Books


Non-conventional energy sources by G. D. Rai (Khanna Publication)

Fundamentals of renewable energy resources: G. N, Tiwari and M. K. Ghosal
Non-Conventional Energy Resources by B H Khan

Common energy forms


kinetic energy of a moving object

radiant energy carried by light

potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field,(gravitational, electric or magnetic)

elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects

chemical energy released when a fuel burns

thermal energy due to an object's temperature.


Enrgy Science? (A systematic study of various forms of energy and energy transformations)

Energy Technology? (Applied Part of energy science useful to human society)
 Introdunction

Energy is the ability of a system to perform
work.

It is a property of objects which can be
transferred to other objects or converted into
different forms, but cannot be created or
destroyed.
 Classification of energy resources
Based on usability Based on tradition

Primary 
Conventional

Secondary 
Non-conventional

Based on availability Based on market


Non-renewable 
Commercial

Renewable 
Non-commercial
“Primary energy should be used to designate those sources that only involve extraction or
capture, with or without separation from contiguous material, cleaning or grading, before the
energy embodied in that source can be converted into heat or mechanical work.”

“Secondary energy should be used to designate all sources of energy that results from
transformation of primary sources”
 Estimate the size of reserves

Units of energy

Joule Ammount of energy consumed by a 1 kW hair drier in 1 ms

Kilo Watt Hour (kWh) (1kWh=3.6 x 10^6 Joules= energy contained in 100 g Chocolate)

Barrels of oil equivalent or tons of coal equivalents

Energy Current:

Consumtion of chemical energy per unti time (power) is energy current taken
from reserves.
(Population )
Time for all reserves to be used = 1040 / 13.6 years
= 76 years (Approx.)

Wake up !!!! Time is running out fast!!!

Estimate the maximum size of fossil energy
HAPPY????
IMPORTANT
Green House effect
Temperature of the Sun=6000 K
Solar spectrum maximum= 0.5 micro meter (Atmoshpere is transparent for this)

Due to lowert temperature of earth;

the emmitted radiation has maximum= 10 mocrometer (infrared region)

Fire screen model

With n being the number of firescreens
 Availability of energy resources

A. INDIA

Energy has come to be known as a `strategic commodity’ and any uncertainty about its supply
can threaten the functioning of the entire economy, particularly in developing economies.

India’s substantial and sustained economic growth is placing enormous demand on its energy resources.
The demand and supply imbalance in energy sources is pervasive requiring serious efforts by Government
of India to augment energy supplies as India faces possible severe energy supply constraints. Energy
requirement in our country is increasing at a very rapid rate. Achieving energy security in this strategic
sense is of fundamental importance not only to India’s economic growth but also for the human
development objectives that aim at alleviation of poverty, unemployment and meeting the Development
Goals.
Coal deposits are mainly confined to eastern and south central parts of the country. The states of
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra
account for more than 99% of the total coal reserves in the country. The State of Jharkhand had the
maximum share (26.81%) in the overall reserves of coal in the country as on 31st March 2014
followed by the State of Odisha(24.94%)
The total availability of raw coal in India in 2013-14 stood at 739.92 MTs.
 The availability of coal in the year 2013-14 increased by 4.11% compared to 2012-13.

The estimated total consumption of raw coal by industry has increased from 407.04 MTs during
2005-06 to 571.89 MTs during 2013-14

Electricity generation is the biggest consumer of coal, followed by steel industries.

Petroleum and Natural gas

 The estimated reserves of crude oil in India as on 31.03.2014 stood at 762.74 million tons
(MT).

 Geographical distribution of Crude oil indicates that the maximum reserves are in the
Western Offshore (42.91%) followed by Assam (22.69%), whereas the maximum reserves
of Natural Gas are in the Eastern Offshore (37.24%) followed by Western offshore \
(30.17%).
The estimated reserves of natural gas in India as on 31.03.2014 stood
at 1427.15 billion cubic meters (BCM)
Availability of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products
 The availability of crude oil in the country increased from 131.60 Mts during 2005-06 to 227.03 MTs
during 2013-14.
Availability of Natural Gas

 The production of natural gas has steadily increased from a mere 31.33 BCMs during
2005-06 to 34.64 BCMs during 2013-14, registering a CAGR of 1.12%. Most of this
increase in the indigenous production is due to discovery of new reserves.
Consumption of Crude Oil and Natural Gas
 The estimated consumption of crude oil has a steady increase, from 130.11 MMTs
during 2005-06 to 222.50 MMTs during 2013-14 with CAGR of 6.14%. It increased from
219.21 MMTs in 2012-13 to 222.50 MMTs in 2013-14.

