ADVANCED C1 e3 ae) (ras ss ee a if mee) MU Toy©T. Duncan 1973, 1975, 1981, 1982, 1987, 1994, with H. Kennett 2000 First published in 1973 by Hodder Murray, a member of the Hodder Headline Group 1358 Buston Road London NWI 3BH Fifth edition 2000 Reprinted 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and ‘whether or not transiently or icidentaly to some other use ofthis publication) without the written permission of the publisher, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Layouts by Fiona Webb ‘Ariwork by Mike Humphries and Tek-Art ‘Typeset in 98.5/1pt Concorde and 10/12pt Franklin Gothie Demi by Wearse, Boldon, Tyne ang Wear Printed and bound in Dubai ISBN 978 0719 576 690Preface to the Fifth Edition I am indebted to my daughter Dr Heather Kennett for undertaking the major task of updating and thoroughly revising this edition so as to meet the needs of current A and AS specifications, In addition she has written a new chapter, on the increasingly popular topic Cosmology and astrophysics, extended the sections on particle physics and special relativity, introduced examples of the use of spread- sheets and dataloggers in physics and incorporated many examination questions from recent past papers. My grand- son, Malcolm Kennett, has kindly checked the material and made many helpful suggestions for the new chapter Particular thanks are also due to Jonathan Ling for his detailed and very helpful comments during the early stages of the revision. At his suggestion the mathematics previ- ously located in the introductory chapter has been more appropriately added to the Mathematics for physics section, terminology has been updated and material no longer tequired by syllabuses has been omitted. Once again Jane Roth has edited the script to her usual high standard, and prepared the material for its first publication in full colour. Tp.Contents Preface v Acknowledgements vii ‘About physics 1 MATERIALS 1 Materials and their uses 8 2. Structure of materials 4 3 Mechanical properties 25 4 Electrical properties 40 5 Thermal properties a 6 Optical properties 16 Objective-type revision questions 1 108 MECHANICS 7. Statics and dynamics 2 8 Circular motion and gravitation 132 9 Mechanical oscillations 149 10. Energy and its uses 160 AL Fluids at rest : 176 12 Fluids in motion 186 Objective-type revision questions 2 194 FIELDS 13 Electric fields 198 14 Capacitors 215 15 Magnetic fields 231 16 Electromagnetic induction Das 17 Alternating current 273 Objective-type revision questions 3 289CONTENTS: vil WAVES 18 Wave motion 294 19 Sound 3 20 Physical optics 330 Objective-type revision questions 4 359 ATOMS 21. Kinetic theory and thermodynamics 362 22 Atomic physics 585 25. Blectronics 412 24 Telecommunications 451 25. Nuclear physics 465 26 Cosmology and astrophysics 493 Objective-type revision questions 5 510 Additional questions si Practical investigations 341 Mathematics for physics 344 Appendices 355 Answers 563 Index 573Acknowledgements AUTHOR'S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank a number of people who made many helpful comments and suggestions for earlier editions; they include Dr J. W. Warren, Mr J. Dawber, Dr J. C. Gibbings and Mr K. Munnings. Thanks also to Mr B. Baker who constructed and tested many of the objective-type ques: tions, to my son-in-law Professor B. L. N. Kennett and my daughter Dr H. M. Kennett who checked the answers to numerical problems and to my wife who prepared the ori sginal typescript. For permission (0 use questions from their examinations, ‘grateful acknowledgement is made to the various examin: ing boards, indicated by the following abbreviations. AQA: NEAB (Northern Examinations and Assessment Board) AEB (Associated Examining Board) OCR (previously incorporating UCLES) L (London Examinations, a division of EDEXCEL) 1B (International Baccalaureate Organisation) ‘The answers given have not been provided or approved by the examining boards, who bear no responsibility for their accuracy or method of working TD. PHOTO CREDITS ‘The publishers are grateful to the following, who have kindly permitied the reproduction of copyright