5.4 ENERGY BANDS IN A SOLID Sow are the properties of the electrons in the different energy bands qualitatively nt from each other? have seen how the discrete energy levels in an atom are broadened into Sowed energy bands when the atoms are brought together in a solid. The upper » bands, which correspond to electrons with energies above the periodic ial wells of the atoms in the solid, contain the so-called ‘free electrons’. Setow this there may be other free-electron-type bands. Finally, below the free in bands are the bound states. The free electron bands are constrained only boundaries of the solid. The bound electrons are constrained by the local catial wells around the atomic cores. The local ionic porentials cause a pation of the wavefunctions of the free electron bands so that they are not | to the solutions obtained in the Sommerfeld model. 4.1 Width of energy band gaps “cw ave the widths of the energy gaps related to the periodic potential? erly since the energy gaps are caused by the presence of the periodic potential uust be some relationship between them. In fact the relationship is quite he band gaps in the electron energy levels-are equal to the Fourier ents of the crystal potential. This can be understood because the electrons Sehove as waves under the influence of the periodic potential. 42 Electron band structure in conventional space See can we view the various electron bands in real space? r space the electrons are confined within the solid, Low-energy “bound” “ecmons cannor participate in conduction unless they are thermally excited and “sepe from the atomic core. High-energy ‘quasi-free electrons’ migrate through- solid, being constrained by the physical boundary of the solid only. The eeement of these higher-energy electrons is almost unaffected by the periodic ™ al of the atomic cores. © we have looked only at the distribution of electrons in real space, We will Sece later the concept of reciprocal space which can be used to describe the Seswenic states of a solid in a particularly economical and elegant manner.‘CHAPTER 5 BOUND ELECTRONS AND THE PERIODIC POTENTIAL Non-localized energy bands Energy E Localized energy states *-+— lonic cores Potential around a ionic core Position x Figure 5.8 Schematic clagram of energy levels in a one-dimensional lattice, shown in real space 5.4.3 The Fermi energy What is the highest energy level occupied by an electron when all electrons are in | their lowest available state? We have stared that at the absolute zero of temperatitre, when the electrons all occupy the lowest available energy state, the energy of the highest occupied state is the Fermi level. This energy level separates the occupied from the unoccupied electron levels only when the electron configuration is in irs ground state, that is only at OK. The location of the Fermi level in relation to the allowed energy states is crucial in determining the electrical properties of a solid. Metals always have a partially filled free electron band, so that the Fermi level corresponds to a level in the middle of the band and this makes the metals electrical conductors. Semiconduc- tors always have completely filled or completely empty electron bands. This means that the Fermi energy lies between the bands, and consequently they are poor electrical conductors at ambient temperatures. | 5.4.4 Nomenclature of electron bands How can the most important energy bands be described in a distinct and self consistent manner? We shall define the highest-energy electron band containing electrons when the material is in its ground state as the valence band. We shall define the lowest energy band containing unoccupied electron states when the material is in its ground state as the conduction band, since it is through this band that electrical conduction can take place. In a semiconductor or insulator, the distinction is clear and we can represent the bands as shown in Fig. 5.9. In a metal which contains a partially filled band, this band satisfies both criteria and so is both a valence band and a conduction band. This explains some of the confusing nomenclature of the bands in metals which occurs in the literature, in which sometimes the free electrons are described as ‘conduction’ electrons and sometimes they are described as ‘valence’ electrons. In a metal they are both.ENERGY BANDS IN A SOLID Conduction Band {ernpty) Fermi level Valence Band (full) Figure 5.9 Schematic diagram of electron energy bands in a semiconductor or insulator. Energy E st aa | ae Ee --- Fermi level PIESEEIESESIA, me Figure 5.10 Schematic diagram of electron energy bands in a metal. » 4.5 Effective mass of electrons in bands “ew can the motions of electrons within an energy band be described in a weple way? » = found experimentally that the mobility of electrons in the conduction band is sected by how full the band is. In the case of free electrons we have shown that (5.38) mis the mass of the electrons. As we shall see shortly this relationship berween E and & breaks down in a solid. “ewever, we can maintain the form of this relationship by using the relation E(k) ae (5.39) now m® is an adjustable parameter which we call the effective mass. This that any deviations from a parabolic relationship between E and & can be