): A very popular breed throughout the
world. It is fast growing, strong-framed with good body length. It
is renowned for its strength of legs. The females are prolific good
mothers and adapt well to confinement conditions. The breed is
widely distributed in Africa and is used extensively for cross-
breeding. For instance, the Large White X Landrace female is the
most popular cross for commercial production. The white hair
and skin render the carcass more acceptable to consumers than
that from the coloured breed. However, shade and wallows are
essential for the breeds to prevent skin from sun bums (Fig. 9).
21
B. Danish Landrace: The breed is easily known by its
forwardpointing loop ears. It is characterised by a long, smooth body
with light shoulders and well developed hams (Fig. 10). The breed is
prolific with excellent mothering ability and produces lean, fast-growing
progeny. The landrace has a higher level of susceptibility to stress than
some other breeds. It is highly favoured for cross breeding purposes.
22
Fig. 11: Duroc Breed
23
e. Berkshire: The breed is easily identified by its black coat and
characteristic white feet and nose. It is a smaller, early-maturing pig
which was first developed in England for the pork trade. In the tropics,
it has proved very hardy and cross well with the indigenous stock.
However, the Berkshire breed is on the decline on a world wide basis
which may be due to its carcass that is relatively fatty.
1. Breeding
The pig farmer, no matter how good, cannot do better than the
animal’s genetic potential for production. Improvements in productive
parameters can thus be achieved only by selection of animals with
superior genetic make-up as the parents for the next generation.
Since the primary objective of pig fanning is for meat production, the
farmer must learn to select those animals that can be manipulated
through breeding and management in order to tap that animal’s
optimum potential for meat production.
24
Figure 13: Typicasl corss breeding programme
25
group of pigs. Add the total feed consumption of the group that was
fed together and divide by the total weight gain of all the group to
get the feed efficiency of the group.
c. Litter Size: Is important, but it is a low heritable trait. Select
breeders from amongst large, healthy and well performing litters.
d. Conformation and Sex Characteristics: Pigs selected for
breeding must be physically healthy, have good strong legs, be
free from any defects and must not be too fat. It is important to note
that the genetic influence of the boar on the next generation is
greater than that of the sow since one boar will be used to mate
several sows. Boars must have two equally sized and firmly
suspended testicles, exhibit sex drive and be void of bad habits.
Gilts must have a good underline and udder with at least 12 well
spaced, fully formed teats.
e. Other Selection Criteria: For the small-scale farmer, the above
four criteria are adequate but for the large scale farmer and pig
breeding or testing stations, other criteria are commonly in use.
These include: furrowing rate, number of still born litter, average
pig birth weight, pigs weaned per litter furrowed, average weaning
weight, loin muscle area, carcass length, back fat depth, fat depth,
percent lean, mortality rate at weaning and in growing finishing
stage. Table 3 gives performance guidelines for assessing
production profile of exotic pigs under intensive management
conditions.
26
More females can be served if hand-mating is used. Care
should be taken to avoid overworking the boar. Boars are at their best
between 15 months to four years of age.
The gilt should not be bred before seven months of age. The
advantage of an older age is that the number of eggs ovulated
increases through the third or fourth estrous period. Furthermore,
signs of estrous in young gilts may be less obvious and of shorter
duration especially under confinement. The number of gilts per pen
should not be more than 15.
27
C. It prevents transmission of diseases from farm to farm by
the sale of boars
d. It helps to overcome the practical problems of differences
in size of males and females. On occasions, this problem can
severely limit the use of heavy boars of high genetic caliber.
e. It eliminates the need to purchase, house and feed a
boar especially on small scale pig farming.
f. It reduces the farmer’s risk of handling boars for natural
service.
28
V. Sows become restless and give characteristic ‘grunt’.
Recently, devices have been developed which measure the electrical
resistance of the vaginal mucosa. As this varies in relation to honnonal
levels, it can be used to predict more accurately the timing of ovulation
and hence the optimum timing of insemination. This will reduce the
likelihood of sows returning to service or producing small litters.
There is also the practice of inducing estrous and ovulation by
judicious administration of certain hormonal or honnone -like
substances. Sows in which estrous is induced during lactation do not
show strong signs of heat as do those coming into estrous normally.
Therefore, more careful observations for estrous must be made.
PIG MANAGEMENT
Good stocksmanship is a basic requirement for successful
livestock production. The animals must be given adequate care
before the farmer can expect his animals to produce to optimum
capacity.
1. Daily Routines
a. Animal Inspection: Inspect animals early in the morning and
watch out for any abnormal behaviour. Observe their
general stage of health, check for parasites and injuries.
Inspect at other times for same parameters.
29
30
be given in quantities that pigs can consume within 20 - 30
minutes. Left-over feed tends to get sour and become a
breeding ground for parasites. Watch out for any abnormal
feeding habits. In order to avoid competition for feed
between piglets and dam, provide a creep where the pigs
can feed without being disturbed by the dam.
31
All sows should be checked periodically to detect any one that has
returned to estrous so that they can be served again. The sows should
be kept in small groups to ensure that they all have access to adequate
feed. The feeds should be well fortified in order to meet the needs of
both the dam and foetuses. Feeding of green leaves and vegetable is
particularly important. Heat stress has been recognised to be a major
source of embryo losses especially during early pregnancy. It is
therefore important that pregnant sows should be shielded from
extremes of heat especially during the hottest months of the year
through the provision of shades and wallows.
32
Many losses of newborn piglets are caused by stress due to chilling.
The stockman must be ready to prevent this by providing extra source
of heat. Also, piglets must be encouraged to obtain their first successful
.suckle of colostrum within 45 minutes after birth. Colostrum is the most
important food a piglet takes in during the first few hours ofits life,
because it is a source of both essential energy and antibodies. Failure
to obtain colostrum will invariably result in susceptibility to diseases
and death of the newborn baby pig.
Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked
for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable
system (Fig 14). It is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent
potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the
dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this
reduces the possibility of navel infections colostrum will invariably
result in susceptibility to diseases and death of the newborn baby pig.
Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked
for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable
system (Fig 14). It is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent
potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the
dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this
reduces the possibility of navel infections
.
Fig. 14: Ear Notching System.
Since sow milk (Fig 15) is very low in iron, oral or injectable iron
preparations are administered to the piglets in confinement to reduce
the development of iron deficiency anemia. In the absence of iron
preparation.1 a shovel of red (iron rich) soil thrown into the pen has
been known to source of iron for piglets under Nigerian conditions, but
this may not adequate for optimum growth. Injections are made prior
to 5 days of age, while oral preparations to the piglets are usually given
continuously in soluble form. Male piglets not retained for big should
be castrated after one month of age. The piglets can gradually be
introduced to creep feed after two weeks.
Fig. I5 Dam Suckling Piglets
4. Weaning:
Weaning is the practice of separating the young pigs from their mother.
It usually exerts stress on the young. Weaning is normally
accomplished when pigs are from 6-9 weeks of age, when they should
be capable of subsisting on solid feeds and fending forthemse1ves.
Body weight and health condition are better criteria than age per se.
Exotic breeds should be weaned at weights of 5-6kg. It must be
emphasised that superior management, rigid environment control and
continuous attention to minute details are essential for success in this
phase of growth.
Other changes should be gradually effected at weaning. Do
not abruptly change the ration, but for a few days, continue feeding
creep feed mixed with weaner ration and then finally eliminate the
creep feed completely at about two weeks after weaning.
5. Early Weaning
Recent developments in the commercial industry are in favour of early
weaning at about 4 weeks. The advantages are:
a. Losses in piglets due to overlying and starving are significantly
reduced.
b. Pigs can be adequately fed, and lack of uniformity in a litter can be
overcome.
c. Cost in sow feed can be slashed.
d. The sow looses less weight during nursing.
e. The dam can be rebred sooner to produce more litters.
f. Better producing sows can be retained for longer period.
g. Early weaning allows for streamlining of the production and market
supply; both weaners and market hogs can be sold.
A very high level of management is required for early weaning
and therefore it is not in general practice. However, a technique of
‘split’ weaning can be beneficial, whereby the large piglets are weaned
first and the small ones are left with the dam and weaned later.
6. Weaners and Growers
The 3 week period immediately after weaning is a critical one for
the young pigs because a number of stresses may be encountered.
After pigs have overcome the stress of weaning and are feeding
properly, deworm them for the first time. Group the pigs according to
age and size. Large litters should be grouped together. This provides
an opportunity to record their feed consumption up to the time of
selection (at 5 months of age) and enhances the determination of feed
efficiency. Sick pigs should be separated for treatment. If there is need,
some weaner pigs can be sold at two months of age. Others (not for
sale) can be raised on self-fed rations until the finishing stage. At the
age of five months, the live weight of a fully grown pig should be 64-
80kg.
This means the pig is expected to gain 0.55 to O.68kg per day
over a period of three months. By then a healthy pig should be sexually
matured. Separate gilts and boars because the boars usually start
ranting. This is the time to select which pigs should be kept as
replacements in the breeding herd and which should be finished for
market.
7. Record Keeping
The keeping of accurate records is absolutely essential for the
success of any pig enterprise. It gives a clear picture of the type of
operations, so that the exact degree of success can be measured.
Therefore, a good record of the number of pigs in herd, feed
consumption, mortality, medication’ and sales, should be kept. Also on
reproduction, details of boar performance, sow productivity, weaners
growth and grower/finisher efficiency should be recorded. Examples
of pig records are given in Appendices 3,4 and 5.
3. Feedstuffs
Most natural feedstuffs contain more than one nutrient. A
knowledge of feedstuffs locally available to the farmer or pig feed
producer is therefore most useful. Because it is very important to cut
down on cost of feeds, there is constant search for cheaper sources of
alternative’ feedstuffs to the conventional ingredients. Table SA gives a
list of ingredients and their nutrient composition while Table SB gives
the list of some local feedstuffs that have been extensively researched
with limitations on their uses.
It is important to recognise that growth rate on feed made from
low quality feedstuffs is often less than that obtained on feeds
formulate from conventional ingredients as shown in Fig. 16. The
farmer must carefully consider the economic benefits of using one
feedstuff or the other before using them.
(Kg/head)
For pigs kept under extensive production system, the farmer may wish
to give only some kind of concentrate supplement e.g. groundnut cake.
If however, he has access to a crop like soyabean cheaply, he may wish
to mix a ration using soyabean with a cereal by-product such as rice
offal. How can such a farmer prepare a 15% protein ration from
roasted/boiled soyabean and rice offal?
The calculation of the proportion of soyabeans and rice offal that will
be mixed to give 100kg of 15% protein ration can be done by:
a. Algebraic Method:- Which is as follows:
Therefore B = ~ = 7l.4kg
0.35
88.40 0.10
0.25
RO.OS Total=0.35
QuantIty of Soyabean =
0.10 x 100 = 28.6kg.
0.35
Symptoms:
i. Loss of appetite in affected animals.
ii. Inflammation of the eyes.
iii. High body temperature.
iv. Severe diarrhea.
v. Discharge in the eye causing eyelids to stick together.
vi. Trembling and incoordination.
vii. Death often results after 7-8 days.
4. Processing:
The ability of the pig industry to market large quantities of pork is a
necessary condition for the commercial growth of the industry.
Processing outfits are capable of buying many animals at a time,
process them into different products and distribute these products to
any part of the world. Furthermore, processing makes it possible to
harness all the by-products and convert to other uses as:
5. Transportation:
Care must be taken while transporting pigs to the market or slaughter
house. Excessive stress on the pig can lead to mortality in transit.
a. Pigs to be transported should not be fed 12 hours before loading
b. Provide a loading ram if many pigs are to be transported at once to
the market. The loading ram should be properly designed to be at
the same height with the cart, truck or trailer.
c. Handle pigs with uttermost care
d. Spray with cold water before loading, if possible. e. L o a d a n d
travel early in the morning for short journeys or in the evening for all
night journeys. This is to ensure that journeys are made during the
cooler parts of the day.
f. The truck to be used should be covered but with provision for
adequate ventilation and bedding on the floor.
g. Avoid mixing pigs of different sizes, ages and herds.
Similar considerations should also apply at the lairage (i.e. where
pigs are held prior to slaughter). The pigs should be handled and
driven with care.
6. Slaughtering:
The standard slaughtering procedure involves:
i. Stunning - Mechanical with a captive bolt pistol or electrical which
involves passing a 1.25 amps current and 300-600 volts for one
second through the brain of the animal.
ii. Bleeding - The stunned animal is hanged on its hind leg on a hoist.
The neck is cut in such a way as to severe all veins. Blood can then be
collected in a clean vessel.
iii. Scalding -Immerse in hot water at 65-75 Degree Centigrade. Once
the hair is loosened, it is cramped with a knife. Excess hair is singed off
with a flame.
iv. Evisceration - To remove the gut, a long cut is made down the belly
of the animal. The entire length of the gut should be removed intact to
avoid contaminating the rest of the carcass. The gut is eviscerated
away from the carcass.
During Pregnancy:
Breeding Pigs:
* Treat pigs for external parasites and isolate sick ones* Mate sows or
gilts at least twice (24hrs. apart) at breeding time.
Farrowing Time:
*Prepare farrowing house in advance, clean and disinfect at
least 7 days before gilts are moved in.
*Allow rest period between farrowing.
*Keep farrowing unit warm.
Keep farrowing unit draft-tree i.e. no air intakes allowing
draft directly on pigs.
*Do not feed on the farrowing day.
Wash and spray gilts or sows with disinfectant prior to far
rowing.
*As part of pre-farrowing care, feed limited feed and laxative feed. *
*Give iron injection to piglets within 2-3 days. * Provide rail guards and
keep record of farrowing.
Lactating Period:
Ø Keep pigs in confinement for good observation and management.
Ø Maintain strict hygiene and keep predators away.
Ø Observe schedule for castration and vaccination, spread over2-3
weeks. Deworm pigs at weaning.
Ø Wean pigs at 7-9 weeks. Under good management 5-6 weeks could
serve.
Ø Feed good creep feed to ensure: fast growth, heavy weaning
weight and uniform litters.
Ø Provide for medication
Growing-finishing Pigs.
