CEL251 Hydrology

LOSSES – Evaporation, Transpiration and Interception

General

Evaporation and transpiration are that phase of the hydrologic cycle in which precipitation
reaching the earth's surface is returned to the atmosphere as vapour. Of the precipitation
falling towards the earth, a portion evaporates before reaching the ground. Since precipitation
is normally measured near the ground, evaporation from raindrops is of no practical concern
in engineering hydrology. Likewise, evaporation from the oceans lies beyond the
hydrologist's scope of direct interest. Evaporation from free water surfaces and soil, and
transpiration by plants are important to a hydrologist in designing water resources projects, in
forecasting stream flows, and in determining water supply requirements of proposed
irrigation projects. In Engineering Hydrology, we are interested in water that occurs in rivers,
lakes, and other land areas. We estimate ET so that we can determine water that is left over
land areas, or in groundwater storage. That's why we call ET losses or hydrologic losses.

Evaporation
Evaporation or vaporization is the process by which water changes from liquid state to
vaporous state. This change in state requires an exchange of approximately 2.5 kJ energy for
each gram of water evaporated. Two main factors influencing the evaporation from an open
water surface are the supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporization and the ability to
transport the vapour away from the evaporating surface. Solar radiation is the main source of
heat energy. The ability to transport the vapour away from the evaporating surface depends
on the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity gradient in the air above it.

Estimating Evaporation from Free Water Surfaces

Rates of evaporation vary depending on meteorological factors and the nature of the
evaporating surface and the quality of evaporating water. Meteorological factors affecting
evaporation are solar radiation, differences in vapour pressure between a water surface and
the overlying air, relative humidity, temperature, wind, atmospheric pressure, etc. For large
bodies of water, because of the extensive surfaces involved, direct measurements of
evaporation are not possible. As a consequence, a variety of techniques have been derived for
determining or estimating evaporation. Six methods are available for estimating evaporation
from free water surface.

1. Water Budget Method

The water budget method for the estimation of evaporation uses the water budget equation of
the lake or reservoir. Evaporation from the lake or reservoir is estimated by knowing all the
other terms in the water budget equation (i.e., precipitation, net surface and ground water
inflow, transpiration and change in storage). The water budget method for determining
evaporation is a very simple procedure, but it seldom produces reliable results. This is
because some other terms in the water budget equation are also difficult to measure (eg
seepage).

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2. Energy Budget Method

This is an application of conservation of energy. Evaporation of water takes energy. How

much evaporation has occurred can be estimated by how much energy is consumed. How
much energy is consumed can be estimated by using the energy budget equation. The energy
equation accounts for incoming and outgoing energy balanced by the amount of energy
stored in the system and consumed in evaporation. Evaporation requires heat to vaporize the
liquid in form of latent heat of vaporization, which is the amount of heat absorbed by a unit
mass of a substance, without change in temperature, while passing from liquid to the vapour
state. The latent heat of vaporization varies with temperature which is in calories per gram
and in joules per kilogram are

Lhv = 597.3 − 0.564 T and Lhv = 2.501 × 10 6 − 2370 T

respectively wherein T is in °C.

3. Mass Transfer (Aerodynamic) Methods

Besides the supply of heat energy, the second factor controlling the evaporation rate is the
ability to transport the vapour away from the evaporating surface. The transport rate is
governed by the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity gradient in the air
above it. This method estimates the rate of evaporation based on the turbulent transfer of
water vapour from an evaporating surface to the atmosphere. The rate of transfer is mainly a
function of the vapour pressure gradient. Most commonly used equation of this type is Dalton
Model, which is:

E = fw (es - ea)

where E = rate of evaporation; and fw = wind function which is dependent on the wind
velocity, atmospheric pressure and other factors; Several empirical equations are available for
fw. Most commonly used equation is in the form

fw = a(1 + bu )

where a and b are empirical constants, and u = wind velocity at some fixed height from the
water surface. es, ea = the saturation vapour pressure at water surface temperature (Ts) and the
vapour pressure at air temperature (Ta), respectively. Since ea = Rh×es, so