 The maximum use of Natural Gas is in fertilizers

industry (32.56%) followed by power
generation (31.02%) and 8.60% natural gas
was used for domestic fuel .

 Industry wise off-take of natural gas

shows that natural gas has been used both for
Energy (59.42%) and Non-energy(40.58%)
purposes
 Indian Energy Scenario
Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total primary
energy production. Over the years, there has been a marked increase in the share of
natural gas in primary energy production from 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999. There
has been a decline in the share of oil in primary energy production from 20% to 17%
during the same period.

Energy Supply

Coal Supply

India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tones of proven recoverable
reserves (at the end of 2003). These amounts to almost 8.6% of the world reserves
and it may last for about 230 years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio.
In contrast, the world's proven coal reserves are expected to last only for 192 years
at the current R/P ratio.

Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio

If the reserves remaining at the end of the year are divided by the production in
that year, the result is the length of time that the remaining reserves would last if
production were to continue at that level.India is the fourth largest producer of coal
and lignite in the world. Coal production is concentrated in these states (Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand, and
West Bengal).
 Oil Supply

Oil accounts for about 36 % of India’s total energy consumption. India today is one of the top
ten oil-guzzling nations in the world and will soon overtake Korea as the third largest
consumer of oil in Asia after China and Japan. The country's annual crude oil production is
peaked at about 32 million tonne as against the current oil consumption by end of 2007 is
expected to reach 136 million tonne(MT), of which domestic production will be only 34 MT.
India will have to pay an oil bill of roughly $50 billion, assuming a weighted average price of
$50 per barrel of crude. In 2003-04, against total export of $64 billion, oil imports accounted
for $21 billion. India imports 70% of its crude needs mainly from gulf nations. The majority
of India's roughly 5.4 billion barrels in oil reserves are located in the Bombay High, upper
Assam, Cambay, Krishna-Godavari. In terms of sector wise petroleum product consumption,
transport accounts for 42% followed by domestic and industry with 24% and 24%
respectively. India spent more than Rs.1,10,000 crore on oil imports at the end of 2004.

Natural Gas Supply

Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the country. The
current demand for natural gas is about 96 million cubic metres per day (mcmd) as against
availability of 67 mcmd. By 2007, the demand is expected to be around 200 mcmd.
Natural gas reserves are estimated at 660 billion cubic meters.

Electrical Energy Supply

The all India installed capacity of electric power generating stations under utilities was
1,12,581 MW as on 31st May 2004, consisting of 28,860 MW- hydro, 77,931 MW- thermal
and 2,720 MW- nuclear and 1,869 MW- wind (Ministry of Power).
 Nuclear Power Supply

Nuclear Power contributes to about 2.4 per cent of electricity generated in India.
India has ten nuclear power reactors at five nuclear power stations producing
electricity. More nuclear reactors have also been approved for construction.

Hydro Power Supply

India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of
which only 15% has been harnessed so far. The share of hydropower in the
country's total generated units has steadily decreased and it presently stands at
25% as on 31st May 2004. It is assessed that exploitable potential at 60% load
factor is 84,000 MW.

Final Energy Consumption

Final energy consumption is the actual energy demand at the user end. This is the difference
between primary energy consumption and the losses that takes place in transport,
transmission & distribution and refinement. The actual final energy consumption (past and
projected) is the following:
 Global Primary Energy Reserves

Coal

The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9,84,453 million tonnes by end of 2003. The USA had the
largest share of the global reserve (25.4%) followed by Russia (15.9%), China (11.6%). India was 4th in the list
with 8.6%.

Oil

The global proven oil reserve was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels by the end of 2003. Saudi Arabia had the
largest share of the reserve with almost 23%. (One barrel of oil is approximately 160 liters)

Gas

The global proven gas reserve was estimated to be 176 trillion cubic metres by the end of 2003. The Russian
Federation had the largest share of the reserve with almost 27%.