Feed balanced ration
Provide adequate housing free of drafts, dampness and dust
Deworm against internal parasites.
Confinement or pasture is good.
Schedule for vaccination should be observed. * Install facilities for
cooling pigs in hot weather.
APPENDIX 2 GLOSSARY:
GCP/NEP/065/EC
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Contents
Acknowledgements iii
Introduction iv
Breeds 1
Native Breeds 1
Jangali Bandel / Wild Boar 1
Pygmi Bandel 1
Hurra 2
Chwanche 2
Banmpudke 2
Pakhribas Black Pig 3
Dharane Kalo Banggur 3
Exotic Breeds 3
Yorkshire 4
Landrace 4
Hampshire 4
Duroc 5
Tibetan 5
Tamworth 6
Meishan 6
Crosses between native and exotic for Improvement of local breeds: 6
Breeding 9
Pure-breeding 9
Out breeding 9
In breeding 10
Effect of In-Breeding 10
Methods of cross breedy: 12
Cross breeding 12
Effect of Cross Breeding 13
Effect of Negative Selection 14
Best Breeding Practices to be Adopted in the Villages 15
Selection of Breeding Gilt 16
Selection of Breeding Boar 16
Heat detection - Common signs of heat 17
Feeding 33
Anatomy of the Digestive System 33
What you can feed to your pig? 34
What you cannot feed to you pig? 34
Formulation feed 35
Traditional pig feeds 36
Traditional feed processing 42
Feeding Forest Products 43
Feeding Alcohol distilling residues 43
Housing Management 47
How to keep a healthy pig 48
Effect of bad housing 49
Selection of housing locations 49
Construction plan for a good pig house/shed 50
Space requirement for pigs 51
Different models/types of pig house/sheds. 52
Parasitic diseases 55
Internal parasites (Worms) 55
References 75
Pygmi Bandel
Found in throughout northern India,
Bhutan, and Nepal. Smallest, adult males
average 65 cm long and 25 cm tall.
Females are slightly smaller. Males average
8.5 kg in weight. Their coats have blackish-
brown bristles over gray-brown skin.
Reproduction is seasonal, and the birth
peak coincides with the monsoon in late
April and May. Gestation is approximately
100 days and litters size 2 to 6, sexual
Hurra
Found in throughout Terai of Nepal. Kept
under scavenging systems. Their coats
have brown bristles on the neck portion.
Reached adultery at 226 days. Average
litter size is 5.72 and weaning size is
5.14 with birth weight 700gm. Matured
males average 45 and female 49 kg live
weight. Resistance to several diseases
and parasites.
Chwanche
Found in across the mid hills of Nepal.
Kept under semi-intensive systems.
Mostly found in black color. Reached
adultery at 219 days. Gestation period
is 114 days with farrowing interval of
222days. Average litter size is 7.33 and
weaning size is 6.0 with birth weight
800 gm. Matured males average 24 and
female 32 kg live weight. Resistance to
several diseases and parasites
Banmpudke
Bampudke is the domesticated form
of Jangali Bandel. Known as smallest
domesticated breed of pig. Color
varies red – brownish to black. Reached
adultery at 187 days. . Gestation period
is 114 days with farrowing interval of
138 days. Average litter size is 4.7 and
weaning size is 3.4 with birth weight
650 gm. Matured males average 20 and
female 19 kg live weight. Resistance to
several diseases and parasites
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
Pakhribas Black Pig
The Pakhribas Black Pig was Developed
at Pakhribas Agriculture Centre
Dhankuta Nepal through three ways
crossing between Saddleback, Fayun
and Tamworth. Black in color. Average
litter size is 9.4 and birth weight is 1.0 kg.
Matured male average 170 and female
160 kg live weight. Resistance to several
diseases and parasites, and superior over
other local breeds.
Exotic Breeds
The most common pig breeds for commercial pig production are the Yorkshire,
Landrace, Hampshire, Duroc, and Tibetan, Tamworth and Meishan breeds and their
crosses. These breeds produce lean meat combined with efficient feed conversion
(3 kg of good feed is needed to produce 1 kg of pork). Compared to local pig
breeds, these commercial breeds are less resistant to diseases and suffer more from
hot weather and low quality feeds. Pure exotic breeds generally do not perform
well in rural pig production systems in Nepal.
Landrace
Landrace: white, large drooping ears,
long body, good mothers. One of the
newest breeds of a Danish origin.
Hampshire
Hampshire: black, white belt, muscular.
Average live weight of matured male 300
kg and female is 250 kg.
Tibetan
The Tibetan breed of pig is especially
adapted to the high hills, cold climate
and to being on pasture all year round. It
is characterized by:
Light body weight (mature wt about 35
kg .)
Highly developed digestive organs; the length of the intestine is about 36 times its
own body length.
Ability to deposit fat in the body. The internal and visceral fat is about 15 percent of
bodyweight.
Low prolificacy, with average litter size of 5, weaning percent of 69, and 5 pairs of
teats.
Meishan
The Meishan breed of pig was developed
in China and characterized by:
A black colored breed with short legs, big
stomach, deep back and very ugly face
are the major visible features.
Daily weight gain is 300 – 400 gm with FCR 5:1. An adult male weight about 450 kg
and female weight 350 kg average.
Cross breed between wild boar and Cross breed between Exotic and local
local breed ( Hurra ) breed ( Hurra )
Cross breed between local and landrace. Cross breed between Chinese landrace
and local breed
Out breeding
Mating individuals of the same breed but who are less closely related than the
average of the breed. There should not be a common ancestor for at least four
generation back in the pedigree of the boar and the females with which he is
mated. It is a useful mating system in purebred individuals.
Piglets born
In breeding
Mating between individuals of the same breed but which are more closely related
than the average of the breed. This could be between as close individuals as full
sibs or sire – daughter, mother - son. Pure breeding is a special kind of in-breeding.
The effect of inbreeding is the concentration of common genes in the offspring.
This high frequency of homozygous gene pairs applies to both desirable and
undesirable traits. Many undesirable traits e.g. hernia and cryptorchidism involve
recessive genes thus inbreeding perpetuates their expression phenotypically. In
breeding causes decrease in litter size and increases mortality. Inbred sows are
inferior in milking and mothering ability. It delays sexual maturity in gilts and boars.
Inbred boars have less sexual libido. Inbred gilts have fewer eggs during oestrus
and farrow smaller litters than those out bred.
Effect of In-Breeding
á Sow with newly borne litters about 12 piglets.
á Male and Female piglets taken by another farmers to his home.
á Breeding between the same siblings.
á Female giving birth about 9 piglets
Male Female
F2
Cross breeding
Mating two individuals from different breeds thus introducing into the progeny a
gene combination that is different from that existing in either parent or in the breed
of either parent. Cross breeding can involve two or more breeds, depending on
the desired result. The sole purpose of cross breeding is to take advantage of the
observed improvement in performance of the progeny above that of either parent
- hybrid vigour or heterosis.
Male
Female
Female Male
Male
For crossbreeding; male piglet exchanged between villages. Every year breeding
male must be changed with un-related herd to avoid inbreeding problems.
Stage - 1 Stage - 2
Stage - 2
Culling
á Sows that are difficult to get in-pig (pregnant) which only manage to rear small
litters should be sold off.
á Boars which are infertile or moderately infertile should be culled
Champing
Courting song
Head to Head
Mounting attempt
Sniffing of genitalia
Mounting copulation
Immobility response
standing
Assistance
á Young boars may need assistance in
lining up their mate. Make sure your
hands and wrists are clean and your
fingernails are trimmed.
á Pigs mate slowly. The boar may take
a minute or more to reach the point
of ejaculation.
Colostrums Substitute
Colostrums Substitute is a complete
nutritional “colostrums substitute” for
newborn piglets containing sources of live,
viable natural-occurring micro-organisms
that need to be substituted when sufficient
amounts of colostrums are not available to
the piglets because of poor milk letdown
or when the sow will not allow the piglets
to nurse.
Colostrums Substitute may be frozen, as a powder, for longer shelf life. It is highly
recommended that all breeders and rescuers have Pet Pig Colostrums Substitute on
hand during farrowing in case of emergency.
Teeth Trimming
It is usually necessary to trim the piglets' The needle-sharp
teeth to prevent them biting the udder. teeth of piglets
being trimmed
The piglets are born with needle sharp
teeth which may injure the sow's udder
and prevent the sow from letting the
piglets suckle. The piglets would then
be left to starve. Only the points of the
teeth should be removed. If any more is
The ideal method of administering Oral Iron Supplement, to the newborn piglet,
is to rub the liquid iron onto the udder of sow. When the piglets move from teat to
teat they will slowly absorb the iron thus reducing the chances of any toxic reaction
due to excessive amounts of iron. No injections are required when using Oral Iron
Supplement thereby eliminating chance of toxic reaction due to iron dextran.
Anaemia is caused by iron deficiency. This iron is needed for the formation of
haemoglobin. This is an important problem, especially for young piglets kept
indoors. At birth the piglets have about 50mg of iron in their body. They receive
additional 1-2 mg/day from milk while they need 7mg during the first week. It is
obvious that the quantity of iron decreases rapidly and if not supplemented. The
piglets become very pale a few weeks after birth and their growth slows down.
Tail Cutting
Cut the tip of the tail within 4-7 days. This prevents tail chewing, which can lead to
infections. A piece of chain can be hung down from the ceiling for the piglets to chew.
NB: The sow's milk yield also begins to decrease just as the growing piglets require
feed.
As soon as possible, the orphan piglets should move onto regular food. This should
be of good quality, protein-rich, and easily digestible. Note-despite the amount of
care they receive, hand-reared piglets will never grow as fast as those reared by a
mother sow.
Weaning
Successful early weaning of pigs requires skill and attention to detail in all areas.
Weaning is a great challenge to the young pig. Knowledge of the nutrient
requirements, health status and growth patterns for modern breeds of early-weaned
pigs continue to develop. Early weaning of piglets at 14-21 days increases sow
productivity through the potential increase in the number of litters per sow per year.
Selection of Replacement
á Boars must be replaced when they become too large to serve most of the sows
on the farm.
á Boars usually have a maximum working life of between 18 and 24 months. This
means they should be replaced when they are 30 to 36 months old.
Culling of sows
á Culled sows must be removed from the farm and sold as soon as possible. It
does not pay to keep culled sows on the farm to gain weight before they are
sold. As soon as the sow's udder has returned to normal after weaning it is wise
to send her to the abattoir. Replacement gilt can then be brought into the herd
immediately.
á Reasons for removing sows from the herd are usually not known beforehand.
Therefore, replacement gilts should always be available so that the number of
breeding sows on the farm always remains the same. Some of the major
reasons for culling are reported by big piggeries;
Castration
á Male piglets are castrated to prevent their meat from boar taint. Castration also
makes them more manageable when they become sexually mature. Castration
should be done in the first two weeks of a piglet's life. The animals should be fit
and healthy. If this is not the case it is better to postpone the operation. Two
people are needed when castrating a piglet.
á One person will carry out the small operation and the other person will hold the
piglet. The pen should be dry and very clean to prevent infection to the wound.
The knife should be thoroughly cleaned with a disinfectant. One person takes
the pig by the hind legs and holds it firmly between his or her legs. The piglet's
head should point towards the ground.
A pig is held securely between the legs of the assistant with the scrotum exposed and testicles rounded out
Step 1: Wash and wipe the scrotum with a disinfectant Step 2: Press one testicle against the scrotal skin to
tighten the skin over the testicle. Make a cut, large enough
to allow the testicle to be pushed out. Uses a very sharp and
clean knife for the operation
Step 3: Pull the testicle out, so that the attached cord is Step 4: Hold the exposed testicle with the left hand while
also pulled to the outside. the cord is twisted twice.
Step 5: Cut the cord attached to the testicle by scraping Step 6: Afterwards wash the wounds thoroughly with a
away with the edge of the knife. There is more bleeding if disinfectant like iodine to prevent infection. The other
the cord is cut in one stroke or sweep of the blade. testicle is removed in the same way.
“Always Request Technician to Perform Task”
Colonic problems
Campylobacter
Colitis
Colon Cryptosporidia
Salmonellosis
Serpulina pilosicoli
Swine dysentery
Trichuris suis
Rectal problems
Rectal prolapse
Rectal stricture
Rectum
Formulation feed
Creep feed
á Creep Feed is the baby piglets’ first and most important dry food. It contains
20% protein that is highly fortified with milk by-products and is available in
small, chewable, highly palatable pellets for easy digestion.
á A combination of protein source, milk replacer, vitamins, amino acids and rich
feed ingredients makes this complete feed the ideal start for young healthy
piglets.
á Feed ingredients in descending order: corn, soya bean meal, barley, wheat bran,
vegetable protein, oilseeds extracts, fatty acids, feed phosphate, pig vitamins,
and trace minerals.
á Creep feed (about 20g per piglet per day) or a good home-made mixture with
fine rice bran, broken rice and milled maize grains. Clean drinking water must
always be available.
Distillery waste is much appreciated in the traditional pig husbandry, especially for
fattening pigs. It is advisable however, not to give this high valued feed to pregnant
and lactating sows and to piglets and weaners because of the alcohol contents in
the waste.
Locally
Breeder feed
available
feeds
Fattener feed Breeder feed
1 2 3 4 Churn
Water Salt Yeast and mixed
properly
Mixed properly
8
5 7
Add 6 9 Don't feed
chuped sweet Add to a young
Mixed some
potato, piglets
vine/leaf grains
Feeding
Where post-weaning scours are a major problem, restricted feeding during the fist
week after weaning may reduce the incidents of scours.
Good pig appetite is important. Pigs will eat more fresh clean feed than if it is
contaminated, stale or moldy. Clean feed troughs daily. Sufficient feeder space is
necessary, so each pig can eat what it wishes every day. On many farms feed waste
is 15% or more. Feed waste must be avoided as much possible:
Pigs must be fed on time: this makes the pigs familiar to the feeding regime. Pigs
need to be fed according to their sizes and ages. Troughs must be anchored so they
cannot be turned over
100cm
15cm 15cm
60cm
Drinkers
The feeding trough can also be used to
supply water. At large farms automatic
drinkers are used (bowls or nipples).
