Running head: STONEHENGE 1

Stonehenge

Ryker Olsen

Salt Lake Community College

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Stonehenge

Stonehenge is a name for a group of stone monuments found in the Wessex area of

southern England. Stonehenge was not the first group of monuments in the area, however, and

was preceded by long barrows used for burial by Neolithic farmers living in the area. The

organization of people, resources, time, and other factors suggest that the long barrows were

likely built by a segmental society. Similar factors also point to Stonehenge being built by a

chiefdom society (Renfrew & Bahn 2015). The purpose of building a structure like Stonehenge

has been a topic of interest since its discovery and popularization. Many different ideas for the

purpose or meaning of Stonehenge have been pondered over time; some of them persist today.

The most compelling hypothesis seems to be that Stonehenge was created for the purpose of

social gatherings and to contain astronomical alignments (Malone, C., & Bernard, N. S. 2002).

The Long barrows and the Emergence of Stonehenge

The Wessex area of southern England shows evidence of structures that predate

Stonehenge called long barrows. Relatively large mounds in the earth, long barrows were built

between 4000-3000 B.C. and used for burial by Neolithic farmers in the area. It is estimated that

the construction of one long barrow would have taken a group of 20 people, 50 days to complete.

Every group of long barrows has a “causewayed camp” associated with it (Renfrew & Bahn

2015).

The long barrows were ultimately abandoned however, marking the end of the period in

which the society that built them could be described as segmental. As the society grew more

complex, the benefits of a more complex society followed suit. Now a more complex society,

they had the organization of resources and people required to build Stonehenge (Renfrew &

Bahn 2015).
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The first phase of the construction of Stonehenge began with the construction of an earth

henge that was circular in shape. The circular monument included a bank, with a ditch around its

perimeter. Construction with actual stone did not start until around 2500-1600 B.C., when stone

henges were erected in the center of the circular-shaped henge (Malone, C., & Bernard, N. S.

2002). It is estimated that the building of Stonehenge would have taken roughly 30 million

hours of work (Renfrew & Bahn 2015).

Figure 1. Approximate work hours required for the construction of Stonehenge, a henge, a

causewayed camp, and a long barrow (Renfrew & Bahn 2015).

Hypotheses Regarding the Creation of Stonehenge

The purpose of the construction of Stonehenge has been shrouded in mystery since its

discovery. John Aubrey, a scholar interested in ancient British sites was responsible for the

discovery of 56 holes—which would later be termed “Aubrey Holes”—located just outside

Stonehenge. Aubrey later proposed in his work titled, Monumenta Britannica the idea that

Stonehenge may have been built by the Druids for use as temples. The highly criticized but, at

the time, widely popular 18th century work of William Stukeley titled, The History of Religion

and Temples of the Druids further perpetuated the idea proposed by Aubrey. Archaeological

evidence was later found that disproved Aubrey’s—and later Stukeley’s—idea however,

showing that Stonehenge was built around 2,000 years before the Druids had a presence in the
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area. Although disproven and without credible evidence, some people still support the idea that

the Druids built Stonehenge. Although the Druid hypothesis is physically harmless to the site,

some other ideas regarding the reason for the construction of Stonehenge led to damage of the

site (Malone, C., & Bernard, N. S. 2002).

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Stonehenge was thought by some to be the site of buried

treasure, which led to the careless excavation of Stonehenge’s center. The excavation of the

treasure hunters was in vain however, and only resulted in damage to the site. Further damage

was caused in the early 1720’s when a local land owner introduced a population of rabbits to the

surrounding area, their burrows being what caused the damage (Malone, C., & Bernard, N. S.

2002).

Another common hypothesis suggests that the stones of Stonehenge were used as a place

for social gatherings, align with the summer solstice, and potentially contain other astronomical

alignments. The alignment of the stones and the summer solstice can be clearly seen from the

center of Stonehenge when the rising sun aligns slightly to the left of the Heel Stone (Malone, C.,

& Bernard, N. S. 2002). This hypothesis seems to be the most compelling.

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Figure 2. Stonehenge shown from above with apparent astronomical alignments and Aubrey

holes (Stonehenge from Above with Apparent Astronomical Alignments [Digital image]. (n.d.).

Retrieved February 10, 2019, from https://principia-scientific.org/ancestors-tracing-history-

scientific-method/stonehenge-diagram/).

Material Evidence

The material evidence found at Stonehenge includes a wide variety of tools, among other

things, that give us a glimpse at the culture of the society that built the stone monuments.

Evidence of farming and scattered housing, as well as livestock supports the idea that the

builders of Stonehenge lived in a farming society. Evidence of trade and participation in social

activities—like building stone and earth monuments—have also been found. Evidence of a more

sophisticated society from around 2500 B.C. has also been found and included: Beakers/drinking

vessels, gold, and copper. Organic materials were also found and included antler pieces, bones,

and wood. In order to find the age of these organic materials, scientists used a measurement of

the decay of Carbon 14 (14C); the older the organic material, the less 14C it will contain. Because
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this was a prehistoric society and no written records are available from them, scientists rely on

testing and survey, as well as a combination of relative and absolute dating to gather information

on their culture (Malone, C., & Bernard, N. S. 2002). As time goes on, preservation of the site

becomes an increasingly valid concern.