Global Primary Energy Consumption

The global primary energy consumption at the end of 2003 was equivalent to 9741 million tons of oil equivalent
(MTones). The Figure 1.3 shows in what proportions the sources mentioned above contributed to this global
figure.
 Energy distribution between developed and developing Countries

Although 80 percent of the world's population lies in the developing countries (a four- fold population
increase in the past 25 years), their energy consumption amounts to only 40 percent of the world total
energy consumption. The high standards of living in the developed countries are attributable to high
energy consumption levels.

Also the rapid population growth in the developing countries has kept the per capita energy consumption
low compared with that of highly industrialized developed countries. The world average energy
consumption per person is equivalent to 2.2 tones of coal. In industrialized countries, people use four to
five times more than the world average and nine times more than the average for the developing
countries. An American uses 32 times more commercial energy than an Indian.
 Sources of energy demand in India
Agriculture:


provides livelihood and employment to over 54% of the population (Census of India 2011) and
constitutes around 14% of the GDP


Energy use in agriculture at the farm level can be categorized as direct or indirect.


Direct energy use in agriculture is in the form of diesel and electricity to operate mobile and stationary
equipment/machinery to prepare fields, plant and harvest crops and transport inputs and outputs
to and from markets.


Indirect energy is consumed off the farm for the manufacture of inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides.


The share of total electricity consumption by the agriculture sector increased from 81 673 GWh in 2001/02
to153 116 GWh in 2012/13


The sector is a major consumer of diesel in India; it accounted for approx. 13% of the total consumption.
Industry

The steel sector constitutes nearly 2% of India’s GDP; India is the fourth largest producer of crude steel and the
largest producer of direct reduced iron or sponge iron in the world.

Fertilizer production consumes approximately 1.2% of the world’s total energy on an annual basis.
The Indian fertilizer industry is comparable to the best in the world in terms of efficiency, capacity utilization,
energy consumption, and utilities such as power and water.

The textile industry is also energy intensive, where the wet processing or dyeing operation consumes almost
50% of the energy. Boilers and spinning plants consume most of the energy in the textiles industry.

Energy cost accounts for 35%–45% of the production cost in a cement plant which is very energy intensive.
The average electrical energy consumption is about 80 kWh per tonne of cement.

The pulp and paper industry is also highly energy intensive, where energy cost accounts for about
16%–25% of the cost of production of paper.
Transport


The transport sector’s contribution to the country’s GDP in 1999/2000 was 5.7%, which
further increased to 6.6% in 2010/11.

The transport sector is also a key energy consuming sector; it consume approx. 34.24% of
the total volume of petroleum products used in India.

Of all the products consumed within the sector, HSD consumption was the maximum. Out of
the total consumption of 56.32 MT of HSD in India during 2009/10, the transport sector’s
consumption was 59.1%.

the road sector is the largest consumer of energy from petroleum products. The
sector now accounts for the largest share (72%) HSD consumption in India.

Rail transport is six times more energy efficient and four times more economical than road
transport.

Direct consumption of coal by the railways is almost negligible after the phasing
out of steam locomotives.

Maritime transport handles over 90% of the volume and 70% by value of India’s trade.
During 2011/12, the shipping sector consumed 0.54 MT of HSD, 0.002 MT of light diesel oil
(LDO), and 0.37 MT of furnace oil.
Household energy

India is home to over 300 million people deprived of electricity, and more than 750 million people
depend on solid biomass as fuel for cooking

The total residential consumption of energy in thousand tonnes of oil equivalent on a net calorific
value basis during 2012 was 182 020

The two major uses of energy at the household level in India are lighting and cooking. In 2001 more
than 55.6% of rural households used kerosene as the primary energy source for lighting, which
declined to 43.2% in 2011. In urban India also, households using kerosene show a declining trend in
percentage terms. While 92.7% of urban households depended on electricity as the primary energy
source for lighting during 2011, electrification for rural households was 55.3% in 2011 as against
43.6% in 2001.

In India, 67.4% of households depend on solid biomass (firewood, crop residue, cow dung cake, coal,
lignite, and charcoal) as the fuel for cooking (Census of India 2011). More than 31% of households
lack the access to proper kitchen and cook inside the house; this exposes women and children to
health risks. The domestic sector accounted for 22% of the total electricity from utilities during
2012/13.
 Energy and environment
Air Pollution

A variety of air pollutants have known or suspected harmful effects on human health and the environment. These air pollutants
are basically the products of combustion from fossil fuel use.