1 2
Separate house for breeding boar/pregnant sow Separate house for gilt and dry sows
3 4
Provision for farrowing pan Heating and cooling arrangement
5 6
Provision of piglet nest/ box Provision of creep feed/starter feed
Cement floor
9 10
Suitable floor space Sufficient space for exercise
Breeding
between
selected
Regular
vaccination,
drenching
and veterinary
serrtvices
Iron and
vitamins
supplements Proper feeding Provision of farrowing pan
á The pigsty should be comfortable for the pigs: good ventilation and ample
shade, no overheating, no smells, no draft and no dampness.
á The building should be constructed with its length axis in an East-West direction
(protected from sun and rain).
á The pig building needs to be divided into different pens for each phase of the
produc- tion cycle. The number and the size of the pens depend on the expected
numbers of pigs to be housed in each production phase.
á The costs of constructing the pigsty should fit the pig production systems. An
efficient pig production is required to cover high construction costs.
Cement floor
Parasitic diseases
Parasites are divided into external and internal parasites.
Liver
Trachea
Symptoms
á Anorexia in advanced stages.
á Anaemia loss of condition.
á Weight loss in later stages.
á When the worms die suddenly after treatment, they can block the gut and cause
sudden death
Prevention
á Control with medicine in the food is useful and provide clean and dry pens.
á Rotational grazing and periodic disinfection of pastures.
á Separation of young ones from adults.
á Washing sows before farrowing.
á Periodic deworming
á Herbal treatment: herbs such as moringa are considered to be antihelmintic
( able to kill intestinal worms)
Pork measles is caused by tapeworms which live in the muscles of pigs. They do not
usually affect the pig, but can lead to pain and the pig may find it difficult to move
around. When people eat undercooked measly pork, the worms develop inside the
people, and can make them very sick.
Symptoms
á Poor growth
á Rough grey hair coat
á Swollen belly
á Emaciation
á Anaemia
Prevention
á Prevent the pigs from wandering about where they can feed on human faeces
á Make sure that people working with pigs use toilets (hygiene and sanitation)
á Deworming
Mange
It is caused by small parasites called mites that live in the skin. They provoke severe
itching and irritation. Nowadays sarcoptic mange in pigs has been reported in all
major swine producing countries and is prevalent in Brazilian swine herds. Lesions,
or scabs, on the animals may start on any part of the body, but usually appear first
on the head, around the eyes, nose, or ears; lesions may progress to hyperkeratosis
and exfoliation of epidermal debris.
Symptoms
á The pig becomes itchy, and scratches and rubs against the walls of the sty and
other objects with the skin between the legs, around the eyes, ears and neck
being principally affected.
á The coat looks dull, and there are bare patches, heavy crusts, and lines on the
body that look like ribs
á Restlessness and itching which can be very severe
á Red pimples on skin, which turn into crusts and scabs. Later the skin looks very
rough, is thickened and covered with flakes scratching. Skin may show red spots
or bite wounds
á Thick skin and rough hair coat
á Anaemia in severe cases especially in piglets
á Death in severe cases
Prevention
á Wash the sow before farrowing at least twice at a one week interval.
á Boars should be washed at least four times a year.
á Treat gilts upon entering the farm and before serving.
á Wash all pigs at the beginning of fattening if mange is already a problem.
Treatment
á Remove scales and dirt with soap and water and a stiff brush.
á Afterwards the pig should be washed with organophosphate compounds.
Repeat this treatment several times
á Ivermectin injection is a very effective treatment against mange and all other
parasites. Spraying the animals with cattle dip also kills many parasites on the
skin
á Herbal treatment: Smearing with coconut oil can be an effective control in cases
of light contamination
Lice
These are blood suckers that also cause irritation of the skin. The hog louse is the
largest louse species (6,4mm) commonly associated with domestic animals. It is
found most frequently in the folds of skin behind the ears and between the legs.
The blood-sucking activity of hog lice results in much irritation and discomfort to
swine
Symptoms
á Itching
á Skin may show red spots or bite wounds.
á Thick skin and rough hair coat.
á Anaemia in severe cases especially in piglets.
Treatment
á The insecticide benzene hexachloride is a very effective remedy (0.1 - 0.25%
solution) against lice. Treatment should be repeated after 7 days since the
insecticide only kills adults and not eggs.
á Lice can be kept away to a certain extent by planting a pole sturdily in the
ground at an angle of 45° with an old sack wound around it immersed in crude
oil or used motor-oil.
Myiasis
Disease caused by flies, which lay eggs in the wounds. The eggs hatch into larvae
which live and feed on the flesh and developed into pupate, and fall off when they
mature, creating more wounds.
Symptoms
á Infected wounds look very wet and dirty and the edges can be covered with a
grey mass which are the eggs of flies.
á Later on, larva can be seen as screw-shaped pinkish worms crawling through the
wound.
á The pigs show annoyance and try to find a shabby place.
á Death may occur.
Deworming
Those dewormers that are currently approved for use are effective and usually
safe when given according to label directions. These include ivermectin (Ivomec®),
fenbendazole (Safe-Guard®), levamisole (Tramisol®, Levasole®), pyrantel (Banminth®),
dichlorvos (Atgard®) and piperazine. Their activity varies somewhat, so refer to Table
1 for the appropriate use.
The deworming schedule should include prebreeding for all breeding stock and
prefarrowing for gilts and sows, prevention of Strongyloides and roundworms in
baby pigs, and one or more dewormings in weanling and growing pigs. Specific
strategic schedules should be arranged with your veterinarian.
Symptoms
á No heat signs; This could be caused by low body weight due to poor feeding,
overweight, mineral deficiency, intestinal worms, chronic disease, the animal
has just given birth, heavy infestation with parasites
Prevention
á Improve feeding of mineral-rich feeds.
á Regularly deworm your animals.
á Allow the female to stay with the boar.
Treatment
á Gilts should not be treated at all because they may show anaphrodisias after
every litter, if this hormone is used
á Sows should be treated on the same day as weaning, and in very severe cases, 3
weeks after weaning
á Repeating treatment is of no use
Leptospirosis
Symptoms
á Fever, anorexia, diarrhoea, bloody urine, nervous symptons caused by
meningitis.
á Abortion in last trimester.
á In sows which are affected later, weak piglets are born.
á Mummified and macerated foetuses are common in the litters.
á Infertility associated with venereal spread may be responsible for repeat
breeders.
Brucellosis
Symptoms
á Anorexia, fever, stiff legs, occasional lameness, early abortion (returns to oestrus
5 - 8 weeks after service as a result of infection of service)
á Infection later in pregnancy gives rise to litter with mummified, still born or
weak piglets.
á Bloody vulva discharge and endometritis.
á Retained placenta.
á Boars usually develop orchitis (inflammation of one or both testicles) and
epididymitis within seven days of infection.
á The testicles are swollen and painful and permanent sterility can be the result.
Uterine Prolapsed
Symptoms
á The appearance of the uterus outside the vulva.
Mastitis
Bacterial infection causes an
inflammation of the mammary organ and
results in changes in milk production.
These bacteria enter the wounds in the
udder.
Symptoms
á Swollen, hot and painful udder.
á Absence or reduction of milk in the
affected udder.
á Sow refuses to suckle her piglets. As a result, piglets squeal due to hunger.
á Sow has depression and often fever.
Prevention
á Provide adequate bedding
á Keep pig pens clean, dry and free of sharp objects, clip milk teeth of baby pigs.
Treatment
á Gently massage the affected udder with lukewarm water.
á Do not allow the young to suck milk from the infected sow.
á Remove the milk from the infected udder and discard.
á Separate sow from piglets and reduce access to teats (allow a few piglets to
suckle at a time). If possible, foster piglets to lactating mothers.
á Use antibiotics. Inject penicillin-streptomycin into the muscle of hip or neck.
Endometritis (bacteria)
Symptoms
á Vulval discharge of virginal or uterine origin during urination.
á In case of metrititis, fever and agalactia may occur.
Birth diarrhoea
Symptoms
á Acute diarrhoea in piglets is watery, yellowish grey and within a very short time
piglets become thin with sunken eyes due to dehydration.
á Death can occur within 2 - 3 days. Death in piglets can occur even within one
day before any sign of diarrhoea is observed.
Prevention
á Keep pens, feed and watering troughs clean.
á Separate affected animals from healthy animals.
á Do not change abruptly an animal's ration.
á Make sure that piglets have sufficient colostrum within 36 hours of birth
Treatment
á Vaccination
á Plenty of drinking water with electrolytes
á Use of antibiotics.
á Herbal medicine: Fresh leaves of guava or star apple. This will treat the
symptoms only.
Transmissible Gastroenteritis
Transmissible gastroenteritis is a common viral disease of the small intestine that
causes vomiting and profuse diarrhea in pigs of all ages. It spreads rapidly. Piglets
less than one-week old rarely survive the disease.
Symptoms
á Very high mortality mainly in piglets upto 14 days old.
á The piglets often vomit and have severe greenish-yellow watery diarrhoea,
dehydration.
á In sows the diarrhoea is greyish, they vomit, abortion may occur.
á In fatteners the symptoms are like those in sows.
Fat diarrhea
Symptoms
á Faeces are pasty and fatty, white or yellowish
Salmonellosis
Symptoms
á High fever, dullness, anorexia, weakness, nervous symptoms.
á Bluish-red coloring of the ears, limbs and the centre of the belly.
á Bloody spots all over the body.
á Wasting and persistent grayish diarrhea sometimes mixed with blood and
shreds or necrotic material from the gut.
Swine Dysentery
Known by a number of names, including bloody diarrhoea, hemorrhagic enteritis
bloody scours and black scours. It affects pigs of all ages, sometimes causing death.
Symptoms
á In acute cases wasting and passing of diarrhoea containing varying amounts of
mucus, blood and necrotic material.
á Fever.
á In chronic cases, pigs have greyish or brownish faeces, rough hair coat and low
growth rate.
Treatment:
á Some herbal medicines (moringa tree leaves) can be used to relieve the
symptoms of diarrhoea and dehydration
á Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor
Influenza
Symptoms
á Affected animals are apathetic.
á Anorexia
á High fever, coughing and sneezing, difficulty in breathing
á Red eyes with discharge
á Loss of condition.
Pleural Pneumonia
Symptoms
á Acute cases show anorexia, high fever, laboured respiration, red or blue
colouring of ear-tips, belly, legs and end of tail.
á Death within 4 - 6 hours of onset of clinical symptoms.
á Blood stained froth from mouth or nose.
á Abortion.
á In chronic cases, anorexia, coughing and depressed growth rate.
Pasteurellosis
Symptoms
á Coughing
á Breathing through the mouth
Arthritis
Symptoms
á Inflammation of joints. Thick soft joints.
Nutritional Disorders
Anaemia
Symptoms
á Pale skin, weak piglets with high respiratory rate.
á Jaundice
á Blood stained faeces.
á Early death
Other Diseases
Anthrax
Rare in pigs and associated with contaminated feed containing meat.
Symptoms
á Oedema and swelling of the neck region.
á Dysponea (breathing difficulty).
á Fever, anorexia and passage of bloody feaces.
á Sudden death.
Hentie Breedt
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................1
MECHANICAL VENTILATION........................................................................................79
1. INTRODUCTION
While planning and creating facilities for intensive pig production units, a compromise must
be found between the maximum production performance of the pigs and efficient
management and labour on the one hand, and the cost of supplying these on the other hand.
For efficient planning and management of intensive production units, it is of the utmost
importance to know what the environmental requirements of the pigs are. Investment in pig
production entails creating indoors environmental conditions that differ completely from the
prevailing conditions outdoors.
There is a worldwide tendency, which has also become evident in South Africa, to increase
the size of intensive pig production units, while the numbers of breeders are dwindling. While
the consumption of pork in South Africa is still relatively low compared with other types of
meat, such as beef, chicken and mutton, it is keeping in step with the population growth.
The importance of housing in the production of pork is often ignored. Ineffective housing
more often than not is the main cause of less successful enterprises.
Because it does not have effective sweat glands, a pig is not properly protected
against high temperatures. Pigs try to cool themselves by breathing more rapidly,
spilling water from the drinking troughs or water bowls and by urinating on the floor.
Providing shallow water troughs or fine overhead water sprinklers will help to
improve heat loss by means of evaporation from the wetted body surface.
As a pig gets bigger, or as its live body weight increases, the maximum critical
temperature falls from about 34 °C at birth to 25 °C at 45 kg, and to between 17 °C
and 22 °C at 100 kg body weight. The maximum critical temperature is that
temperature whereby heat production by the animal’s body, that is its metabolic rate,
increases as the ambient temperature drops in order to try to maintain its normal body
temperature of 39 °C. With further drops in the temperature, the minimum critical
temperature is reached, that is the stage of maximum metabolic rate or heat
production.
Piglets are very prone to hypoglycaemia, or low blood glucose content, during the
first seven days after birth. It commonly occurs due to a lack of feed because the sow
suffers from agalactia (no milk flow). The lower the ambient temperature, the sooner
this fatal condition steps in. Heat stress due to too high temperatures is an important
contributing factor to agalactia. Other clinical symptoms of hyperthermia in sows are
an increased body temperature (up to 42 °C), rapid pulse, immobility and diminished
appetite.
The environment for pig production may be subdivided into three sections, namely
the thermal, the social and the chemical environment. All three environments, but
especially the thermal, have a particular influence on the production performance of
pigs.
Rapid decreases in the growth rate and the efficiency of feed utilization occur if the
air temperature increases to a higher level than the optimum (which is 21 °C for
maximum growth rate). At air temperatures of 37 °C and higher, weight loss and
even death may set in.
The heavier the pig, the bigger the negative influence of high temperatures on its
performance. At temperatures higher than 30 °C, a pig is extremely vulnerable to
heat stress, bodily exhaustion and sunstroke.
Research results have shown that deviations from the optimum temperature may
suppress the pig’s appetite and therefore also its feed intake. It is calculated that an
additional 0,3 g feed per kilogram body weight is required for every 1,0 °C that the
temperature decreases to below the effective critical temperature.