photo- ‘graphs or illustrations: Figs 1, 8.20, 8.31, 18.55, 26.4, 26.9, 26.11 NASA/Science Photo Library Fig. 2 Geoff Tompkinson/Science Photo Library Figs 3, 1.5 John Townson, Creation Figs 4, 1.16, 10.20, 11.4, 11.22b, p. 197, Fig. 21.7 Robert Harding Picture Library” Figs 5a, 18.3a, b, 18.17, 19.28a, b Pasco Scientific Fig. 5b Pico Technology p. 7 American Institute of Physies Fig. 1.7b Auto Express Fig, 21a David Scharf/Science Photo Library Figs 2.1b, 29, 2.10 Omicron Figs 2.2, 21.18 Kyocera European Office Fig, 28a Astrid & Hans Freider Michler/Science Photo Library Figs 2.17a-d, 3.12 Sir Laurence Bragg FRS & J. F. Nye, from Proceedings, Royal Society, London A190 474-481 Figs 2.20a, b, 3.15, 3.18b, 5.288, b, 15.17, 22.12a, 22.50b, 24.25, 25.7 Peter Gould Figs 3.1, 15.51 National Physical Laboratory, by permission of the Controller of the Stationery Oice Fig. 3.11 V. A. Phillips & J. A. Hugo* Fig. 5.20 British Engine Insurance Lid Fig. 523 Vosper Thomycroft (UK) Ltd Fig. 5.25b Clive Burnskill/Allsport Fig, 525¢ David Cannon/Allsport Figs 3.29, 4.8b, 7.16, 7.25, 11.9, 11.22a, 11.25, 11.25, 13.8a, b, 14.7, 14.9, 15.25a, b, 17.35, 17.40, 18.11, 18.21, b, ¢, 18.22a, b, 20.68, b, 20.23, 23.36, 23.9, 25.114, 25.17a, 25.214, 25.95, 25.7a Andrew Lambert Figs 4.18, 14.24, 18.4, 25.258, 25.38, 25.814 Novara, courtesy of Unilab Figs 4.21, 4.25 RS Components ig. 4.24 H. Kennett and V. Edge Fig. 5.1 Defence Science & Technology Organisation, (Australia) Fig. 5.2 Adrienne Hart-Davis/Science Photo Library Fig. 6.34 Roger Scruton Figs 6.59, 25.33 David Parkor/Science Photo Library Fig. 6.58a Jeff Moore, with kind permission of Peter Jones ‘of Cranbrook, Kent Fig. 684 Stephen & Donna O’Meara/Science Photo. Library Figs 6.95a, 10.10b Alex Bartel/Science Photo Library Fig. 6.95b David Nunuk/Science Photo Library pall David Ductos/Science Photo Library Figs 7.19, 7.54a, 9.22a, b,¢, AL.1 Tom Duncan Figs 7.54, 25.41, b Lady Blackett” Fig. 7.35 MIRA Fig. 88 Matthew Stockman/Allsport Fig. 8.11 Anthony Price/Ace Photo Library Fig. 8.14 Novosti/Science Photo Library Fig. 8.50 European Space Agency/Science Photo Library Fig. 92a University of Washington Libraries Special Collections Division Fig. 9.2b Iwasa/Rex Features Figs 9.25, 12.14b Quadrant Picture LibraryFigs 10.7, 1.8, 10.12a, 10.15 Martin Bond/Environmental Images Fig. 10.10a Hank Morgan/Science Photo Library Figs 10.12b, 11.2, 2420 Martin Bond/Science Photo Library Tig. 10.18 Mark Edwards/Stil Pictures Fig. 11.12 NHPA Fig. 11.13 BSIP Marland/Science Photo Library Fig. 12.15a John Carter/Sporting Pictures (UK) Lid Fig. 12.15 b, € 19.17. Allan Cash Fig. 13.3 Acrofilms Fig, 14.35 Brookhaven National Laboratory/Science Photo Library Figs 16.2b, 16.16 Science & Society Picture Library Figs 16.258, b Alstrom Electrical Machines Lid Fig. 16.35a Alstom 7 & D Transformers Lid Fig. 16.35b Jef Moore Fig. 16.36 National Grid Company Fig, 16.49 from Les éditions de physique (). de Physique, 1951 vol. 12 p. 308) pp. 293, 361 Dr Jeremy Burgess/Seience Photo Library Fig. 18.58 Matt Meadows/Science Photo Library Fig, 19:35, 2067, 25.29 Philippe Phily/Science Photo Library Fig. 20.3b G. D. A. Dyson® Fig. 20.12 Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.* Fig. 20.16 Peter Aprahamian/Science Photo Library Fig. 2021 C. B. Daish Figs 20-260, 20.54b Last Resort Picture Library ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ix Figs 20.40, 20.41, 20.51, 20.54 Paul Brierley Fig. 20.58 CNES 199] Distribution Spot ImageyScience Photo Library Fig. 21.10 from Science Extra, Spring 1969, with permis: ‘sion of BBC Publications Figs 22.17¢, d irom Nuffield Advanced Physics Student's Book Unit 1 First Edition, Longman Fig. 22.22 Deep Light Productions/Science Photo Library Fig. 22.51a Prof. Henry A. Hill, University of Arizona* Fig. 22.31b A. Mollenstedt & H. Duker* Fig. 25.40a Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library Fig. 24.14 Sheila Terry/Science Photo Library Fig. 24.21 INTELSAT Fig. 24.34 Scott Camazine/Science Photo Library Figs 25.10a, b, ¢ C. T. R. Wilson® Fig. 25.22 CNRI/Science Photo Library Fig. 25.24 AERE Harwell Fig. 25.54 EFDA.JET