High levels of smoke and SO2 arising from the combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and
industrial purposes.

The major threat to clean air is now posed by traffic emissions. Petrol- and diesel engine motor vehicles emit a wide variety of
pollutants, principally carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates,
which have an increasing impact on urban air quality.

The principle pollutants produced by industrial, domestic and traffic sources are sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate
matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrocarbons, benzene, 1,3-butadiene, toxic organic micro pollutants, lead and heavy metals.

Sulfer di oxide

Sulphur dioxide is a corrosive acid gas, which combines with water vapour in the atmosphere to produce acid rain.The principal
source of this gas is power stations and industries burning fossil fuels, which contain sulphur.

Destruction of vegetation and in the degradation of soils, building materials and watercourses.

Nitrogen oxides

Formed during high temperature combustion processes from the oxidation of nitrogen in the air or fuel.

The principal source of nitrogen oxides - nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), collectively known as NOx is road
traffic. NO and NO2 concentrations are greatest in urban areas where traffic is
heaviest. Other important sources are power stations and industrial processes.

Nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere mainly in the form of NO, which is then readily oxidized to NO2 by reaction
with ozone.

photochemical reactions resulting from the action of sunlight on NO2 and VOCs from vehicles leads to the formation of ozone

Nitrogen oxides combine with water vapour to form nitric acid. This nitric acid is in turn removed from the
atmosphere by direct deposition to the ground, or transfer to aqueous droplets (e.g. cloud or rainwater), thereby
contributing to acid deposition.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas, which is emitted into the atmosphere as a result of combustion processes,
and from oxidation of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds. In urban areas, CO is produced almost entirely
(90%) from road traffic emissions. CO at levels found in ambient air may reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood. It survives in the atmosphere for a period of approximately 1 month and finally gets oxidized to carbon
dioxide (CO2).

Ground-level ozone (O3), unlike other primary pollutants mentioned above, is not emitted directly into the
atmosphere, but is a secondary pollutant produced by reaction between nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrocarbons and
sunlight. Ozone can irritate the eyes and air passages causing breathing difficulties and may increase susceptibility
to infection. It is a highly reactive chemical, capable of attacking surfaces, fabrics and rubber materials. Ozone is
also toxic to some crops, vegetation and trees.

Whereas nitrogen dioxide (NO2) participates in the formation of ozone, nitrogen oxide (NO) destroys ozone to
form oxygen (O2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

Heavy Metals and Lead

Particulate metals in air result from activities such as fossil fuel combustion (including vehicles), metal processing
industries and waste incineration. There are currently no emission standards for metals other than lead. Lead is a
cumulative poison to the central nervous system, particularly detrimental to the mental development of children.
 Effects of Hydroelectric Power Plants on Environment


The hydroelectric power plants have climatic, hydroelectric, ecological, socio-economical and cultural effects.

As the surface area of a reservoir is wider than a river and as the vaporizing increases, climatic effects occur. In
this manner, humid rate in air increases, air movements change and temperature, raining and wind events differ.
The flora and animal living both on land and in water of the region enter into sudden changing and animal
species that can adapt themselves in such an environment can survive.

Blocking of migration ways both on land and in water, living areas remaining under water and annihilation of
some important species cause occurring of ecological effects.

Effects of Thermal Power Plants on Environment


The thermoelectric power production is made generally by using coal, petroleum and natural gas fuels. Only 30-
40% of the energy produced in thermal power plants can be converted to electric energy. The remaining part is
called as “fault energy” and comes from its boiler with radiation or discarded from funnel together with funnel
gas.

Most important environmental effects of thermal power plants is related to cooling water

The gases that come out from funnel of thermal power plants and greatly affect the flora are dioxide and azoth
oxides. The organ of plants mostly sensitive to such gases is their leaves. Such gases that enter into leaves by
means of stomas destroy the structure of chlorophylls in leaves.

The environmental effects resulting from the energy resources used in thermal plant plants are as follows;
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Soil pollution
4. Effects of thermal power plants on living beings.
5. Their effects on land use.
 Effects of Nuclear Power Plants on Environment


The effects of nuclear plants on environment appear during taking out of uranium and thorium, preparation of
fuel, production, enriching, retreatment of fuel, storing and detaching of reactors. The biggest effect of nuclear
plants on environment is emission of a radioactive matter in environment as a result of an accident. Gases and
liquid radioactive wastes from nuclear plants cause significant environmental effects.