Exposure of pigs to too high or too low ambient temperatures also has an influence
on their body composition. For example, exposure to extreme temperatures may
change the size and activity of various organs. Protein deposit, that is muscle
development, is highest at ambient temperatures of 15 °C to 23 °C. Both higher and
lower temperatures result in greater fat deposits in baconer carcasses.
As in the case with other animals, pigs have a hierarchy of domination and
submission within the group. If this order is disturbed by removing pigs from or
adding pigs to the group, the hierarchy will be re-arranged with accompanying
fighting and stress.
The social domination hierarchy is established even before the litter is weaned.
During the first days after birth, a specific weaning hierarchy is formed. This happens
when the stronger piglets take possession of the front nipples, which contain the most
milk. Disturbance of this order retards the growth and development of the piglets.
3.2.1 Grouping
Pigs grow larger when they are housed in groups instead of individually. However, if
the total floor surface for pigs with a live body weight of 60 kg and more is smaller
than 0,5 m² per pig, the growth rate may be lower. A large number of pigs on a
limited floor surface in the same pen will result in diminished growth rates and feed
utilization, cannibalism (such as tail biting), dung and urine soiling of the pens and
heat stress.
The ideal group size is determined primarily by the size and weight of the pigs,
environmental conditions, feeding and pen changing practices. Grouping and large
groups are not advisable with the use of hayless and/or slatted floors. Grouping of
eight to 12 pigs per pen during the growth stages of 45 kg to 115 kg live body weight
apparently has good growth and feed utilization results (refer to Chapter 5). Pigs with
a live body weight of less than 45 kg may be grouped together in larger numbers,
provided that the social hierarchy can be established early.
Changing pens means transferring a litter or group of pigs from one type of pen to
another, from birth to weaning or slaughter stage.
When changing pens in large intensive units, it is important to handle the pigs with
care. It is therefore essential to create favourable conditions while planning and
arranging pens, passages and troughs to ensure that they do not suffer any discomfort
or undue stress.
The major objective of changing pens is to ensure the economical utilization of the
available housing, especially for growers and finishers. By changing pens, a saving
With single pen systems, the litter is housed in a single pen from birth or weaning to
slaughter stage. Pigs housed in a single pen system show about 2% better growth rate
and 13% more efficient feed utilization than pigs that change pens in the normal
fashion. Also, there are fewer cases of tail biting and cannibalism, while pens need
not to be disinfected as often. The system also requires less labour.
The disadvantage of the single pen system is that it makes specific demands
regarding the planning and erection of the building. Because of the various different
sizes of pigs and the fluctuating number of piglets per litter, pens cannot be used
optimally. This increases the housing costs.
Compared to other aspects, such as the climate in the building, transport methods,
removal of manure and run-off, health and hygiene, pen changing is relatively
unimportant. The larger and more intensive the pig production unit becomes, the
more desirable it is to provide separate housing for each of the different life stages of
the pigs. Pen changing then becomes an essential activity in the production system.
The different reactions that take place inside the buildings of intensified pig
production units may change the composition of the air through pollution to such an
extent that harmful gases appear, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane gas (CH4),
ammonia (NH4), and hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Intensive pig production facilities require ventilation systems to regulate the moisture
and heat produced by the pigs, as well as air pollution produced by dung, feed and
the pigs themselves.
South Africa’s climate is more moderate than that of some overseas countries. For
that reason, natural ventilation has been used here for decades with excellent results,
provided that proper design considerations have been taken into account. Mechanical
ventilation (air and temperature conditioning) is indeed used, especially for piglets
that are weaned early at 21 days. However, the installation cost is very high.
Buildings with natural ventilation are more economical in terms of fixed and running
costs. Such buildings will still only function effectively if the principles of natural
ventilation are strictly adhered to.
The objective of ventilation is the control of the ambient temperature and humidity,
the provision of fresh air, the removal of harmful gases and the movement of air.
The micro ambient temperature, that is the temperature surrounding each pig, can be
controlled effectively by means of ventilation. Pigs that are herded together in a
building create heat. The heat may be applied to good effect during cold conditions,
but during warm conditions, it must be removed by means of effective ventilation.
Heat derived from sunbeams causes an increase in the conduction and radiation heat
inside the building. Figure 4 indicates the expected increase in solar heat inside an
uninsulated piggery with a maximum height of 3,0 m in South Africa.
Ventilation means replacing the air inside a building with fresh air from outside.
Controlled ventilation is to control the rate at which the air is replaced, depending on
the environmental conditions outside the building, such as temperature and wind
speed.
Temperature increases occur when the temperature inside the building rises above the
outside temperature due to heat emitted by the pigs.
• The ability of pigs to create heat and increase the temperature of the ambient
micro environment.
• The relative increase of solar heat inside the piggery.
• The relative effect of total insulation, partial insulation (roof) and no insulation.
• The important role of ventilation to curtail temperature increases during warm
conditions.
Humidity plays an important part in the micro climate conditions inside piggeries.
The ideal is to keep pigs in a relative humidity range of between 45% and 75%.
Relative humidity values of more than 80% and less than 40% should be avoided.
This may be brought about randomly by means of natural ventilation, or by means of
controlled ventilation and proper management.
Fresh air is best for pigs. Ventilation supplies fresh air rich in oxygen.
Harmful gases should be removed for the sake of the pig’s health. The building
should be managed in such a way that it requires the minimum amount of air changes
to regulate the temperature. At the same time, it has to be ensured that gases, dust
particles and pathogens are removed effectively.
Draughts cause the temperature to fall due to evaporative cooling, that is to say
increases in both the lower critical and upper critical temperatures occur. The graphs
in Figure 4.3 give approximate indications of how the effective temperatures on the
skin surface are lowered due to air movement. Draughts should be avoided. Air
movement should be limited to the minimum during winter. During summer however
air movement should be used to cool the environment by means of judicious
ventilation control.
• More deaths
• Poor health
• Lowered production performance
• Unsatisfactory working conditions
• Increased maintenance costs for buildings and equipment
In most parts of South Africa, the climate conditions are such that natural ventilation
is adequate.
There are two mechanisms involved in the natural ventilation of a building (see
Figure 4.4):
The stack effect occurs when warm air inside the building rises and gets replaced
with cold air lower down. It depends on the following:
• The temperature difference between the air inside and the air outside the building,
namely ∆t.
• The height difference between the inlet and outlet points, ∆h.
• The areas of the inlet and the outlet vents, A1 and A2.
The buildings in Figure 4.4 are designed in such a way that, when the flaps are fully
opened, the stack effect will ensure sufficient air replacement to provide oxygen and
remove gases. It may even cause the temperature in the building to drop notably,
although there is little airflow.
The wind effect develops due to pressure differences generated when the wind blows
over the building. The pressure forces effect air movement or natural ventilation
through the building.
The design, layout and construction of buildings have to be accurate from the start in
order to facilitate ventilation. The following basic principles apply:
The following are important points to consider when planning the layout of
buildings:
Intensive pig housing represents the largest capital outlay of pig-breeding. Planning,
not only of efficient buildings, but also of economical buildings, is therefore
extremely important. The main aim of pig-breeding should be to produce the
maximum amount of quality meat in the shortest possible time.
Pigs have different environmental and climate requirements during different stages of
growth. In order to reach their full potential, boars and sows especially need special
attention as far as prevention of high ambient temperatures and other stress factors
are concerned.
One boar is required for every 15 to 20 sows. The boar should be kept separately in a
pen with a minimum floor area of 7,0 m². However, if the pen is to be used for
servicing purposes, a minimum floor area of 9,3 m² is required, with the shortest side
not shorter than 2,1 m. This is necessary so that the boar may easily turn around in
his pen.
The floor in the boar pen should be non-slippery and equipped with bedding. If the
pen is used for servicing, the floor should be free of slats and other obstructions. The
floor is cast with a fall towards the sides to enable urine to drain towards a shallow
manure channel on the side of the service passage or along the side of the building.
The channel in turn drains to the main manure channel.
All non-solid gates should be designed with vertical spacers to prevent the boars
from climbing up against the gates. The spacers are usually made of round iron pipes,
with a 20 mm diameter, spaced vertically, no further apart than 75 mm. The height of
the gate should correspond with the height of the surrounding wall, that is 1 400 mm.
Bedding in the sleeping area of the boar pen will prevent the sides of the hooves and
false hooves from chafing against the concrete when the boar gets up from a lying
position. It will also prevent the development of bedsores on the shoulders of heavy
boars.
A boar needs about 10 to 15 litres of drinking water per day. High quality drinking
nipples (12 mm in diameter) with a flow rate of at least 2 litre/min are commonly
used. If the drinking nipple is placed at a 90° angle with the vertical, the height from
the floor has to be between 550 mm and 650 mm. If it is placed at an angle of 45°,
the required height is 650 mm to 750 mm.
Because pigs are in the habit of defecating where they drink water, their water has to
be placed in the dunging area. To prevent the feed from getting wet or soiled by urine
or faeces, the feeding trough has to be placed as far away as possible from the
dunging area and the drinking nipple.
The boar pen has to be cool, well ventilated and free of draughts. If possible, the
temperature in the pen should never go higher than 22 °C for long periods. Boars that
are exposed to temperatures of higher tan 32 °C may become infertile for up to six
weeks thereafter. Sufficient roof insulation is essential for proper temperature
control.
If there are problems in keeping the boars cool due to high ambient temperatures,
they may be sprinkled with water, or moistened with water in some other way. Pigs
do not sweat and cooling is brought about through evaporation. For this reason,
sprinklers are preferable to moistening because moistening only cools the air, while
sprinkling wets the pig and causes the skin to cool through evaporation.
In an intensive pig production system provision is made for five single sow pens per
boar, because the sow has to stay there for five weeks and a sow/boar ratio of 1:20
has to be maintained.
It is important to bring the boar into contact with the sow as often as possible. The
boar is therefore allowed to pass through the feeding passage, about 1,5 m wide, in
front of the sow pens (Figure 5.1A). To manage even more contact between the boar
and sows, or in cases where there are no feeding passages, partitionings made of iron
pipes 20 mm in diameter, spaced 75 mm vertically, are placed over the slatted floor
area between the adjoining boar and sow pens (Figure 5.1B). The reason for placing
the partitioning over the slatted or dunging area is that pigs tend to defecate while
communicating with pigs in adjoining pens.
Alternatively, the sow may be placed in a pen directly next to the boar right after she
weaned her litter. The pens are divided by a pipe partitioning. A direct connecting
gate may be placed between the pens (Figures 5.2A and 5.2C). The gate is opened
and closed from the service passage. The boar is allowed access to the sow twice
daily by simply opening the gate. This avoids unnecessary moving of the sow from
her place to the boar and back, and makes it easier to manage the boar’s oestrus
identification problems. The arrangement as mentioned above also has a calming
effect especially on the boars. As soon as the sow has been served and does not want
to stay with the boar any longer, she is moved to an individual pen close to the boar
pen. If it is confirmed after three weeks that conception has taken place, she is moved
to a crate partition or to group housing where she remains until her 12th week of
pregnancy.
An alternative is to follow the same construction as in Figure 5.2A, but to leave out
the gates that link the boar pen with adjoining pens. All movement from and to the
boar pen then takes place via the passage.
For individual feeding, the sows are placed in pens of about 1,8 m² adjacent to the
boar pen. The sows are kept in the same building as the boar. For this reason, the
same temperature and ventilation requirements apply as those for the boar.
Temperatures of between 9 °C and 22 °C are acceptable, with an optimum of 16 °C.
The relative humidity should be between 40% and 70%.
The sow and boar stable has to make provision for pens adjacent to the boar pens
where gilts can be placed in groups of four. The boars that are placed next to the gilts
should preferably be older boars that are more relaxed and have more experience.
Hand servicing should be supervised and requires a lot of patience because it may
take a while.
For a period of about one month after weaning her litter, and for about two weeks
before she farrows, the housing, feeding and management of the dry sow go through
a critical phase. Dry or pregnant sows may be housed in crates, in groups or in
tethers.
The crates that house the sows are about 600 mm wide, with a minimum length of
2 000 mm and a height of 1 000 mm above floor level. The height of the bottom
railing has to be between 150 mm and 225 mm above floor level to allow the sow to
lie down comfortably and to allow enough room for her legs. It is important to close
the crate at the top with steel rods to prevent the sow from turning around and
jumping out. About 50 crates are required for a 100-sow unit. It is advisable not to
keep gilts in crates. If they are, they should preferably not be put next to older sows,
but rather next to boars.
Slatted floors at the back of the sow keep the crate dry and allow for easy
management. The slatted floors have to extend 300 mm behind the crates to prevent
the sow from defecating in the passage when standing against the back of the crate.
The quality of the slats is important because sharp edges will seriously damage the
hind legs and hooves of the sows. The gaps between the slats should be 25 mm. A
water pipe, 20 mm in diameter, can be used to determine the space. The floor
underneath the crate should have a slope of 1:100 in the direction of the slats and link
up with the slats evenly, without a step. No-fines concrete floors (Appendix A) are
recommended for insulation against cold. The building where the dry sows are
housed must be draught-free to maintain an optimum temperature of between 15 °C
and 16 °C for maximum conception and survival of embryos. Roof insulation will
also be extremely beneficial for temperature control and is strongly advised.
Sunken or above-ground feeding troughs may be used. Trough measurements for dry
sows are as follows:
Research has shown that sows that are housed in groups of four to five significantly
increased the number of litters per year. Pens have the advantage that sows that are in
heat again can be noticed much easier. However, the sows have to be fed individually
to prevent fighting. A feeding trough with individual partitions for each sow can be
used for this purpose.
Group housing can also be done semi-intensively by merely placing a roof over the
pens and keeping the sides open. This layout requires less material and construction
costs, but could possibly create problems regarding the regulation of temperature and
ventilation. Instead of using wall partitions between pens, vertical trellis partitions
consisting of mild steel pipes 20 mm thick, or else mild steel 12 mm in diameter,
spaced 50 mm to 75 mm vertically, can be used.