  17.27 Ts   17.27 Ta 
E = 610.78 a(1 + bu ) exp  − Rh exp 
  237.3 + Ts   237.3 + Ta 

4. Combination of Mass Transfer and Energy Budget Method

Evaporation may be computed by the aerodynamic method when energy supply is not
limiting and by the energy balance method when vapour transport is not limiting. But,
normally, both of these factors are limiting, so as a combination of the two is needed. The
most widely used is the Penman's Equation. Through a simultaneous solution of an

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aerodynamic equation and an energy budget equation, Penman derived the following
equation for daily evaporation E:

∆ γ
E= Er + Ea
∆+γ ∆ +γ

where Ea is the pan evaporation or evaporation calculated from aerodynamic methods; Er is

evaporation rate computed from the rate of net radiation Rn (Er = 0.0353 Rn mm/day and Rn in
W/m2); γ = psychrometric constant (~66.8 Pa/°C); ∆ is the slope of the saturation vapour
pressure vs. temperature curve at the air temperature Ta ie

d es d   17.27 Ta  4098 es
∆= = 610.78 exp   =
  (237.3 + T ) 2
dT dT   237.3 + Ta  a

∆/(∆ + γ) and γ /(∆ + γ) are weighting factors they sum to unity.

The combination method of calculating evaporation from meteorological data is the most
accurate method when all the required data are available and the assumptions are satisfied.
The chief assumptions of the energy balance are that steady state energy flow prevails and
that changes in heat storage over time in the water body are not significant. This assumption
limits the application of the method to daily time intervals or longer, and to situations not
involving large heat storage capacity, such as large lakes. The chief assumption of the
aerodynamic method is associated with the wind function. Thus the combination is well
suited for application to small areas with detailed climatological data. The required data
include net radiation, air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and air pressure. When some of
these data are unavailable simpler evaporation equations requiring fewer variables must be
used. Usually, instrumentation for energy budget and mass transfer methods is quite
expensive to install and maintain, as a result, the water budget method and evaporation pans
are more common.

5. Empirical Formulas

A large number of empirical equations are available to estimate evaporation using available
meteorological data. e.g. USGS and USBR Formula:

E = 4.57T + 43.3

where E in cm/yr; T is the mean annual temperature in °C.

6. Use of Evaporation Pans

The most widely used method of finding reservoir evaporation is by means of evaporation
pans. Pans are basically water filled containers. Evaporation is found by observing how much
water is lost over time. There are different designs for these pans, e.g. the US class A pan, ISI
standard pan, Colorado sunken pan and the Russian GGI pan. Likewise they may be sunken,
floating, and surface type. Burying the pan tends to eliminate objectionable boundary effects,
such as radiation on the side walls and heat exchange between the atmosphere and the pan
itself, but creates observational problems. Sunken pans collect more trash; they are difficult

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to install, clean, and repair; leaks are not easily detected; and height of vegetation adjacent to
the pan is quite critical. The evaporation from a pan floating in a lake more nearly
approximates evaporation from the lake than that from an on shore installation, but even so,

Colorado Sunken Pan

US Class A Pan
the boundary effects are appreciable.
Observational difficulties are prevalent
with floating pans (splashing frequently renders the data unreliable), and installation and
operational expense is excessive. Pans exposed above ground experience greater evaporation
than sunken pans, primarily because of the radiant energy intercepted by the side walls, and
heat exchange through the pan produces unrealistic effects which must be taken into account.
Insulating the pan can minimize both deficiencies. The principal advantages of surface
exposure are economy
and ease of installation,
operation, and
maintenance. ISI is a
surface exposure type
pan. The top of the pan
is covered fully with a
hexagonal wire netting
of galvanized iron to
protect the water in the
pan from bird. Further,
the presence of a wire
mesh makes the water
temperature more
uniform during day and ISI Evaporation Pan
night. The evaporation
from this pan is less by 14% compared to that from unscreened pan.