The radioactive effects reach to environment and all living beings including humans by means of two different
ways. The first way: transportation of emissions arising from funnels in the atmosphere and their reaching to the
earth and living beings on earth. The second way: reaching of liquid and solid wastes arising from power plants
to rivers, lakes and seas and their effect on living beings and under ground waters.

The Wind Energy

The wind plants may require a wide area for turbines. They are noisy and cause bird deaths and make
parasites on radio and TV receivers. For this reason, in many European countries, mainly in England, the
wind turbines are banned to be installed within boundaries of national parks or nearby to them because of
their environmental effects.
Whatever its kind is, the energy production systems have an effect on environment. The solar and wind energies
that do not have any negative effect on environment is hoped to be used economically in production of electric
energy in long-term. The hydroelectric energy potential that does not have any negative environmental effect,
except the agricultural lands staying under water, must be re-determined in a realistic manner by considering the
new technologies.

it is forecasted that there will be temperature changes until 2040:

10°C in Pacific, 8°C in the Bering Gulf, 6°C in Japan, 4°C in Siberia and Antarctica and -2°C in West
Africa. While restricting the use of fossil fuel energy resources, the clean energy technologies that pollute
the environment less or have no polluting effect must be considered and developed. Otherwise, it will be
impossible to prevent degeneration of ecological balance and arising of some disasters to be experienced
by people.
 What is solar energy?

Solar energy is the radiant energy that is produced by sun.


It radiates more energy in one day than the world uses in one year. This energy comes from
within the sun itself. Like most stars, the sun is a big danse gas ball made up mostly of hydrogen
and helium gas. The sun makes energy in its inner core in a process called nuclear fusion.


The Sun is hot. All of the heat and light coming from the Sun comes from the fusion process happening deep
inside the core of the Sun. The core of the Sun extends from the very center of the out to about 0.2 solar radii.
Inside this zone, pressures are million of times more than the surface of the Earth, and the temperature reaches
more than 15 million Kelvin. This is where fusion in the Sun happens.
The process of fusion in the Sun is known as the proton-proton chain. The Sun starts with protons, and though a series of
steps, turns them into helium. Since the total energy of helium is less than the energy of the protons that went into it, this
fusion releases energy.

Here are the steps.

1. Two pairs of protons fuse, forming two deuterons

P + P --> D + positron + neutrino

2. Each deuteron fuses with an additional proton to form helium-3

D + P --> He3
3. Two helium-3 nuclei fuse to create beryllium-6, but this is unstable and disintegrates into two protons and a helium-4

He3 + He3 --> 2He + 2P

4. The reaction also releases two neutrinos, two positrons and gamma rays.

A helium-4 atom has less energy than the 4 protons came together. All of the heat and light streaming from the Sun came
from this fusion reaction.
Every second, several million tons of hydrogen are being converted into helium. This reaction releases a tremendous
amount of heat and energy.
Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap and abundantly available renewable energy. It is received on
Earth in cyclic, intermittent and dilute form with very low power density 0 to 1 kW/m2.Solar energy
received on the ground level is affected by atmospheric clarity, degree of latitude, etc. For design
purpose, the variation of available solar power, the optimum tilt angle of solar flat plate collectors, the
location and orientation of the heliostats should be calculated.

Units of solar power and solar energy:

In SI units, energy is expressed in Joule. Other units are Calorie and langley (Ly) where
1 Cal = 4.186 J
and
1 Langley = 1 Cal/cm2 =41840 J/m2

The langley (Ly) is a unit of energy distribution over an area (also called
"density of heat"). It is used to measure of solar radiatio Langley is defined
as one thermochemical calorie per square centimeter

For solar energy calculations, the energy is measured as an hourly or monthly or yearly
average and is expressed in terms of kJ/m2/day or kJ/m2/hour. Solar power is expressed
in terms of W/m2 or kW/m2.
The Sun provides Earth with a staggering amount of energy


enough to power the great oceanic and atmospheric currents, the cycle of evaporation and
condensation that brings fresh water inland and drives river flow, and the typhoons, hurricanes, and
tornadoes that so easily destroy thenatural and built landscape.


The Sun delivers to Earth abou 1017 J in one second.