Where slatted floors are used, the slats should cover one third of the length of the
pen, and the drinking nipples should be installed above the slatted floor to prevent
water from spilling on the floor. Use can also be made of a shallow manure channel
with a flushing system (refer to paragraph 8.3.5).
The sow’s movements are restricted by means of a belt around her body, just behind
the front legs, or around the neck. The belt is fastened to the floor with a short chain,
about 300 mm behind the feeding trough. The crate areas are 600 mm wide, 800 mm
to 1 000 mm above floor level and about 1 000 mm to 1 300 mm long.
The tether requires little material, but the cost of the belt implies that the cost of the
system as a whole is more or less the same as that of a conventional crate. Handling
and accessibility are easier with a tether, because the crate is open at the back. It also
simplifies testing for pregnancy in large intensive units.
Care should be taken that the tether does not chafe or strangle the sow when she lies
down too far away from the point where the chain is fastened to the floor. The length
of the chain should be adjustable according to the height and condition of the sow.
The tether should also not interfere with the freedom of the sow to get up or lie
down.
5.4.1 General
The most important considerations regarding housing during farrowing and the first
seven to ten days thereafter, are to supply optimum temperatures to the sow and her
litter and to limit deaths among the piglets through trampling or overlying.
Approximately 30 farrowing pens, 1,8 m to 2,0 m by 2,2 m to 2,5 m big, are required
for a 100-sow unit. A large variety of farrowing pens is commonly used. Very good
results are obtained by using the two alternative Holderness type pens as shown in
Figures 5.4A and 5.4B. The sloped sides, which force the piglets to defecate on the
slatted floor, are typical of these pens. Because the system requires more material and
Sows should be placed in disinfected farrowing pens one week before farrowing to
allow time for adjustment to the new surroundings. The sow or gilt is washed and
treated for scabby skin, not less than two days before she farrows.
The floor of the farrowing pen has a gradient of 1:50 in the direction of the manure
channel. The floor ends in a manure channel or is linked to slatted or perforated
floors to direct all urine away from the sow. When any kind of perforated floor is
used, care should be taken that the sow’s nipples cannot be damaged. Expanded
metal is not recommended. No-fines concrete is strongly recommended as flooring
material (see Appendix A). If possible, the level where the sow lies should be 25 mm
higher than the level where the piglets move around. It allows the piglets greater
access to the sow’s nipples. To a certain extent, it also prevents the piglets from
creeping underneath the sow where she can squash them.
To create more pleasant working conditions for labourers and to facilitate the
removal of manure, farrowing pens are placed over slats. Placing the pens on a
perforated sheet over a shallow manure channel (see Figure 5.5B) underneath the
sow, requires more labour. It is also more difficult to clean this system. The spaces
between standard concrete slats are, however, too large for piglets because their feet
get stuck. A grid floor consisting of flat (6 mm × 20 mm) and round (10 mm
diameter) mild steel rods welded alternately onto a framework should rather be used.
The spaces between the rods should be maximum 10 mm across in the direction of
the farrowing crate to prevent the sow from slipping. Concrete and plastic slats may
also be used. The vertical partitions between adjoining farrowing pens, usually round
mild steel rods 8 mm in diameter, vertically spaced 50 mm apart and 500 mm high,
should be removable to allow for repairs to the grid floor.
The temperature requirements of the sow that is between 10° and 22 °C must be
observed. Daily variations may not exceed 4 °C to 5 °C. As mentioned before, the
optimum temperature for piglets in the creeping pen is between 27 °C and 32 °C. The
temperature requirement of newborn pigs are, however, between 32 °C and 37 °C.
Cold will lower the resistance of piglets against disease. Piglets kept at 21 °C are five
times more prone to serious bouts of diarrhoea than those kept at 35 °C. “Cold”
piglets need more feed than “warm” piglets, but eat less.
The farrowing crate is made of steel pipes or round steel rods. The measurements are
extremely important to ensure that the sow is comfortable. The crate has to be
designed in such a way to allow enough free space behind her for easy farrowing,
and to prevent the piglets from being overlaid. Enough walking space for the piglets
should be allowed behind the sow. The construction of the crate is vertical from the
top (about 950 mm above floor level) to a height of 400 mm above the floor. This
part of the crate is between 450 mm and 500 mm wide. After this, the crate widens to
700 mm or 850 mm at a height of 200 mm or 250 mm above the floor. The narrow
part at the top prevents the sow from falling when she lies down, and gives the
piglets a chance to get out of the way when she lies down. The wide part at the
bottom of the crate ensures that the sow lies down comfortably and that the piglets
have easy access to her nipples. The length of the crate is about 2 500 mm and
includes the feeding trough in the front part. If the crate is fitted with vertical
partitions, the partitions at the front should be 80 mm from the floor to keep the
sow’s head from getting stuck. Partitions further to the back must be 150 mm to
200 mm above the floor. The distance between the partitions at the front of the crate
can be 200 mm to 250 mm, and at the back 270 mm and 320 mm. A plan for a
typical farrowing crate is given in Figure 5.6.
A creeping pen of 600 mm by 600 mm with bedding must be provided for the piglets.
Wood shavings are preferred for the bedding, but if hay is used, care should be taken
that it is not set alight by the heater. A roof over the creeping pen is essential to
prevent draughts and to keep the heat inside. A vertical overhang along the roof of
the creeping pen improves the recycling of warm air. The optimum temperature in
the creeping pen is 27 °C to 32 °C. It is important to provide heat for at least the first
five days after birth. After that, the piglets will be able to produce enough body heat
for the creeping area, except during very cold weather conditions.
In order to keep piglets healthy and alive, they should be kept warm. To ensure that
the sow has enough milk for her litter, she has to be kept cool. Every possible effort
should be made to obtain an average of 10,5 live born piglets per litter.
Electricity of around 300 W to 500 W is required for every creeping pen. Underfloor
heating may also be installed in the creeping area. The advantage of underfloor
It is preferable not to place the creeping pen too close to the sow, because the heat
may cause her discomfort and stress. If the creeping pen is indeed placed close to the
sow, sufficient insulation should be provided between the pens. Generally, the
creeping pen is positioned in front of the sow away from her nipples. An additional
heating lamp behind the sow will reduce the mortality of the newborn pigs. The
piglets must be able to easily find the heated creeping area after birth.
It is preferable to equip the litter with a creep feeder. A small, simple self-feeder
100 mm high, 150 mm wide and 250 mm long, which is filled twice or three times a
day, is sufficient to prevent the feed from becoming stale and mouldy. The feeder can
also be equipped with hooks and hooked over the dividing wall between adjoining
pens to prevent the piglets from shoving it around. The self-feeder is placed
approximately halfway between the creeping pen and the slatted floor, against the
dividing wall. Milk powder strewn on the floor will encourage the piglets to eat.
The sow gets a concrete trough 460 mm to 600 mm long, 150 mm to 200 mm high
and 300 mm to 500 mm wide at the front of the farrowing crate. As mentioned
before, the drinking nipple is often placed above the feeding trough.
For many years, it was customary in South Africa to wean pigs at the age of 35 days
(five weeks). Worldwide, and locally, the tendency to wean pigs at an earlier age, for
instance at the age of three weeks, is becoming more and more popular. This section
focuses on housing for pigs weaned at 35 days, with two litters grouped together, all-
in-all-out pens, housing for early-weaned pigs and flat deck housing.
When the method of weaning at 35 days is followed, and two litters, that is about
20 piglets, are put together, a pen 8,0 m² in size (0,3 m² to 0,5 m² per pig) will be
required. The pen walls are about 600 mm high. The piglets remain in these pens
until they are 70 days old (ten weeks), whereafter they are moved to grower pens.
A total of about 14 weaner pens are required for a 100-sow unit, taking into account
that each sow weans on average 2,3 litters per year, and that each litter contains an
average of ten piglets. The pens are housed in one building, in two rows of seven
pens each, with a centre feeding passage 1,0 m to 1,6 m wide (Figures 5.7 to 5.9). If a
portion of the slatted floor is placed over a flushing channel, it simplifies the cleaning
of the pens, while also increasing the hygiene. Communication between pigs in
adjoining pens takes place through communication railings. The railing is placed in
the dunging area and is made of steel rods, 10 mm in diameter, spaced 75 mm
vertically and 600 mm high.
To supply the piglets with about one to three litres of drinking water per day, a
drinking nipple of 6 mm in diameter is placed 250 mm to 400 mm above floor level
at an angle of 90°, or 300 mm to 450 mm above floor level at an angle of 45°, against
the communication railing. This will ensure that urine and manure from the piglets
land on the slatted floor.
To keep the cost of materials as low as possible and to create cleaner conditions, the
two rows of pens can be placed back-to-back. The walking and feeding passages are
then combined with the outer walls of the building with two manure channels against
each other in the middle of the building. However, this layout means that the building
will be wider.
For the supply of feed, a movable self-feeder can be used to adjust the size of the
pen, as the piglets grow bigger. However, automatic feeding becomes more difficult
with the use of the movable self-feeder. If a feeding trough is used to supply feed to
the piglets, the required length for the trough is 150 mm to 170 mm per pig, the
height is 100 mm and the width 150 mm. Gates are not provided, because weaners
can be picked out of the pen by hand. Provision has to be made for bedding in the lie
area, and also for a removable screen, because piglets require proper regulation of
environmental conditions up to the age of ten weeks, with temperature needs of
between 17 °C and 25 °C. Draughts should be avoided. Each pen is cleaned when the
pigs are removed, but true effective sterilising is not possible because the pens are in
the same building.
These pens are designed in such a way to accommodate all the litters of the sows that
give birth in the same week in an enclosed section of the building when they are
being weaned. The piglets then remain in this part of the building until they are
transferred to a grower unit. All piglets enter the unit during the same week and leave
the unit during the same week. That part of the building, which has been occupied by
the group, can then be disinfected properly.
When piglets are weaned at the age of three weeks (21 days), the regulation of
temperature and ventilation is even more important than when they are weaned at
five or six weeks. The temperature requirements of piglets weaned at three weeks are
between 25 °C and 29 °C. In order to obtain optimum temperatures of this kind, it
will be necessary to regulate the temperature of the building, or else make provision
by installing a heated creeping area.
Not more than 24 piglets, at 0,25 m² per pig, should be kept in one pen. It is
important to remember that a pipe diameter of 20 mm will allow enough water
pressure to share water points between pens, thus saving the cost of one pipe length.
A self-feeder is optional, but a floor-feeding trough is better because it allows the
caretaker to see the piglets more often.
Research on piglets that have been weaned at 21 days has shown the following:
• Early weaning (21 days) means that sows spend 61 days less to wean five litters,
which means that she can have 2,54 litters per year instead of 2,34, as is the case
with sows that wean their litters at 35 days.
• Creeper feed intake per piglet weaned at 21 days up to the age of eight weeks is
14,1 kg compared to 10,7 kg per piglet weaned at 35 days.
• Sows that wean at 21 days show an increase in weight of 66,4 kg over five
cycles, compared to an increase of 52,3 kg in sows that wean at 35 days.
• Groups of pigs that wean early produce 20% more piglets aged eight weeks.
In larger units where piglets remain in the same pen system until they are nine to ten
weeks old, flat deck housing is preferable. The pens are also often used for piglets
that are weaned at three weeks.
Because the decks are on top of the floor, special care should be taken to ensure that
there are no draughts from underneath. Roof insulation is essential and roof and side
ventilation must be regulated. Temperature regulation for decks is not difficult. The
temperature should be kept between 17 °C and 25 °C.
If possible, and for better results, piglets from the same litter should be kept together
(about ten piglets). The mixing of different litters may cause stress, which in turn
could cause a drop of as much as 13% in the growth rate.
Flat deck housing allows for better control, easier management and treatment of the
piglets and inhibits the spreading of disease. An all-in-all-out system is maintained to
enable the disinfection and cleaning of pens. A disadvantage of the system is that the
pens are rather expensive. The high cost of replacing worn pens is the major reason
why this system is seldom used in new units.
Pigs are normally moved from the weaner to the grower pens. The piglet should
weigh about 30 kg at this stage and should have temperature requirements ranging
between 12 °C and 18 °C.
Depending on the stage at which the pig is marketed, it will remain in the grower
house until it reaches a weight of between 60 kg and 110 kg. Nowadays, ad lib
feeding is commonly used for grower purposes. This also is the only difference
between the grower and finishing houses. In the latter kind, feed intake is limited.
This does not only save on the consumption of feed, but by regulating the growth of
the pig at this stage, better grading and market prices can be ensured.
It has been scientifically proven that pen sizes based on floor space per pig have an
influence on the growth potential of pigs. Although small differences do occur, the
average norm is about 0,8 m² per 45 kg; 0,95 m² for up to 90 kg and 1,0 m² to 1,3 m²
for up to 110 kg live body weight.
While planning the grower and finishing houses the design should take into
consideration that about two thirds of the waste generated by the production unit will
come from these two buildings. For the handling of manure inside the building, the
use of slatted floors over a manure channel is recommended. Wide concrete slats of
between 100 mm and 120 mm, spaced 20 mm apart, are commonly used. The outside
of a 12 mm water pipe may be used to determine the size of the spaces. High quality
Where two litters of more or less 20 piglets are grouped together from the weaning
stage, the group is transferred to the grower pen in its entirety. If the norm for a 100-
sow unit applies, as mentioned before, about 20 grower pens are required, each
designed to house 20 pigs with a live body weight of between 30 kg and 65 kg. These
pens are housed in the same building. After this, each group of 20 pigs is separated
into two groups. After the gilts have been taken out of the group, the remaining eight
or ten pigs go to the finishing pens where they are kept until they are marketed.
Double the number of pens is required for the finishing house. These should be
housed in two identical buildings. The pens may be grouped together intensively,
completely inside a building, or semi-intensively, with open sides and covered by a
roof. The latter method requires less material but factors such as the location,
ambient temperatures and the breeder’s preferences should be considered. For more
cost saving, manure can be removed by means of a shallow flushing channel instead
of slatted floors (refer to paragraph 8.3.5).