Fig. 25.36 Gregory Sams/Science Photo Library Figs 26.1, 26.6 Prof. Mike Bessell Fig. 26.12b NRAD/AUI/Science Photo Library igs 26.15a, b Craig Savage “Every effort has been made to contact these copyright holders, who have given their permission for reproduction in earlier editions; the publishers apologise for any omis. sions and will be pleased to rectify this at the first ‘opportunity:About physics 1m Structure of physics 1m Physics and technology ‘STRUCTURE OF PHYSICS Physics, like other sciences, starts with observations in the world around us or from laboratary experiments (often involving measurements) designed to obtain facts. The investigation of elec- ticity, for example, began when it was noticed that amber (a glass-like fossil) attracts small light objects when it is, rubbed with a cloth, (a) Concepts To help make sense of the facts of physics and explain the behaviour of the physical world, physicists invent terms called concepts. These concern quantities that can be measured, Some, such as length, are very basic and easily measured while others, like potential difference (p.d.) in electric ity, are less ‘concrete’ and require more sophisticated measuring instruments, Four of the most useful concepts are those of atoms, energy, fields and waves. They pervade the whole of physies, enabling us to build an intel- lectual ‘framework that helps us 10 understand a wide range of phenom- (b) Laws Experiments show that in many cases relationships, called laws or prinei- ples, exist between concepts. They summarize a large number of facts in an economical way, often as a math- ematical equation, For example, Flooke’s law tells us how a spring’ behaves when it is 1m Practical work in the study of physics 1 Computers and dataloggers stretched and relates the concepts of force and length. Boyle's law de- seribes how gases respond when squeezed, using the concepts of pres sure and volume. Newton's laws of motion deal with the action of forces ‘on objects (often called ‘bodies’) and the accelerations they may produce. ‘Ohm's law in electricity connects the concepts of potential difference and current, ‘These so-called ‘laws of nature! are formulated by scientists by extracting from the facts and they do have limita- tions, Thus, Hooke's law is true only if the spring’ is not stretched too far, Newton's laws of motion do not hold for bodies moving at speeds near that of light and Obm’s law only applies to certain conductors. Nevertheless, it is by introducing concepts and discover ing laws that we are able to make the phiysical world seem reasonable and to obiain some control over it (c) Theories Frequently in physics what we are dealing with is not directly accessible to our senses and in such cases we sometimes use theories or ‘thought- models’ to help us to explain things For instance, the wave theory is used to make sense of some of the proper ties of light and sound, and draws on four knowledge of the behaviour of ‘real’ waves such as surface water ‘waves, The field theory enables us te deal with the invisible, action-at-a distance (non-contact) forces occur ing in electricity, magnetism and gravitation 1 Spreadsheets | Why study physics? ‘The Kinetic theory gives us insight into the properties of matter in bulk, that is, it helps to relate macroscopic (large-scale) properties such as density and pressure, especially of gases, 10 the masses, speeds, energies, etc. of the constituent atoms and molecules that cannot be seen directly, It assumes that in some ways these sub- ‘microscopic particles are not unlike visible particles (e.g. snooker balls) in their behaviour, A theory connects a wide range of ideas, thus simplifying our knowledge, and from it predictions can be made and tested by new experiments. In this way the theory is further vindicated or seen to be in need of modification if it contradicts the facts. The atomic theory of matter has developed in this way, It is important to remember that scientitic theories are aids to under- standing which, like geographical ‘maps, are representations or analogies fof reality and are not complete de- scriptions of i (d) Branches