Earth’s ultimate recoverable resource of oil, estimated at 3 trillion barrels, contains 1.7×10 22 joules of
energy, which the Sun supplies to Earth in 1.5 days.


The amount of energy humans use annually, about 4.6×1020 joules, is delivered to Earth by the Sun in
one hour.


The enormous power that the Sun continuously delivers to Earth, 1.2×10 5 terawatts ,dwarfs every
other energy source, renewable or nonrenewable.


It dramatically exceeds the rate at which human civilization produces and uses energy, currently about
13 TW
Sunlight can be converted into electricity by exciting electrons in a solar cell. It can yield chemical fuel
via natural photosynthesis in greenplants or artificial photosynthesis in human-engineered systems.
Concentrated or unconcentrated sunlight can produce heat for direct use or further conversion to
electricity
Despite the abundance and versatility of solar energy, we use very little of it to directly power human activities.


Solar electricity accounts for a minuscule 0.015% of world electricity production,


and solar heat for 0.3% of global heating ofspace and water.


Biomass produced by natural photosynthesis is by far the largest use of solar energy; its combustion orgasification
accounts for about 11% of human energy needs.


However, more than two-thirds of that is gathered unsustainably—that is, with no replacement plan—and burned in
small, inefficient stoves where combustion is incomplete and the resulting pollutants are uncontrolled.
What is efficiency of solar cell?

Solar Cell Efficiency refers to the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via photovoltaics into another
more useful form, namely electricity.
How to calculate the efficiency of a solar panel?
 Raising efficiency


The enormous gap between the potential of solar energy and our use of it is due to cost and conversion capacity.


Fossil fuel meet our energy demands much more cheaply than solar alternatives, in part because fossil-fuel
deposits are concentrated sources of energy, whereas the Sun distributes photons fairly uniformly over Earth at
a more modest energy density.


The cost and capacity limitations on solar energy use are most effectively addressed by a single research
objective: cost effectively raising conversion efficiency.

The efficiency of a single-junction solar cell under unconcentrated sunlight. This

calculated curve uses actual solar spectrum data, and therefore the curve is wiggly
from IR absorption bands in the atmosphere. This efficiency limit of ~34% can be
exceeded by multijunction solar cells.
Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collector for solar water-heating systems in homes and solar
space heating.

A typical flat-plate collector is an insulated metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called the glazing) and a
dark-colored absorber plate.

These collectors heat liquid orair at temperatures less than 80°C.

Flat-plate collectors are used for residential water heating and hydronic space-heating installations.

Conversion of kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy that can be utilized
To perform useful work or to generate electricity.

Most machines for converting winto mechanical energy consist basically a number of sails
Or blades connected to a hub or central axis. The axis may be horizontal, or vertical.
When the wind blows against the vanes or sails they rotate about the axis and rotatioal
Motion can be made to perform useful work. :

WIND TURBINES: convert the energy of wind stream into energy of rotation: the componant
Which rotates is called rotor.

Because wind turbines produce rotational motion, wind energy is readily converted into
Electrical energy by connecting the turbine to an electric generator.: Aero Generator
 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Hydropower is considered to be a renewable energy source because it uses the con-tinuous flow of water without using up
the water resource. It is also nonpolluting,since it does not rely on burning fossil fuels.

The hydroelectric power plants usually require a dam to store water, a pen- stock for delivering the falling water, electric
generators, a valve house which contains the main sluice valves, automatic isolating valves, and related control equipments.
Also, a surge tank is located just before the valve house to protect the penstock from a pressure surge, called water hammer ,
in case the turbine gates are suddenly closed.
Turbine
To maintain the generator voltage frequency constant, the turbine must rotate the Generator with a
speed given by
 Biomass based power

The energy obtained from organic matter derived from biological organism (plans and animals),
that can be burned or decomposed to be used a source of energy is known as biomass energy.

Photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for generation of biomass energy. Therefore
biomass energy is an indirect form of solar energy.

Main Advantage of biomass energy:

(i) It is renewable source

(ii) The energy storage is an in-built feature of it
(iii) It is an indigeneous source requiring almost no foreign exchange
(iv) The forestry and agriculture that supply energy stock also provide economic development
opportunities in rural areas
(v) The pollutant emission is generally lower than from the combution of the fossil fuel
(vi) commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problem of waste disposal
(vii) the nitrogen rich bio-digested slurry and sludge from the biogass plants surve as a very good
soil conditioner and improve fertility

Disadvantage:
(i) it is disperse and land intensive
(ii) it is often of low energy density
(iii) it is also labour intensive and hence the cost of collecting large quantities for comercial
application is significant.
 Biofuels:

(1) Fuel wood

The most obvious and oldest source of biomass energy. Energy density
Is 16~20 MJ/kg.