Evaporation pans are not exact models of large reservoirs as they differ in heat storage
capacity and heat transfer from sides and bottom, and height of the rim affects wind action
and cast shadow of variable magnitude. Due to these, normally, the pan will overestimate E.
In some circumstances the pan will underestimate E because a lake will conserve heat longer.
Actual evaporation from large bodies of water is the evaporation measured by pans
multiplied by a factor of 0.70 - 0.75 (pan coefficient), but this factor varies by season and
location. So

Lake/Reservoir evaporation = Pan coefficient × Pan evaporation

Evaporation from a water surface is a continuous process. Its estimation is of utmost

importance in many hydrologic problems associated with planning and operation of
reservoirs and irrigation systems. Under Indian conditions evaporation loss from a water

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body is about 1.60 m in a year and still higher in arid regions. Thus the quantity of water lost
by evaporation in a year is very large, which is an economic loss to the valuable investment
made in developing reservoirs and dams. In arid zones where water is scarce, the importance
of conservation of water through reduction of evaporation is obvious. This can be achieved
by reducing surface area of water bodies, by mechanical covers, and by applying a thin
chemical (monocular) film on the water surface. Monocular layer (cetyl alcohol) is the
effective and feasible method, which inhibit evaporation (20-50%) by preventing the water
molecules to escape past them. It is colourless, odourless and nontoxic, and pervious to
oxygen and carbon dioxide, so the water quality is not affected by its presence. However
wind, oxidation and birds may disturb the layer requiring regular replenishments.

Transpiration
Only minute portions of the water absorbed by the root systems of plants remain in the plant
tissues; virtually all is discharged to the atmosphere as vapour through transpiration. The ratio
of the water transpired to that used in forming plant matter is 800 or more. Transpiration is
the process by which soil moisture taken up by vegetation is evaporated from the airspaces in
plant leaves. In transpiration water is extracted by the plants' roots, transported upwards
through its stem, and diffused into the atmosphere through tiny openings in the leaves called
stomata. The transpiration process constitutes an important phase of the hydrologic cycle
since it is the principal mechanism by which the precipitation infiltered into the soil is
returned to the atmosphere. Transpiration is controlled by the same factors that control
evaporation, i.e. solar radiation; temperature, wind velocity, and vapour pressure gradient, in
addition, transpiration is affected by the character of plants and plant density. In estimating
transpiration, available soil moisture also needs to be considered {supply side). The rate of
transpiration is largely independent of plant type, provided there is adequate soil water and
the surface is entirely covered by vegetation. Since photosynthesis is highly dependent on the
radiation received, about 95% of daily transpiration occurs during daylight hours, compared
with 75 to 90% for soil evaporation. Plant growth normally ceases when temperatures drop to
near 4 °C, and transpiration becomes very small. Plant type becomes an important factor in
controlling transpiration when available soil moisture is limited. Deep rooted vegetation
transpires more water during sustained dry periods than shallow rooted species. Transpiration
per unit area also depends on the density of vegetative cover.

Field Capacity: the amount of moisture (water) retained in a soil against gravity drainage.

Wilting Point: soil moisture stage at which plants wilt and do not recover in a humid
atmosphere.

When soil moisture level is equal to or less than field capacity, further depletion of moisture
takes place only through evapotranspiration. As long as soil moisture lies between the limits
of wilting point and field capacity, transpiration is not materially affected. Precise values for
quantities of water transpired are difficult to acquire, since many variables are active in the
process. Transpiration is even more difficult to measure and estimate than evaporation. A
Field measurement of transpiration alone is virtually impossible. One method involves
placing one or more potted plants in a closed container and computing transpiration as the
increase in moisture content of the confined space. Most measurements are made with a
phytometer, a large vessel filled with soil in which one or more plants are rooted. The only
escape of moisture by transpiration (the soil surface is sealed to prevent evaporation), which
can be determined by weighing the plant and container at desired intervals of time. By

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providing aeration and additional water a phytometer study can be carried through the entire
life cycle of a plant. Since it is virtually impossible to simulate natural conditions, the results
of phytometer observations are mostly of academic interest to the hydrologist. That is why
measurements of the combination of evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration) are
commonly taken.