of physics and analogous laws For the purposes of study it is often convenient to divide physics into di ferent branches such as mechanics, heat, light, sound, electricity, etc. However, many concepts and laws cut ‘across these artificial boundaries and are useful in more than one branch Four such concepts have already been mentioned (ie. atoms, energy, fields, waves) but certain laws also have analogies in other branches.2 ABOUT PHYSICS The very fundamental conservation, laws (eg. of mass, electric charge, momentum, energy), which state that in any changes the quantities involved are conserved, are a notable example. Similarly, the inverse square law describes not only how gravitational forces between masses vary with dis- tance but also how electric forces between charges do, The mechanisms of thermal and electrical conduction have common features and the laws governing their behaviour have a similar mathematical form. The way in which changes occur in widely differ ent phenomena such as the growth and decay of the charge on a capacitor or the decay of a radioactive material can be represented graphically by an exponential curve. All these analogies and others help to create a unified structure, built on a few basic physical concepts. PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY (2) Technology the friend Engineering and technology use our inventiveness and knowledge of physics (and other sciences) to find solutions to problems that can lead to fan improvement in the material well being of the human race, There are many examples ofthis. Electrical generators, as used in power stations, are the outcome of discoveries made by Faraday about 170 years ago. So too are electric motors, the heart of so many of today's appliances. Radio and television arose from the theoretical ideas of the physicist Clerk Maxwell concerning the connection between light, electricity and magnet- ism, Subsequently the efforts of Hertz, Marconi, Logie-Baird and others made possible the transmission of signals over a distance. Predictions about the paths taken by antficial satellites and space veh: ieles are based on Newton's laws of motion, formulated over 300 years ago; they have contributed to the ‘con- quest’ of space, Fig. 1, with its many beneficial spin-offs, Nuclear power is possible because of the basic work done by Rutherford fon the structure of the atom at the beginning of the twentieth century. Tt is one solution to our attempt to find new sources of energy, Fig. 4. Artist's roprosontation of the Intemational Space Staton (SS) currently under Fig.2_ MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) sean of a paten’s bain. Radio wave pulses ‘mite bythe ecsnner interact witn atoms affected by the magnetic fl radiation ‘absorbed or emited is detected, ditzed and used to form an image ofa ‘sce ofthe bain fon the computer seven Modern medicine uses a host of devices such as X-ray cameras, body scanners, Fig.2, ultrasound seanners and lasers, all developed from discov- eries in physics for the diagnosis and treatment of disease Electronics, which arose from J. J “Thomson's ‘discovery’ of the electron Tat the end of the nineteenth century, is today being used to an ever-increasing extent in communication, control and computer systems, Fig. 3, as well as indomestic products and for medical care. Telephone exchanges now have electronic switching controlled by computers. They are linked 10 exchanges in other countries via large dish aerials at earth stations, Fig. 4, which send signals to earth-orbiting communication satellites for amplif cation and onward transmission, oF via underwater optical fibres which transmit the electrical signals as pulses of laser light. Fig.3. Laptop computor The laser, predicted from theoretical considerations, became a reality in 1960._At frst it was regarded as a scientilic curio, alight source which was a solution looking fora problem! ‘Today it has widespread applications which include, as well as optical fibre communication systems, surveying Fie 4 id_range-finding, delicate medical ‘operations, compact disc (CD) play- ers, scanners at library and