(2) Charcoal: it is a clean (smokless), dry, solid fuel of black color. It has 70-80% corbon content
and has energy density about 30 MJ /Kg. It is obtained by the corbonization process of woody
biomass. (high corbon and low sulphure content)

(3) Fuel pellets: Crop residues such as straw, rice husk, etc are pressed to form lumps.

(4) Bio-ethenol: C2H5OH is a colorless liquid biofuel. It is derived from the wet biomass containg
sugers (such as sugercane, sweet sorghum, etc), starches (grains, tubers such as potato), or
cellulose (woody matter). It is used in automobiles.

(5) Biogass: biogas is produced in biomass fermentors or digester. Nitrogen rich fertilizers are also
produced as a byproduct.

(6) producer gas: woody matter such as crop residues, coconut shell atc can be converted to
producer gas by gacification. It is used to fuel IC engins for irrigation pumps, motor vehicles and
small scale power generation.

(7) vegetable oils (bio-diesels): Vegetable oils, edible or non-edible can be used as such or blended
with diesel for engin fuel. Some plants (Euphorbia lathyris) can be used to produce hydrocorbon
like petrolium.
Biomass resources

(1) Forests:

serves as source of fuel wood, charcoal and producer gas

Eucalypus, poplar and pine are specially cultivated for the purpose of energy

Some plants produces seeds to yield vegetable oil on pressing. This serves as a liquid
bio-fuel.

There are two kind of oil producing plants

(a) wild trees: jojaba, karanj, etc which takes care of themselves
– (b) agricultural crops: Jatropa curcas (Ratanjyot), etc which require care and
– technique

There are more that 300 types of oil bearing trees; most of them are wild.
– In India, a wild oil bearing tree Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) has great potential.
– It is estimated that its plantationon 30 millon-hectare can produce equivalent biofuel
that can completely replace fossil fuels

(2) Agricultural residues:

– Crop residue such as straw, rice husk, coconut shell, groundnut shell, sugarcane
bagasse, etc. Are gasified to obtain producer gas. They are also converted to fuel
pellets and used as solid fuel.
(3) Energy Crops
– Sugar plants (Bio-ethenol), Suger beet
Cassava, grains (maiza, barley, rice and wheat provide ethenol which can be
converted to ethenol)
Oil producing plants:
Sunflower, rapeseed, palm oil, castor oil, groundnut and cottonseed

Aquatic plants:
Kelp, seaweed, and algae etc (produce biogas or ethenol)

Urban waste: (i) municipal solid waste (ii) sewage (Liquid waste) : Biogass

Biomass to ethenol production:

Alcoholic fermentation (Action of microorganism on carbohydrates)

Biobass from biomass

Biomass if left to decompose in open air, is acted upon by aerobic bacteria (bacteria
that require oxygen for their survival and growth) to produce mainly CO2 and NH3 etc.
Biogass is produced from wet biomass with 90-95% water by the actiobn of
anaerobic bacteria: CO2 and CH4.: Biodigestion
 Tidal Energy

Tidal power is the power inherent in tides at sea or oceans, that is the power of motion of water
actuated by tides.

Tides are defined as the increase and decrease in water levels due to the motion of water from one
place to the other.

This motion of water is actuated by large amounts of energy due to the movement of the Sun, Moon
and Earth relative to each other and also to their rotational movement. Thus there is a renewable
source of energy in the tidal motion of water at seas and oceans. This source of energy could be used
to generate other types of energy that could be useful in industrial applications.

The generation of electricity using tidal power is basically the transformation of tidal power found in
tidal motion of water in seas and oceans into electrical energy.