Evapotranspiration
In studying the water balance of a drainage basin, it is usually impracticable to separate
evaporation and transpiration, and the practicing engineer therefore treats the two factors as a
single item. Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation directly from the soil
and vegetation surface, and transpiration through leaves of plants. The processes of
evaporation from the land surface and transpiration from vegetation are often times referred
to collectively by Evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration (ET) is limited by: (1) Supply of
energy to provide latent heat of vaporization, (2) Ability to transport the vapour away from
the surface, and (3) Supply of water at the evaporative surface.

The evapotranspiration depends on the density of vegetation cover and its stage of
development. Thus we distinguish between Potential and Actual evapotranspiration. The
Potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration that would occur from a fully covered
green vegetation surface when moisture supply is not limiting, and this is considered to be
equivalent to the evaporation from a free water surface of extended proportions but with
negligible heat storage capacity. Potential evapotranspiration no longer critically depends on
soil and plant factors but depends essentially on climatic factors. The real evapotranspiration
occurring in a specific situation is called Actual evapotranspiration. Actual
evapotranspiration drops below its Potential level as the soil dries out. Clearly if we run out
of moisture, the plants will not continue to transpire nor does the soil surface continue to
evaporate. Consumptive use is the total evaporation from an area plus the water used directly
in building plant tissue. The distinction between the consumptive use and evapotranspiration
is largely academic, falling well within the error of measurement, and they are now generally
treated as synonymous. When used with respect to a specific crop, consumptive use is the
evapotranspiration experienced if water supply is adequate at all times.

Generally calculations of the rate of evapotranspiration are made using the same methods as
used for determining evaporation, with adjustments to account for the condition of the
vegetation and soil e.g. water-budget method, etc. Application to a water budget to field plots
produces satisfactory results only under ideal conditions, which are rarely attained. Precise
measurement of percolation is not possible, and consequent errors tend to be cumulative.
Many observations of evapotranspiration are made in soil containers variously known as
tanks, evapotranspirometers, and Lysimeters in which evapotranspiration is computed by
maintaining a water budget. The first two terms customarily refer to containers with sealed
bottoms, while Lysimeter has pervious bottoms or a mechanism for maintaining negative
pressure at the bottom. Lysimeter is a device that allows an area of a field to be isolated from
the rest and yet experience similar conditions. Typically just a cylinder inserted into the soil
or a tank filled with soil and placed in a field. By measuring the components of water balance
inside the Lysimeter, the actual amount of evapotranspiration can be determined. Lysimeter
are of weighing or non-weighing types. Weighing: continuously weigh water contained inside
the Lysimeter; non-weighing: measuring infiltration into and percolation out of the Lysimeter.

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Since Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation from the soil surface and
transpiration from vegetation; in Engineering Hydrology, the total consumptive use is of real
interest. There are numerous methods and approaches for estimation of ET, no one is
generally acceptable under all conditions. Similar to infiltration, further complexity is due to
the fact that actual amount of ET is also controlled by the supply side i.e. availability of
water. There are three major approaches to estimating ET: (1) Theoretical, based on physics
of the process. (2) Analytical, based on energy or water budgets. (3) Empirical, based on
observations.

Several empirical techniques have been developed for estimating potential evapotranspiration
from readily available climatological data and latitude, duration of sunshine hours.
Thornthwaite's method and Blaney-Criddle's method involve temperature and duration of
possible sunshine. Other methods based on climatic data are Christiansen method,
Hargreaves method, Lowry-Johnson method, Jensen-Haise method, Turc method, etc.
Procedures which rely on temperature as the sole index to heat supply at particular latitude
and which neglect cloudiness, humidity, wind, and other factors are subject to rather large
errors under adverse circumstances. Since potential evapotranspiration and evaporation from
a thin free water surface are affected by the same meteorological factors, the most widely
used is the Penman Method similar to the Penman Eq. for estimating daily evaporation from
reservoirs.