shop cheek-ouls, printing and holography: (b) Technology the foe It not used wisely, technology can create social and environment prob- Jems such as unemployment, pollution cof many types and noise problems, not to mention the ultimate folly of nuclear war. Some scientists believe that the greenhouse. effect, in which an increase of carbon dioxide in the lower levels of the atmosphere mainly from the burning of fossil fuels (eg coal, oil), could lead to the average temperature of the earth rising by a few "C in a few hundred years. This would cause dramatic adverse climatic and geographical changes. It_ is claimed that during the twentieth ‘century the rise was 0.5°C. As well as the desirability of reducing carbon dioxide and other ‘greenhouse gas’ cemissions, there is also an urgent need to hamess altemative, non-polluting, renewable sources of energy such as wind power, since fossil fuel resources are limited, Damage to the ozone layer in the atmosphere, particularly above the Antarctic, by the use of chlorofluoro- carbons (CFCs) in aerosols, refrigera- tors and air-conditioning ‘units has also been a recent matter of eéncern. Earth station arial for telesommunicaton va satelite ABOUT PHYSICS 3 Greater penetration of the earth's atmosphere by ultraviolet radiation (owing to its reduced ozone content) is believed to lead to a rise in cases of skin caneer. It is for the human race to use technology responsibly and ensure its products are user- and environment- iriendly. (c) Interplay between physics and technology This is a two-way process. Not only does technology depend on physics, but advances in technology are often in tum used to further the work of physicists by providing them with new techniques and instruments, e.g. the scanning tunnelling micrascope (see p. 14) and the Hubble space telescope (see p. 501), PRACTICAL WORK IN THE STUDY OF PHYSICS (2) Types of practical work Practical work is an essential part of any physics course and takes the following forms. (0) Measurement of a physical quantity such as the acceleration of free fall (g), the end result being a numerical value and an estimate of the possible error init (ii) Verification of a well known law or principle such as Ohm's law or the principle of conservation of momentum, which involves keeping some quantities constant while the relation between others is studied. (iii) Open-ended investigation in which you do not know what the outcome will be and have to design the experiment yourself and choose the equipment required. (iv) Designing and constructing @ system to do a particular job. This is a popular activity in physics courses containing a section on electronics. Experiments in categories (i) and (i) are standard, ‘bread-and-butter’ types to which most time is devoted; you will find that many are outlined at appropriate points in the text. A list of suggestions for the more ‘real-life’ types (ii) and (io) is given at the end of the book (p.541); tackling two or three of these may help you to ‘do’ physics better.4 aBouT PHYSICS (b) Doing practical work Whatever form it takes, you should (@ wad any instructions carefully and/or plan the procedure you will follow before you start, Gi) record your results in a pre- pared table as you make them, to the ‘umber of significant figures the accu- racy justifies, and with the units stated atthe start of each column or row, (iii) take more than one measure- ment of each observation if time permits, (i) take at least eight readings over as wide a range as possible if « graph is to be drawn, and (8) do not dismantle the apparatus until you are certain you no longer need io use it, which may mean first plotting a graph or making calcula- tions to ensure all your measurements are sensible. (c) Writing up practical work ‘The aim should be clear from the title fof the experiment. A clear, labelled diagram (or a circuit diagram in an electrical experiment) along with the table of results should form the basis of the description of what you did but any difficulties experienced or precau- tions taken to secure accuracy should bbe mentioned, ‘The conclusion is the most impor. tant