This is done using a very basic idea involving the use of a barrage or small dam built at the
entrance of a bay where tides are known to reach very high levels of variation. This barrage will
trap tidal water behind it creating a difference in water level, which will in turn create potential
energy. This potential energy will then be used in creating kinetic energy as doors in the barrage
are opened and the water rush from the high level to the lower level. This kinetic energy will be
converted into rotational kinetic energy that will rotate turbines giving electrical energy.
 Physical Concepts of the Tidal Phenomena
Tidal movements in seas are due to the increase of water levels at certain areas in the globe and the
decrease of water levels at other areas. This is basically due to two factors:

1- The gravitational forces between the Sun, Moon and Earth.

2- The rotation of the moon and earth.

How Tidal Power Generation Systems Work

In very simple terms a barrage is built at the entrance of a gulf and the water levels vary on
both sides of the small dam. Passages are made inside the dam and water flows through
these passages and turbines rotate due to this flow of water under head of water. Thus,
electricity is created using the turbines.
3. Sluices: sluice gates are the ones responsible for the flow of water through the barrage

4- Embankments:

they are caissons made out of concrete to prevent water from flowing at certain parts of the dam and to
help maintenance work and electrical wiring to be connected or used to move equipment or cars over it.
 HYDROGEN Energy


Hydrogen is the fuel of the future.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used in internal combustion engines or fuel cells producing virtually
no greenhouse gas emissions when combusted with oxygen. The only significant emission is water vapor.

Hydrogen production and storage is currently undergoing extensive research.

Advantages of Hydrogen Energy

1. Readily Available : Hydrogen is a great source of energy for a number of reasons, the biggest one 
being that it is so readily available. While it may take some work to access, there is no element in the 
universe as abundant as hydrogen.

2. No Harmful Emissions : Another advantage to using hydrogen energy is that when burned, its 
leaves almost no harmful byproducts. In fact, when used in NASA’s spaceships, the burned hydrogen 
gas leaves behind clean drinking water for the astronauts.

3. Environment Friendly : Hydrogen is also non­toxic, which makes it a rarity among fuel sources. 
Nuclear energy, coal, and gasoline are all either toxic or found in hazardous environments. This makes 
hydrogen ideal for use in a number of ways other fuel sources can’t compete against

4. Used as Fuel in Rockets : Hydrogen energy is also very powerful and very efficient. It’s powerful 
enough to propel spaceships and safer than using any other similar product to accomplish such an 
energy­intensive duty. In fact, hydrogen is three times as powerful as gasoline and similar fossil fuels, 
meaning it takes less of it to accomplish more.

5. Fuel Efficient : Hydrogen energy is very efficient fuel source than traditional sources of energy and 
produces more energy per pound of fuel. This clearly means that a car loaded with hydrogen fuel with 
go much farther than the one using same amount of traditional source of energy.

6. Renewable : Unlike non­renewable sources of energy which can’t be produced again and again as 
they are limited; hydrogen energy can be produced on demand. Hydrogen is available in plenty. All we 
need is fossil fuels to break the water molecules to separate it from oxygen.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy

1. Expensive : Hydrogen gas also requires a lot of work to free if from other elements. If it were simple and easy to 
isolate everyone would be using it. It’s already being used to power some hybrid cars, but at the moment it is not a 
viable source of fuel for everyone. That’s simply because it’s expensive and time­consuming to produce. That means 
until technology advances enough to simplify and ease the process; hydrogen energy will continue to be too expensive 
for most people.

2. Storage : Hydrogen is also hard to move around. Whereas oil can be sent through pipelines, and coal can be carried 
in the back of dump trucks, super­light hydrogen is hard to transport in a reasonable fashion. It is very expensive to 
move anything more than small amounts of it, making it impractical for most functions.

3. Not Easy to Replace Existing Infrastructure : As expensive as hydrogen is to produce and transport, it becomes 
even more expensive when you consider trying to use it to replace gasoline. There is no existing infrastructure in place 
to accommodate hydrogen as a fuel source for the average motorist. Gas stations and cars themselves would all have to 
be refitted at an astronomical cost to taxpayers and governments. It seems insane to even suggest that current fuel 
sources be replaced when what is already in place is working so well.

4. Highly Flammable : Hydrogen in itself is a very powerful source of fuel. It’s highly inflammable and always in 
news for the potential risks associated with it.

5. Dependency on Fossil Fuels : Though hydrogen energy is renewable and its environmental impacts are minimal, we 
still need other non­renewable sources like coal, oil and natural gas to separate it from oxygen. We may reduce our 
dependency on fossil fuels by using hydrogen but in turn we are actually using them to produce hydrogen fuel.