In determination of consumptive use for crops for given climatic conditions, the basic rate is
the reference crop evapotranspiration, this being the rate of evapotranspiration from an
extensive surface of 8 cm to 15 cm tall green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing,
completely shading the ground and not short of water. The potential evapotranspiration of
another crop growing under the same conditions as the reference crop is calculated by
multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration Etr by a crop coefficient kc, the value of
which changes with the stage of growth of the crop. The values of the crop coefficient kc vary
over a range of about 0.2 ≤ kc ≤ 1.3. The initial value of kc for well watered soil with little
vegetation, is approximately 0.35. As the vegetation develops, kc increases to a maximum
value, then decline as the crop matures its moisture requirements diminish. The actual
evapotranspiration Et is found by multiplying the potential evapotranspiration by a soil
coefficient ks (0 ≤ ks ≤ 1 ).

ET = ks kc Etr

There are a few other methods available for estimating actual evapotranspiration. In selecting
a method to use, it is important to know what weather data are available. Each method has
different climatic information requirement. Because of the complexities involved in the ET
process, only the order of magnitude accuracy can be achieved in estimating ET using the
approaches discussed.

Although we cannot easily see or measure it, the volume of ET from a watershed over time
can be substantial. Over the long term ET represents the largest hydrologic loss component.
However, evaporation and transpiration losses in shorter term (hourly or maximum a day or
two) rainfall-runoff sequences are not significant as compared to the magnitude of rainfall
and runoff. That's why hydrologic models that model the process of runoff generation within
rainfall events usually neglect ET.

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ABSTRACTIONS: Interception and Depression Storage
Accounting for the disposition of precipitation is an important part of the hydrologic
modeling process. Two abstractions from precipitation input:

(a) interception loss and

(b) depression storage.

Interception losses and depression storage losses during the course of a year may be
substantial, but during intense storms, they may be sufficiently small to neglect.

Interception

If we follow the pathways that precipitated water takes when it reaches the earth, the first
encounters are intercepting surfaces: trees, crops, grass, and civil engineering structures. Part
of the precipitation is intercepted by trees, grass, other vegetation, and structural objects and
eventually returns to the atmosphere by evaporation i.e. never reach the ground surface.

Interception loss is defined as that portion of the gross precipitation that wets and adheres to

Gross

Intercepti

Stemflow Throughf
above-ground objects until it is returned to the
atmosphere through evaporation.
Infiltration
Vegetation: Portion of the precipitation may be
retained on leaves, some will still fall down (referred to as throughfall), some will flow down
along the stem (referred to as stemflow). Only that portion that never reaches the ground is
interception.

Interception is a function of (1) the storm character, (2) the characteristics of the prevailing
vegetation, and (3) the season of the year.

For a forested area, interception may be directly measured. For other areas difficult to directly
measure.

Interception Storage (S): The maximum volume that can be intercepted and retained on the
foliage against the forces of wind and gravity. (S is often expressed as depth over the entire

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area). If the total rainfall volume is less than S, then all rainfall will be intercepted. Potential
interception losses during storm can be estimated:

Li = S + K E t

Li = the volume of water intercepted (mm); K = the ratio of surface area of intercepting leaves
to the horizontal projection of the total area (>1); E = the evaporation rate (mm/hr) during the
storm period; and t = duration of storm (hr).

Generally, interception losses are difficult to estimate. For large storms this loss is relatively
insignificant. That’s why in engineering hydrology, it is either neglected or combined with
other losses.

Depression Storage

Once reaching the ground, part of the precipitation may become trapped in numerous small
depressions (the land surface is not smooth and flat) from which the only escape is
evaporation or infiltration.

Maximum Depression Storage (Sd): the maximum storage capacity of all the depressions
(mm over the entire catchment).

Because of extreme variability in the nature of depressions, no generalized relation exists to

estimate the depression storage of a catchment.

The nature of depressions is largely a function of the original land form and local land use
practices.

In modeling the rainfall-runoff process for engineering purposes, the frequently used
assumption is that all depressions must be full before overland flow supply begins.