part of the report and may either bbe a numerical value (and unit), the statement of a known law, a relation- ship between two quantities or a state ment related to the aim. ‘COMPUTERS AND DATALOGGERS (a) Computers A computer program can be used to simulate an ‘experiment’ without using any laboratory apparatus. It should not be regarded as a substitute for the real experiment but as an aid to understanding, Phenomena that can be studied in this way and for which programs are available include = projectile motion, ‘= simple harmonic motion, 1 interference and diffraction, f= capacitor discharge through a resistor, = photoelectric effect, = radioactive decay, 1 fluid motion, coulomb forces, ‘= special relativity ‘The PEARLS software is a compre. hensive virtual physics laboratory ‘which can be used on Macintosh or IBM-compatible PCs, It enables com: puter simulations to be used to model fa variety of physics experiments. by changing parameters and starting con: ditions; results can be displayed ‘graphically (b) Dataloggors ‘These can replace a variety of stan: dard laboratory instruments such as timers, sealers, frequency meters and storage oscilloscopes. Dataloggers can collect, store and process data, The’ portable Pasco datalogger shown in Fig.5a has a number of digital and analogue channels to which a range of compatible sensors may be connected for recording data such as temperature, sound, light, foree and motion. This datalogger can be connected to the modem port on a Macintosh computer or the serial port of a PC with Windows, to display and process data with the aid of compati ble software. The Pico ADC shown in Fig. 5b works as a versatile datalogger when used with PicoScope and PicoL.og software on a Windows- or DOS-based PC; it plugs straight into the parallel port of the PC. Experiments for which a datalogger is useful include f= measuring g, ‘= Newton's laws of motion, ‘= conservation of momentum, 1 vibrating systems, jotential round a sphere, ‘= measuring self-inductance, ‘= charge and discharge of a capacitor, 1 radioactive decay, 1 transistor characteristics. ‘A portable datalogging system used with a portable computer, such as the Xemplar Pocket Book, allows both datalogging and processing of results to be carried out in the field. ‘SPREADSHEETS (a) Data manipulation Spreadshests can be used for a number of purposes, in particular to record and to manipulate data. A spreadsheet consists of a set of cells arranged in rows and columns; text, numbers and equations can be typed into the cells. For example, in an experiment to determine the Young modulus of elasticity of a wire, the values for the extension of the wire and the load (applied mass) are recorded on a sheet of a Microsoft Excel workbook (version 5.0) in Fig. 6a. Headings are typed into cells AY and BL in row 1, values for the extension are recorded in cells A2-A9 and the corresponding values for the ‘applied mass in cells B2-B9, (@) Pasco Fig. 5 Ostaloasers (6) FicoABOUT PHYSICS 5 I a z The Youre modus xenon (rh | Rood oss "5 i al =i is x 21 | 9 ad =} | 74 i wow —aew——] | * ig 7948 roo { | 4 Risen Wn) ee ens ‘Extenson (mm) "Applied mass ( (2) Spreadsheet of data to tnd the Young ‘modulus of wire Fe ‘The graph of the values is obtained by selecting the matrix of cells A1:A9 and B1:B9 for a graphing routine from the Chart Wizard, Fig. 6b. Lines, such as the slope, and text may be added 10 the graph using the drawing facility. ‘Text is added to the worksheet in cells AIL and BIL. When a function ‘or equation is to be entered into the worksheet it must be preceded by the = sign. To obtain the slope of the data points the function ‘SLOPE: is called up from the Microsoft f, (Function Wizard) menu by typing =SLOPE (B2:B9,A2:A9) into cell “A12; once this function is entered the value of 19.48, the slope calculated by the ‘computer by linear regression, appears in cell A12, Calculation of the Young modulus of the wire can be made by means of equations entered into the worksheet ist the value of the slope (the average value of m/e) is converted from kg/mm to kg/m by entering =A12*1000 into cell B12; the com: puter