The layout inside the building consists of two rows of pens with a feeding passage in
the middle (see Figures 5.10 to 5.14). The alternative is to build two rows of pens
back-to-back with a feeding passage on the outside of each row of pens. The layout
for grower and finishing pens, as well as the dimensions, is identical. The only
difference is the feeding method used and the number of pigs housed in a pen. A self-
feeder is used for growers, while finishers use a feeding trough allowing 300 mm per
pig, with a height of 150 mm to 200 mm and a width of 300 mm. The self-feeder has
to be installed properly to prevent spilling of feed. Rationed and ad lib feeding
requires different feeding trough dimensions per pig. The recommended dimensions
are as shown in Table 5.1.
Growers and finishers require about five to ten litres of drinking water per day at a
flow rate of 600 ml to 750 ml per minute. Drinking nipples at an angle of 90° with
the vertical are installed above the slatted section at a height of 450 mm to 550 mm
for growers and at 550 mm to 650 mm for finishing pigs. For a nipple at an angle of
45°, the required height is 550 mm to 650 mm for growers and 650 mm to 750 mm
for finishers.
In pens with a feeding passage in the middle, it is essential to ensure that the gates on
either sides of the passage are not directly opposite one another. If the gates are
directly opposite one another, the pigs will communicate across the passage and soil
the whole pen.
The handling of waste in grower and finishing houses is the same. Two methods are
used, namely the clean flushing system and dry manure handling system.
A single or double row of slatted floors over a flushing channel is often used. In
housing with a feeding passage in the middle, the flushing channel is usually
placed parallel to the outside wall, while a trellis partition is installed across the
width of one flushing channel, usually one metre wide, between adjoining pens.
The purpose of these partitions is to enable pigs to communicate with others next
door. The partition consists of iron rods 12 mm in diameter, spaced 75 mm
vertically, with a height the same as that of the wall, which is between 1,0 m and
1,2 m.
The handling of dry manure is only possible with pens that adjoin the long side of
the building and have a central feeding passage in the middle. Pens are built with
a slope of 1:50 towards the side of the outer wall. A gap is left in the outer wall
through which the manure is transported outside. A concrete channel is built
along each long side of the building and manure and urine are scraped out of the
pens into the channels. The latter are in turn scraped after the pens have been
cleaned every day.
The pens can be cleaned by means of a high pressure water-hose, provided there
is enough pressure, and the channels flushed with clean water. In these pens,
drinking nipples are fixed to the outer wall of the pen. Trellis partitions of one
metre wide can be installed against the back wall between adjoining pens for
communication purposes.
6.1 Introduction
Before calculating the housing requirements for a certain production unit, the
following questions have to be answered:
6.1.1 Assumptions
If any of these assumptions are changed, the housing requirements will change
PLEASE NOTE:
accordingly.
• Seven single boar pens are needed. Five are for working boars and two for young
boars (Figures 5.1 and 5.2).
The boar remains in his pen. The sow is brought to him for servicing, or the gate
between the adjoining boar and sow pens is opened. The boar is only allowed into
the passage when he has to identify a sow on heat.
• Management system
After the sow has weaned her litter, she is kept in a single sow pen near the pen
of the boar that has to service her, for at least 35 days, or in a group pen designed
for weaning sows.
At 2,3 litters per sow per year, it means that a sow occupies a single sow pen for
35 × 2,3 = 81 days per year.
• Needed
• Recommendations
Rather make provision for 25 single sow pens (Figures 5.1 and 5.2), that is five
sow pens per working boar pen, or alternatively, 30 single sow pens, six per boar
pen.
• Management system
After the sow has weaned her litter, she is kept in a single sow pen near the boar
pen for at least 35 days. After this, the pregnant sow is moved to the facilities for
pregnant sows. The pregnant sows are therefore kept here from ±28 days into
their pregnancy until seven days before farrowing.
A sow occupies a standing place in the building for pregnant sows for:
114 – 28 – 7 = 79 days after each litter that she weans
Refer to Figures 5.3A and 5.3B regarding the physical layout of the pens.
• Management system
Eight gilts aged 100 days should be selected each month. At 160 days, the best
four gilts are finally selected from the group and the rest are marketed. From the
age of ±180 days, the gilts are brought into contact with a working boar, but they
are not serviced until the age of 211 days (±100 kg). Gilts are housed in groups of
four at the age of 100 days.
• Needed
From the age of 100 to 160 days, the gilts are kept in finishing pens. That
PLEASE NOTE:
is to say, provision has to be made for four additional finishing pens.
From the age of 160 days, the gilts are kept in the servicing house.
Provision has to be made for two to three gilt pens, each of which can
PLEASE NOTE:
house four gilts, plus two pens, each of which can house a young boar in
the servicing house.
• Management system
The sow has to be cleaned and disinfected in an area for this purpose a week
before she is to farrow. She is then placed in the farrowing crate. The sow and her
litter remain in the crate until the piglets are ±35 days old, after which the litter is
moved to the weaner pens and the sow to the servicing facilities. The crate is then
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected during a rest period of four days.
• Needed
• Figures 5.4A and 5.4B and Figures 5.5A and 5.5B show a plan for farrowing
pens.
6.7 Facilities for weaned piglets from the age of 35 days to 70 days
• Management system
On weaning day, the piglets are put in groups of 20 according to live body weight
and moved to the weaner pens where they remain until they are 70 days old. At
70 days, the piglets are transferred to the grower pens. However, all weak piglets
are regrouped and kept in the weaner pens until they weigh approximately 20 kg.
After a pen has been vacated, a rest period of seven days is allowed for cleaning
and sterilizing the pen before the next group of piglets is let in.
• Needed
Make provision for 14 weaner pens because weak piglets are kept in weaner
PLEASE NOTE:
pens for longer than 35 days.
• Feeding system
Ad lib, creeper pellets are supplied in a self-feeder (which does not spill).
• Refer to Figures 5.7A and 5.7B, Figures 5.8A and 5.8B and Figures 5.9A and
5.9B for general weaner housing.
• Management system
Piglets are moved from the weaner to the grower pens at age 70 days. Groups are
not mixed again at this stage. Only the small and weak piglets are removed from
each group and kept in the weaner pens for a longer period.
• Alternative
Producers are free to group the piglets at 70 days according to live body weight in
two sub-groups and to house them in groups of ± 10.
• Needed
• Alternative
If the piglets are put in groups of 10, then 36 grower pens will be needed.
• Feeding system
• Refer to Figures 5.10A and 5.10B, Figures 5.11A and 5.11B and Figures 5.12A
and 5.12B for general information on grower housing.
• Management system
Piglets are kept in their relevant groups of ±20 up to the age of 120 days. After
they have been weighed at the age of 120 days, the piglets are put in groups of
±10 according to their weight and moved to finishing pens. If the little boars are
not castrated, the groups should not be made up according to weight, but
according to sex. The groups of finishers will therefore consist of eight to ten per
group, depending on the percentage of pigs that is marketed at the growth stage
of 45 kg.
• Needed
Facilities to house 104 × 2 = 208 groups of eight to ten piglets each per year.
Make provision for 42 finishing pens plus the four pens needed for gilts as
PLEASE NOTE:
discussed, therefore a total of 46 finishing pens.
• Feeding system
From the age of 120 days up to the age of marketing, limited feed is given in
troughs.
• Figures 5.13A and 5.13B and Figures 5.14A and 5.14B show plans for general
finisher housing.
Besides the needs mentioned above, provision also has to be made for the following:
• Drinking water nipples: 12 mm nipples for large pigs, 178 per 100-sow unit
6 mm nipples for piglets, 44 per 100-sow unit
• Shallow feeding bowls for piglets from the age of seven days to 35 days in the
farrowing area, that is 30 per 100-sow unit.
Measurements: Depth – 60 mm
Length – 300 mm
Width – 150 mm
Self-feeders serve as dividing wall between the sleep area and the feeding
PLEASE NOTE:
passage.
• Covers over sleeping area for weaner pens: 14 per 100-sow unit
Effective production and management not only depend on optimal housing, but
PLEASE NOTE: also on a breeding policy scientifically planned in advance, and the keeping of
an effective record system.
Table 6.1: Housing requirements for a 100-sow unit if some of the production
assumptions mentioned are changed
Alternative 1 Alternative 2
Standard
(Change 1) (Change 2)
Sows have only two
Type of pen Needs as calculated in Litters are housed litters per year and 20%
the preceding separately until they are of the young die before
discussion. marketed. weaning. Piglets divided
into groups of 20.
Boar pens 6 6 6
Gilt pens 8 8 8
Standing places
50 50 56*
for pregnant sows
Farrowing crates 30 30 26*
7.1 General
• Specific infections and/or contagious diseases brought into the unit, or already
present in a latent form.
• Secondary health problems, which develop or are promoted by environmental
factors, and therefore more dependent on management and housing.
The following factors are important in any intensive pig production unit.
This is necessary for the housing of animals brought into the unit from outside.
Simple pens some distance from the main unit are usually adequate. They have a
variety of functions, namely:
Nobody should be able or allowed to enter and walk around a pig production unit at
will. Facilities should be of such a nature that visitors are compelled to first announce
themselves at a clearly designated office where they may be provided with protective
clothing and water boots. The risk of spreading disease will be limited, or hopefully
eliminated, in this way.
7.1.3 Transport
It is preferable that no delivery vehicle should drive around inside the security fence.
Provision has to be made, for instance in the case of feed deliveries, to deposit
deliveries in storage tanks which are placed on the border of the fence.
If vehicles have to enter the area, it is important to provide a dip-tank filled with
disinfectant to drive through. Shoes also have to be disinfected.
This applies to especially feed and bedding. Tanks or silos for the storage of feed
should be scrutinized to ensure that both the cover and the joints are watertight.
Damp feed with resulting mouldiness can cause great stock losses. Facilities for
storing bedding are essential, as damp or soiled bedding can cause health problems.
Depending on the source and the extent of the contamination of the water, provisions
for the purification of water have to be made, especially for the farrowing and weaner
houses. It may sometimes also be necessary to use water for dosing individual groups
in specific buildings as treatment against certain diseases.
7.1.6 Insulation
It is advisable to drain all pens individually, that is to ensure that the flow-off of one
pen does not flow into another pen.
This should be built at a convenient spot close to the servicing and dry sow buildings.
A place to wash and dip the sows before they are transferred to the farrowing house
should also be provided.
7.1.10 Cooling
Fridge facilities are essential for storing vaccines and medicines, as well as material
for laboratory research.
The carcasses should preferably be buried. They should not be dumped on the dung-
heap where they are exposed to flies which in turn will spread disease (refer to
paragraph 8.4).
Pens should be made available for young breeding animals where they can be
grouped together for an immunisation programme before they mate. This initiation is
becoming increasingly more important, especially with the current trend to house a
large percentage of the breeding herd individually.
7.1.13 Conclusion
To conclude, the breeder should remember that control of the environment has
become more critical in modern housing, and that serious stock losses can occur if
control of the climate is inadequate. The positioning of doors and windows in
relation to the time of day, the temperature and prevailing wind and climatic
conditions for the time of year, are aspects that should be considered.
In older type housing, the animals could choose where they wanted to lie, something
which has become impossible in modern housing designs.
The foregoing information has shown that pig housing is an intricate subject, which
necessitates close liaison with available consulting services, such as agricultural
engineers, animal experts and veterinarians.
When a factory complex is built, a strategy is always devised to handle its waste or
by-products in such a way that it can be put to use, or to treat it in such a way that it
does not become a nuisance. The same principle should apply when planning and
building a pig production unit, because the removal of manure forms an integral part
of the activities in such a unit. Steps should be taken to combat problems associated
with waste products. At the same time, the national and provincial health regulations
have to be obeyed, while useful applications of the waste material should be
investigated.
The amount of waste produced by a 100-sow production unit has the same pollution
potential as a town with 2 800 inhabitants. A 100-sow unit which markets say 20
piglets per sow per year, will produce about 1 710 tons of undiluted waste per year.
Add to this, the above-mentioned waste of washing water, and the total annual waste
production of a 100-sow unit could exceed 6 000 tons.
The undiluted daily excrement as percentage of the pig’s body weight is on average
7,2%. Therefore, a pig which weighs 60 kg will produce on average 4,3 kg undiluted
manure per day. It is difficult to determine the real net value of the waste, because it
differs from region to region. It also depends on the demand for waste products and
the availability of nearby farmlands where its nutritional value for plants can be put
to proper use. To illustrate its value, it can be mentioned that the net annual income
from manure produced by a 100-sow unit, with due consideration to losses during
application and whether it is applied correctly, is the same as the income derived
from the sale of 100 baconers. Table 8.1 shows the approximate amounts of manure
and liquid manure produced by pigs during the various production stages.
The handling of solid manure, that is to say manure and bedding, requires a lot of
labour. The following are usually needed:
• Solid concrete floors inside the building where bedding can be placed. The floor
should have enough of a slope (1:50 to 1:100) to allow the drainage of urine to
one side of the building. An opening is usually provided in the outer walls of the
buildings to allow urine and spilled drinking water to drain into a canal parallel to
the long side of the building.
• There should be a large enough concrete floor outside the building where the
mixture of manure and bedding can be scattered for long-term storage or
composting. Provision should also be made to catch the drainage in a storage tank
from where it can be applied directly to farmlands.
• Front-end loaders or other machinery to transport, mix and turn the manure.
• Different types of scrapers pulled by a chain or cable, or mounted to a tractor.
Storage of the manure should be done without causing a nuisance. There should also
be possibilities for partial or full treatment while the manure is being stored.
The solid manure, which is usually mixed with some bedding, can be stacked in
wind-rows. It should be constructed and positioned to allow water to drain from the
wind-row, without collecting effluent water. Treatment of solid manure, which is
being stored for long periods, is essential to avoid the nuisance of stench and flies.
The cheapest method to treat manure is by means of composting. This is a process
through which the organic material is converted to a stable humus by aerobic
bacteria. Aerobic bacteria need oxygen to survive, and oxygen has to be provided in
the form of air, or else anaerobic wasting will take place, resulting in bad smells and
the development of harmful gases. The most common method to aerate the material
is to regularly turn the wind-row, or to blow air mechanically through the wind-row
by means of a centrifugal fan.