Various methods of preservation and restoration of Stonehenge have occurred in its long

history, and with a site as old as Stonehenge, this is very important. In 1900, when a Sarsen and

its lintel fell on the perimeter of Stonehenge, the owner at the time had the stones re-erected

(Greaney, S.). Photography of the site and digital images recreating Stonehenge seem to be very

common ways of preserving information regarding the site. Stonehenge is also very famous, and

money from tourism likely contributes to the desire to protect the site.

The discovery of gold, copper, and drinking vessels clearly represents a culture that is

evolving and becoming more developed over time. The effort and team work needed to build

these monuments over a long period of time might demonstrate a society that is becoming

increasingly social.

A Perspective as Director

The history of the excavation of Stonehenge and the methods for recording information

regarding the excavation, as seen in the “Hypotheses Regarding the Creation of Stonehenge”

section above, were not ideal. Largely due to greed and ignorance due to a lack of information

on the site, Stonehenge has been irreversibly damaged over time. The fact that Stonehenge has

been so well known for so long only contributed to the opportunity for damage to occur at the

site; speculation for why the site exists had more than enough time to develop into legends and

groundless theories. If the site would have been discovered at a much later time—a time more

like today, where archaeological techniques are much more advanced—there is no telling how
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much more we would have been able to learn. Stonehenge is a very good example of why such a

significant site needs to be overseen by a director that is aware of the importance of the

information held there. The excavation of the site needs to be carefully planned and executed,

the information meticulously recorded and analyzed, and the results properly published (Renfrew

& Bahn 2015).

When a site such as Stonehenge is discovered, it is ideal to have a structured and

meticulous method of excavation. The Wheeler box-grid method of excavation, inspired by the

work of General Pitt-Rivers, is a good choice. This method involves digging square holes in a

grid formation, retaining separations of earth called “balks” between the squares. This method

allows for accurate and detailed records, as well as site organization (Renfrew & Bahn 2015). If

grids are being dug around stone monuments, safety measures should take place to ensure the

stability of the stones and the structural integrity of their lentils. Temporary supports should be

built for the stones to ensure the safety of the archaeologists working around them and to prevent

potential damage to the stones. Money from investors or government financial support would be

extremely beneficial to the excavation and, if possible, should be obtained quickly. If obtaining

money through tourism is unavoidable at the site due to the inability to obtain funds through

other means, it is necessary to protect the site from visitors. While it is necessary to practice

proper methods of excavations, it is equally necessary to practice proper methods of recording

and analyzing artifacts and data found while excavating.

Dating methods used, whether absolute or relative, should vary depending on the specific

find. If the find is organic material, a method of absolute dating known as radiocarbon dating

could be used to determine the age of the find. The amount of 14C within the find would be

measured, then used to determine the approximate date of the find in years (Taylor, R. E.,
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Renfrew, C., & Bar-Yosef, O. 2014). It is not always as simple as this however, and a find might

require a different method of dating known as relative dating.

When dating something other than organic material, relative dating methods might be

used to date finds. A find’s association with specific stratigraphic layers can be one way to get a

relative date of a find. Care must be taken, however, that disturbances within the stratigraphy—

man-made or natural—are identified, as these disturbances can cause finds to move to strata that

do not coincide with their age. Grouping finds by typology can help solve the problem of

stratigraphic disturbances because finds can be grouped by shared physical characteristics, rather

than the stratum in which the find was found (Renfrew & Bahn 2015). The different changes in

artifact types are then used by archaeologists as markers for different periods in time (Mark

Blackham 1998). After excavating the site and recording the information found there, the next

step should be to interpret and analyze the information before it is published.

Conclusion

Stonehenge is a very old and famous site, rich with evidence that gives scientists a means

of investigating the culture of the people that built it. Although prehistoric and lacking written

records, scientists have been able to obtain a great amount of information from the site. The site,

being as old as it is, has had more than enough time for different hypotheses regarding the

purpose of the site’s creation to start appearing. This has led to a less-than-ideal history of

damage to the site which could have been prevented if the site was overseen by a qualified

director. The most compelling hypothesis seems to be that the site was built for social gatherings

and to contain different astronomical alignments such as the summer solstice.

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References

Greaney, S. (n.d.). History of Stonehenge. Retrieved February 11, 2019, from

https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/history-and-stories/history/

Malone, C., & Bernard, N. S. (2002). Stonehenge. Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press.

Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com.libprox1.slcc.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e025xna

&AN=160294&site=ehost-live

Mark Blackham. (1998). The Unitary Association Method of Relative Dating and Its Application

to Archaeological Data. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 5(2), 165.

Retrieved from

https://libprox1.slcc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&d

b=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.20177383&site=eds-live

Renfrew, C., & Bahn, P. (2015) Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice (3rd

ed.). New York NY: Thames & Hudson.

Stonehenge from Above with Apparent Astronomical Alignments [Digital image]. (n.d.).

Retrieved February 10, 2019, from https://principia-scientific.org/ancestors-tracing-

history-scientific-method/stonehenge-diagram/

Taylor, R. E., Renfrew, C., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2014). Radiocarbon Dating : An Archaeological

Perspective (Vol. Second edition). Walnut Creek, California: Routledge. Retrieved from

https://libprox1.slcc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&d

b=nlebk&AN=598442&site=eds-live