Liquid manure is a combination of all the excreta of the pigs and the water coming
form leaking drinking nipples, flushing water for floors and water used for flushing
other areas. The handling of liquid manure is preferred for one or more of the
following reasons:
• Deep storage channels under slatted floors, which are seldom emptied.
• Shallow channels under slatted floors, which are regularly flushed clean.
• Open channels, which are flushed clean regularly.
• Wide concrete alleys, which are regularly flushed clean.
The development of slatted floors, whether covering part of the pen or the whole pen,
has made the handling of liquid manure possible. Slatted floors leave the pens dry
and relatively clean and require less labour.
Concrete slats are the most common and durable kind, but they also are the heaviest,
demanding sturdy support. The recommended spacing between concrete slats for all
buildings in a piggery, excluding the farrowing pens, is 20 mm for slats with a width
of between 75 mm and 100 mm. Wooden slats disintegrate, bend and are chewed by
the pigs, leading to uneven spacing between the slats. These are not recommended.
Round metal rods, alternated with flat rods, are preferred for using in farrowing
houses. Spacings of 10 mm are recommended. This is to prevent the feet of piglets
from slipping through the rods and getting stuck. High quality plastic slats may also
be used. They come in separate slabs, which are fitted into each other, making
replacement easier. Examples of the kinds of slats most often used in piggeries are
shown in Figure 8.1.
Slatted floors with collecting channels underneath are very expensive. When
selecting a floor plan, the habits of the animals have to be taken into consideration to
avoid contact between the animal and his manure. This can be done as follows:
• Feeding places have to be far away from the manure accumulation areas to
prevent contamination of the feed.
• Drinking places must be put over the slatted area because animals tend to urinate
while they drink.
• The partitions that enable animals in adjoining pens to communicate have to be
placed over the slatted area because pigs defecate and urinate while
communicating.
Pigs such as growers and finishers are usually messy, but dry sows are not. In the
case of growers and finishers, which also by far produce most of the manure in a
piggery, it is recommended to cover the total floor area, or at least two thirds of the
floor, with slats (refer to Figures 5.10 to 5.14). For gilt, dry sow, boar and weaner
pens, a slatted area over a one-meter wide channel will be sufficient. Expanded metal
floors are not recommended because they may damage the feet and nipples of the
animals. Untreated aluminium bars are also not recommended because of possible
corrosion damage.
The deep manure channel (about 1,0 m deep) underneath slatted floors serves as a
storage tank with a storage capacity of between one and three months. The channel is
To make proper use of the deep channel storage volume, unnecessary dilution of the
slurry, by for instance leaking drinking nipples, should be avoided. A serious
disadvantage of the system is that solids tend to build up on the bottom of the
channel. This leads to the build-up of toxic gases and gases with an unpleasant odour,
which may have a negative influence on the performance of the animals. When large
volumes of slurry are moved, for instance, when manure is being dumped, toxic and
suffocating gases may be released. These include sulphuretted hydrogen (H2S),
methane (CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO), caused by the anaerobic decomposing of
organic material. A sudden release of a large volume of toxic gases can even cause
the animals to die. For this reason, buildings have to be ventilated properly,
especially when the deep channel is being emptied. It has become obvious from
experience that the deep channel storage system is not recommended for Southern
Africa.
Shallow channel and open channel systems are very common in piggeries. The
shallow channel system, with flushing underneath the slatted floor, is recommended
for all buildings. There is no build-up of toxic gases or gases with an unpleasant
odour, because the diluted slurry, which is created in this way, can be flushed to a
tank outside the building. The width of the manure channel is usually standardised on
between 800 mm and 1 200 mm to correspond with the standard width of concrete
slats.
The main disadvantage of flushing open channels and shallow channels is that they
require large amounts of water. The amount of fresh water used can, however, be
drastically cut by re-using the slurry, or by using aerated manure with a low flood
resistance as flushing medium.
Channel dividers are needed on wide channels to prevent the flushing water from
flowing around solid manure, especially at the bottom end of the building where flow
rates decrease in any case. Channels with a width of up to 1,0 m do not need dividers,
but one or more dividers are necessary for channels of 1,0 m to 3,0 m wide (see
Figure 8.2).
Experience has shown that when a slope of one to two percent is used together with a
smooth channel floor, the channel should not be less than 40 m long. This will ensure
that the flushing water moves fast enough to clean effectively. The length of the
building can, however, be doubled by using a centrally situated cross-channel for
receiving the flushing water from the bottom of each building.
When a slope of one to two percent is used, a channel floor with built-in cross-lips,
as shown in Figure 8.4, will maintain a liquid level, which will prevent manure from
getting stuck to the concrete. Local experience has taught that channels of up to 80 m
long can be flushed effectively if they have built-in cross-lips (see Figure 8.4).
If the building has a horizontal channel with no slope, a cross-lip of 150 mm across
the discharge end of the flat channel floor will at all times maintain a corresponding
water level in the channel. This water will prevent manure from sticking to the dry
concrete floor between flushings (see Figure 8.5). A low water level can also be
obtained by installing a weir at the discharge end. Good results can be obtained by
building 300 mm deep channels absolutely level without any cross-lips over a
distance of 35 m. Construction of these channels is also much easier.
A possible alternative is to use the open channel system in grower and finisher
buildings. A potential problem is the spreading of disease and the transmission of
antibiotics. The open channel system allows animal’s direct contact with the flushing
water and is therefore not recommended for working sows and working sow units.
When the animals lie in the open channel while it is being flushed, their skins get
wet, offering a cheap and simple way of evaporation cooling. In this way, the
summer performance of animals can be improved.
Open concrete channels of one meter wide, 50 mm to 100 mm deep, with a slope of
one to two percent on the long side of the building, drain towards a cross channel
alongside the building and from there to a lagoon (see Figure 8.6).
The flushing tank with sluice gate or valve discharge is the most popular system
because it is simple and easy to conduct. Details about flush tank designs are shown
in Figures 8.7, 8.8 and 8.9.
• Building costs are low because the tank can be placed at ground level against one
wall joined to the end wall of the building.
• A simple and inexpensive sluice gate may be used.
• The tank may be filled by means of an inexpensive low-powered pump.
• To prevent the tank from accidentally overflowing, a floater-control inlet may be
installed as illustrated in Figure 8.9.
• Because of the large flushing volume, usually about 3,0 m³ per flushing, only one
flushing per day or one every two days will be necessary.
• Although greasing will help, it is difficult to prevent the sluice gate from leaking
when it is in use.
• Steel sluice gates with mechanical linkage are subject to corrosion.
• Manual labour is required to open the sluice gate for flushing.
A possible disadvantage of the flush tank with pipe discharge is that if the diameter
of the pipe is too small, the discharge will be too slow to remove solid manure from
the channel floor, especially at the bottom end of long buildings. This disadvantage
can be overcome by means of built-in cross-lips, which will maintain a minimum
liquid level in the channel (see Figure 8.4).
Tipping tanks are mainly used for small volume flushings, as at farrowing houses.
Experience has shown that large tipping tanks are expensive to build and service. A
typical tipping tank is shown in Figure 8.10.
• The size is almost limited to a content volume of 380 to 570 litres because more
expensive bearings and axles are required to handle large volumes.
• Strenuous labour conditions are required for regular maintenance of bearings and
In the case of animals, which died because of notifiable diseases or is thought to have
died because of one, the untouched carcasses must be disposed of by means of
burning or incineration. If none of these are possible the relevant carcasses must be
disposed of by burying them at least 1,8 m deep (in caustic lime, if possible),
especially in case of large animals and rabid animals, or animals thought to have
been infected by rabies. The carcasses of small animals or the remains of burnt or
incinerated carcasses must be buried at least 1,2 m deep.
Biologically active lagoons work better during summer than in winter. If the water
temperature of a lagoon falls below 10 °C to 13 °C, the anaerobic conversion of
organic material into methane gas and carbon dioxide will not take place on a
practical scale.
• When the primary lagoon is desludged from time to time, liquid manure inflow
may continue into the second lagoon.
• Lagoon liquid from the secondary lagoon may be used to irrigate pastures, since
toxic copper will concentrate in the slurry of the primary lagoon.
A secondary lagoon does not have to be of specific size, since the occurrence of bad
odours will depend on the size of the primary lagoon.
Location
For the sake of convenience, the lagoon has to be adjacent to the piggery, or as close
to it as is practically possible. It is also done to keep the cost of channels and pipes
conveying the liquid manure to the lagoons as low as possible. Lagoons have to be at
least 300 m from residential areas at a place where prevailing winds will carry bad
odours away from houses.
Retention time
Normal liquid manure and flushing water storage capacity should be enough for at
least 90 days. In dry regions with high evaporation rates, the retention time may be
longer than 200 days.
A lagoon has to be at least 2,0 m deep, but preferably even deeper. The lagoon can be
deeper than 6,0 m to keep the surface area as small as possible in order to minimize
bad odours, to keep evaporation losses and salt build-up as low as possible, to
encourage mixing due to rising gases, to reduce land area requirements and to
minimize temperature variations during winter time. A minimum of 0,6 m freeboard
above the design water surface should be provided for.
Anaerobic lagoons function well over a wide range of input loads up to a given
Criteria for the size of an anaerobic single lagoon without removal of solids prior to
loading are shown in Table 8.2.
Local experience has taught that a volume of 0,07 m³/kg body mass will be sufficient
for single lagoons in piggeries without creating undue problems with bad odours,
provided bedding is left out of it. With this value as guideline for South Africa, the
recommended lagoon volume for a 100-sow unit = 1 000 standard pigs of 60 kg each
= 60 000 kg body mass
= 4 200 m³ or more.
Sludge build-up
The removal of bedding and undigested cellulose from the lagoon inflow by means
of screening or sedimentation is essential. It ensures a long, useful lagoon lifespan
and prevents overloading of the available lagoon volume, which may result in bad
odours.
Embankment
The minimum top width should be 1,5 m. The side slope on the dry side of the
embankment should not be steeper than 2:1. The side slope of the wet side above the
The inlet and outlet of double lagoon systems should be located at opposite sides to
prevent short-circuiting and under-utilisation of lagoon volumes by active bacteria.
The inlet pipe of a lagoon should preferably discharge below the water surface level.
The inlet, outlet and general construction of a lagoon system are illustrated in
Figure 8.11.
Buried PVC or polyethylene piping may be used to convey manure to the lagoon
because it will not be affected by the highly corrosive nature of manure. PVC or
polyethylene pipes are also most suitable for recycling lagoon water. Pipes of
160 mm in diameter must be buried 300 mm to 600 mm underground to prevent
damage and deterioration.
Various configurations can be used to prevent floating solids from ending up in the
second lagoon. Three of these are illustrated in Figures 8.12, 8.13 and 8.14. The inlet
shown in Figure 8.12 should be about 300 mm below the outlet. The cleaning process
can then easily be conducted from the outlet point at the second lagoon. The structure
in Figure 8.13 uses a T-piece to prevent solids from entering. The bottom part of the
“T” should be 300 mm beneath the water surface and the T-piece should be within
1,0 m from the wall for cleaning purposes. The third type consists of an impregnated
timber baffle, nailed to an impregnated pole, which has been driven into the bank.
The pipe slope of the latter two types should be about 1:1 00.
Salinity
A large lagoon surface increases the evaporation rate and consequently also the salt
content. When lagoon water is recycled to flush out the manure, the salt accumulates
faster. A moderate increase in salinity stimulates biological activity. By allowing the
salt concentration to increase beyond an electric conductivity value of between
800 mS/m and 1 000 mS/m (or between 8 mmhos/cm and 10 mmhos/cm), the
bacterial activity decreases, bad odours get worse and rapid slurry accumulation is
encouraged. In this way, the lifespan of the lagoon is shortened. The relation between
biological activity and salt content in an anaerobic lagoon is shown in Figure 8.15.
A new lagoon has to be filled with water at least halfway to its design volume before
manure is added. The water may be obtained from nearby pools, streams or tanks.
Liquid manure should be added slowly at first and increased over a period of two to
four months until the loading rate level for which it has been designed has been
reached. It is preferable to start in warm weather rather than at the beginning of a
cold season.
Anaerobic lagoons should be filled with manure at least once a day. Intermittent
addition of manure with longer intervals can cause as bad an odour as when the pool
is completely overloaded.
In areas where evaporation is high, the inflow should contain sufficient diluting water
to maintain an electric conductivity of below 1 000 mS/m (or 10 mmhos/cm).
Hydraulic flushing systems, which use fresh water usually, supply ample dilution.
Where lagoon supernatant is recirculated to flush out the manure, dilution water must
be added. The amount can be determined by measuring the conductivity.
The pH of an anaerobic lagoon should be maintained between 6,8 and 7,8. Because
the first phase of the anaerobic decomposition is acid forming, the pH can be reduced
below 6,5 when the lagoon is overloaded or when the action of the methane forming
bacteria is slowed down by disinfectants or antibiotics, causing bad odours. If the pH
should drop below 6,8 hydrated lime should be added to the surface of the lagoon at a
rate of 1,0 kg per 200 m² per day until a pH level of 7 has been reached.
A lagoon has to be pumped or emptied in such a way as to retain half of its volume
(volume and not depth). Lagoons should never be pumped dry because a certain
amount of bacteria should remain to degrade incoming manure. In dry climates,
lagoons have to be partially refilled with fresh water after having been emptied to
decrease the concentration of total inorganic dissolved solids.
Removal of sludge
Sludge has to be removed when the displacement effect of the slurry has reduced the
liquid volume to below the required level for a stable bacterial population. Sludge
build-up which takes up about half of the total lagoon volume, is possibly the
maximum level allowed before bad odours occur.
The solid content of lagoon sludge usually varies between four and 10%, which
represents a semi-liquid consistency. Concentrations of more than 20% in solid parts
are, however, possible in well-compacted sludge.
A more practical method is to partially empty the lagoon, to agitate the sludge, and
then to pump the slurry mixture in a liquid manure spreader.
A third alternative is to agitate the whole of the lagoon contents, without emptying it
first, and to then pump the diluted sludge mixture through a large-bore sprinkler
irrigation system onto the farm-land. A long-shaft propeller agitator or a liquid
manure chopper agitator may be suitable.
Phosphorus, copper and zinc are concentrated in lagoon sludge. The sludge layer
contains:
When the dredged-out sludge is applied to farmlands, the high copper and zinc
contents should be kept in mind. The direct distribution of metal rich sludge on
pastures should be avoided to prevent sensitive animals such as sheep or calves from
contracting copper poisoning. A soil and irrigation expert should be consulted.
If a small number of pigs (up to 750 at an average weight of 90 kg each) are kept, a
single or double manure tank system may be used. In cases where liquid manure is
not going to be used for irrigation, but simply pumped over the soil or into a liquid
manure tanker, a single manure tank with agitator will be sufficient. If irrigation is to
be applied, however, most of the solid parts will first have to be separated from the
water. The site layout and type of separator (paragraph 8.5.3) will confirm whether
liquid manure can be conveyed straight from the unit over the manure separator into
the manure tank, or whether it should first flow into a storage tank with an agitator
before it is pumped over the manure separator to the second tank. Alternatively,
liquid manure, separated or unseparated, can be collected into a manure tank and then
pumped to a lagoon.
The function of the agitator or agitators (depending on the measurements of the tank)
is to bring the water and solid parts into suspension before these are being pumped. It
is essential to prevent the manure tank from silting up and/or the pump from not
Liquid manure can be carried to the manure tank by means of underground pipelines
or open concrete channels. Make use of submersible pumps, centrifugal pumps with
open or half-open impellers, which are suitable to pump separated or unseparated
liquid manure effectively.
Mechanical equipment that does not require much supervision and maintenance
includes the static horizontal bar or wedge-wire screens, certain types of vibrating
screens and the rotatory brush screen. The solid parts that are removed are usually
dry enough to be handled by scrapers. Collected solids may be processed further by
composting.
The static horizontal bar, or wedge-wire screen, has the advantage that it has no
moving parts and that variations in flow rate do not seriously affect the performance.
Though the initial costs are high, it is inexpensive to operate. It is one of the most
popular devices for screening liquid pig manure (Figure 8.18).
Screen openings of between 0,5 mm to 1,0 mm are usually the best for handling pig
slurry. A loading rate of about 12,5 l/s or 750 l/min per metre of screen width is
recommended. A manual or automatic pump is used to load the screen.
Vibrating screens (Figure 8.19) are available as circular or rectangular models made
of woven fabric or stainless steel mesh. Mesh sizes can be ordered to suit different
types of slurry. Power is supplied by one or two three-phased vibrator motors with a
total rating of 0,25 kW to 0,4 W.
As in the case of static inclined bar screens, vibrating screens are relatively simple to
install and operate. However, the maintenance cost on some of the models may be
high.
Both the static and the vibrating screens are best suited for diluted slurry. With thick
slurry, both screens tend to become overloaded, with the result that less slurry flows
through and that solids are wet. Thick slurry can still be diluted.
A problem often encountered with wedge-wire and vibrating screens is the build-up
of bacterial slime, which causes the openings between the wires to become blocked.
A successful method to combat the problem is to wash the screens with a chlorine-
free slimicide. The process takes about ten minutes. Chlorine attacks stainless steel,
especially on welding seams.
A third and popular type of mechanical manure separator is the roller brush
separator. It is a circular drum consisting of a steel screen with openings of between
0,5 mm and 0,1 mm, mounted at an angle and slowly rotated by an electric motor.
Liquid manure and solids flow from the unit over the separator. The water falls
through the screen openings, while the solids slowly move out as the drum rotates.
8.5.5 Manure spreaders and sprinklers and the use and application of manure
There is a difference between solid manure spreaders and distribution equipment for
liquid manure. Solid manure spreaders with rear delivery or side delivery offer a
practical method to distribute solid manure evenly over farmlands. The disadvantage
of this type of spreader is that it requires high labour costs. Soil compaction by
wheels, as well as traction problems on wet soil, is a common occurrence.
All liquid manure tankers have the same disadvantages than the solid manure
spreaders.
The most common method to distribute diluted slurry is by means of a pipeline and
big gun sprinklers. Where solid manure has been separated, ordinary irrigation
sprinklers can be used. Pipes can either be laid on the surface or buried.
9. TRANSPORTATION OF PIGS
Large sums of money are lost every year due to bruising and especially deaths during
the loading, unloading and transportation of pigs. It is therefore essential that pigs
reach their destination as healthily and as speedily as possible, and with the least
amount of stress. To achieve this goal, it is important to be informed about the
various aspects, which may influence the loading, unloading and transportation of
pigs.
Because of a pig’s wide visual field and poor observation of depth of field, it is
extremely sensitive to changes in the brightness of light. For this reason, contrasts
between light and darkness, such as shadows at loading and unloading facilities,
should be avoided.
Loading ramps should be positioned north/south to prevent pigs from looking into
the sun while they are loaded. This also implies that loading should be done early or
late in the day.
Curved loading ramp passages with solid walls are more effective than straight ones.
The reason for this is that pigs only notice the vehicle after they have advanced far
onto the loading ramp.
9.2 Stress
Some pigs are genetically predisposed to stress, which poses one of the biggest
problems in the transportation of pigs. Pigs that show signs of stress during
transportation should be allowed to rest, otherwise they may die. Symptoms of stress
are suddenly lying down, panting, trembling and red blotches on the skin. However,
some pigs have genetically engineered low stress levels.
Stress due to high ambient temperatures is one of the main causes of death during
transportation. Pigs should not be transported if the ambient temperature is higher
than 26,5° C. If it cannot be avoided, the pigs should be cooled by means of a
sprinkler system. The graph below (Figure 9.1) illustrates the combined influence of
temperature and humidity on porcine stress.
Use a ramp not steeper than 25° (slope of 1:2,2) and as near as possible to the level of
the truck to enable the pigs to safely step up and down. Steps of 100 mm × 300 mm
work better than a relatively steep ramp.
The rails on the ramp must be high and strong enough to prevent a pig from breaking
through. There should also be no gaps between the rails of the ramp and those of the
vehicle.
A floor area of between 0,2 m² and 0,3 m² should be allowed for porkers, and
between 0,3 m² and 0,4 m² for baconers.
The floor should be solid, impenetrable and slip-free, while allowing for proper
drainage. The use of grids on the floor reduces the number of deaths, but increases
the number that will lie down. In other words, the possibility of bruising increases
because those that lie down can be trampled.
The use of diagonal partitions will reduce the number of deaths during transportation.
It has the advantage that the recommended floor area per pig is still allowed, even
when the vehicle is not carrying a full load.
With the use of double-deck vehicles the height between the decks should be at least
0,75 to 1,0 m. Proper ventilation and escape outlets for all gases should be provided.
Pigs kept in confinement are not used to exercise and should not be chased up the
loading ramp, because it will increase their heartbeat. Pigs are then inclined to lie
down to allow the heart rate to return to safe levels.
Never throw water on a pig that has collapsed. It may experience shock and die.
Rather wet the area around the pig and allow it to cool through evaporation.
Also never use an electric prod on pigs. The shock will increase the heartbeat, which
may give the pig a heart attack and cause him to die.
The driver of the vehicle should be trained to handle the pigs with care. He should be
able to drive properly, to pull away smoothly and to slowly drive around corners.
Pigs seldom fight during transportation. In any case, pigs that are familiar with one
another should be kept together at the abattoir. This will minimise down-gradings
due to injuries caused by fighting. Prime cuts are always the first to be bruised during
fights.
The layout of piggeries should be planned in such a way that it facilitates the
supervision and management of the various breeding and growth stages. The
proposed layout (Figure 10.1) includes the most important basic principles. Though
these can be adapted to the specific needs of individual breeding farms, it is advisable
to stick to them as closely as possible.
Because of the management importance of disease control, the layout of the piggery
should be designed with this in mind. Visiting pig breeders, sales representatives and
delivery vehicles, which move from one piggery to the next, pose the greatest danger
in the spreading of disease. To eliminate infection through these sources, the
following precautions can be built into the layout:
The layout of buildings should be such to allow for a logical flow from the top to the
bottom of the piggery unit. While there is a continuous flow of sows between the dry
sow quarters, the service quarters and the farrowing quarters, the buildings are placed
downhill in this order. The following two buildings, that are the weaner and grower
pens, are placed on the same terrace close to each other. From the grower building a
separate fenced passage leads to a point between the finishing buildings lower down.
10.4 Supervision
The office should be situated directly opposite the buildings where the service and
farrowing pens are because they require the most supervision. Most of the buildings,
as well as the feed and herding passages, should be visible from the office.
The fenced passages, which run along the ends of the buildings, can be used to
distribute feed to all the buildings, or to herd the pigs from one building to the next,
as necessary. Gates that are long enough to close off the passage are installed where
needed. The gates are left open against the passage wall when they are not in use.
The building plans provide for alternative types of buildings for weaners and
growers. Small changes to the size and arrangement of the layout are inevitable,
depending on the choice of building plans, but the sequence of the buildings should
not be changed.
Because the buildings depend on natural ventilation, the distance between the
buildings should be made larger. The distances can also give added protection in the
case of fire. With proper planning of the gardens in the open areas, the usually boring
A workshop can be placed in the bottom corner of the unit where there is enough
space to park and turn machinery.
It is suggested that these facilities are put outside the unit. All down-flow channels
and pipes work with gravity and lead to the waste handling system. An entrance gate
for operators should be provided in the fence close-by.
Provision for future expansions is imperative, even if the possibilities seem remote.
Provision has been made for an additional 100-sow unit in the plan layout
(Figure 10.1). The road for tractors and trailers around the 100-sow unit is necessary
to eliminate problems with turning. The road is adapted as indicated for the second
unit. Further expansion can be done either on the other side of the second unit or on
the other side of the road opposite the side fence of the office, or even above the
existing unit.
No-fines concrete is concrete composed of only coarse aggregate, cement and water. No-fine
aggregate or sand is used. Furthermore, the cement and water mixture is sufficient to coat the
stone particles, so that they stick together at the points of contact. The spaces that are created
between the stones are then equally distributed. To differentiate between no-fines and normal
concrete, the latter is called dense concrete.
No-fines concrete is much lighter than dense concrete (about 1 500 kg/m³ compared to
2 400 kg/m³ for normal concrete with stone and sand) and much weaker. Even so, it is strong
enough for all types of floors, except those that are subject to heavy concentrated loads, or
reinforced suspended floors.
Another advantage of no-fines concrete is that it is easy to mix and lay. Because it forms a
coarse surface, the top surface adheres strongly. Because this type of floor dries quickly, a
suitable covering can be laid within a few days of the end of the damp-curing period.
Finally, no-fines concrete floors are economica1. Not only is the cement content low, but the
foundations also do not need the usual layer of coarse granular material or damp-proofing
membranes.
Proportions
One bag of cement to 0,3 m³ of stone is recommended for all types of floors. This mixture
only requires 3,3 bags of cement per cubic metre no-fines concrete.
Mixing water
The quantity of water needed for the mixing process is critical and should be managed
carefully. Just enough water should be used with the cement to form a paste or slurry of such
consistency that it will coat the stones evenly. If it is too wet, the paste will run down into the
voids in the bottom layers of stone, thus not only defeating the object, but also weakening
those parts of the no-fines concrete from which the paste has run down. With the right
amount of water, the paste will not run down, but will be stymied where the stones touch. The
layer of paste between the stones then dries up and gives the concrete its strength.
Usually about 20 litres of water is needed per bag of cement, but slightly more will be needed
if the stone is porous or rough-surfaced, or smaller than usual.
Stone
The stone should be clean, hard and durable. The stones should be of the same size, if
possible. The recommended size for floors is 20 mm stone.
Round or cubic stones are best and elongated, flat stones should be avoided.
Mixing
If mixing is done by machine, it is best to wet the stones first with half the water. Thereafter,
the cement and the rest of the water can be added and mixed until the stone is evenly covered
with the paste.
For manual mixing, it is suggested that the cement and water are first mixed in a separate
container. This mixture is then poured over the stone and the two mixed thoroughly on a non-
porous mixing surface.
Placing
The topping should be selected to satisfy all requirements. With most domestic and other
applications with light wear of the topping, a 20 mm topping of cement-sand mortar will be
adequate with a mixture of 130 litres sand on one bag of cement. In all other cases, a topping
of medium or strong concrete made with 9,5 mm stone should be provided, the thickness
being chosen to suit the duty, within a range of 40 mm to 50 mm thick.
Because no-fines concrete dries out very easily, special care should be taken to keep the
concrete wet, so that the cement has time to harden.
The topping should also be thoroughly damp-cured to develop resistance to wear. By damp
curing the topping, the no-fines concrete underneath is also damp-cured. At air temperatures
above 15° C, no-fines concrete and other toppings should be kept wet for at least five days.
At lower temperatures, longer periods are required.
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Artificial ventilation can be obtained by means of extractor fans, which are installed in the
ridge of the roof. Fresh air is sucked in through controlled openings on the sides of the
buildings. Low airflow is thus created, which is beneficial for, among others, flat decks and
other types of weaner housing. Pre-heated air can be let in through the ceiling by means of
another system.
Another form of mechanical ventilation is by blowing fresh air into the building by means of
fans installed in the roof, while stale air is allowed to escape through controlled openings in
the sidewalls of the building. This type of system is also intended to bring about a slow
airflow rate. Once again, the air can be pre-heated to obtain temperature-controlled buildings,
especially for weaners.
Growers
9-18 kg 0,00095 0,0071 0,017
18-45 kg 0,0024 0,0095 0,023
45-68 kg 0,0033 0,012 0,034
68-96 kg 0,0047 0,017 0,047
The following illustrations, Figures B2, B3 and B4 show the placing of fans and the
ventilation effect it causes.
Because of high building costs, buildings with natural ventilation are more economical in
terms of both fixed and running costs. If it is at all possible, natural ventilation should get
preference in buildings, provided that the principles as mentioned above are strictly adhered
to. Mechanical ventilation may, however, be used with good results, provided it is done with
discretion, and then only in exceptional cases, such as early weaner housing.
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