calculates the value to be 19483, Now the Young modulus E = stress/ train = FU/Ae where e is the exten- sion resulting from load F = mg (see p.28). For a wire of length 1= 1m, cross-section area A= 2% 108m! and g=98ms# then E= mg/ (2 x 10-*e) = 9.8 x slopo/(2 x 10) which is calculated on the computer by typing =9.8°812/0,000002 into cell A153; when this equation is entered the result of 9.55E + 10 N mv? is displayed in cell A15. (6) Graph of applied mass versus extension Note. In equations * and / are used for multiplication and division respee- tively and take precedence in order of calculation over + and — signs Brackets need to be used to change the order of operation Other spreadsheet programs have similar functions to Excel, but the spe- cific instructions given here may need to be modified slightly. Spreadsheet software is becoming increasingly sophisticated and allows frequently used mathematical expres- sions such as square roots, trigono: metric functions, averages and even random numbers to be called up from the function menu and calculated by the computer. Curvesfitting facilities may be available for use on graphs; for example in ‘trendline’ in. Excel, a linear, power or exponential relation- ship can be chosen and the equation displayed on the graph for comparison with the data. Different formulae can be entered on the spreadsheet to test {or relationships between data. Large quantities of data can be automatically sorted and displayed in bar or pie charts, (b) Simulations Spreadsheets can also be used for sim- ulations and simple mathematical modelling, by varying parameters in a data set or calculating changes in 2 system over time, Figure 7a on p. 6 shows how a spreadsheet may be used to simulate projectile motion in the absence of air resistance (seep. 118). Values for initial velocity x = 50 ms~* and angle of projection 6=52° have been chosen and the numerical values centered in cells A2 and B2 respectively on a sheet of a Microsolt Excet workbook. The angle @ is converted to radians and the sine and cosine obtained by typing =SIN(B2*5.142/180) in C2 and -COS(B2"3.142/180) in D2. A set of times is chosen and the numerical values entered in cells A¢-A12. Equa- tion =A82"A4*DS2 is entered in Bd and =A$2"A$*CS2-(ES2"A4*A4/2) in C4 so that the computer will eal- culate the horizontal distance x uutcos@ and the vertical distance y=utsin 6~ gt/2 travelled by the projectile at each chosen time. Note, The use of the $ sign in these equations ensures a particular cell value (and not successive values) is used in each calculation. Selection of the matrix of cells AS:C12 and insertion into a graphing routine allows the height of the pro- jectle to be plotted against distance and time, Fig. 76. By changing only the numerical values of w and 4 differ ent projectile paths may be modelled. The effect of diffrent values for the acceleration of free fall, such as is found on other planets, could be investigated by changing the value of g in cell F26 ABOUT PHYSICS EE Some at tne many areas in which ysis wor today =f raarenira [ede ar ee) wethe following. 2 Bee — gral on 98] w Allematve ener — geothermal, solar, wave wind LS aan | ua? 1 Gueinuicatone— Are opts, mda, radio, satelite, ‘ ee : ‘scommuntatons, lesion é +a 2 Comntng Computer-aided design, computer design, : pe ar retro conta, obo, st di , Si wren Scots, alge, universes, broadcast : tse Bt) ing publishing {sas ral] impoerng = chemical, cv, contol, electrical a +| is @ mnehanical = rm = wfsfonmeta science — consenation, noise contol, [a2 | e] 246 =i pollution control, radiation protection a L ‘= Geophysics — mineralogy, petrology, prospecting, seis: moony (a sorwatont to nan sition 1 aL, — aerospace, chemi, eletrones, fod, peto- Icum,senigonactor Proce mstin wate sence metallurgy, new mates, thin ns | SMa proses — eal serie, instrumentation, ad- = ology 1 HEE ology — oceanography, weather forecasting x TMGEIRe a Serco lence, energy resources, od conch, patents, standards a ———) zd eater a —_——————— rote of oyaes e rere of ay a! {wot no ssl corep? Name conc ‘ Wat mca of et? None re is. eae ages 2 Wet unos of haan? Hane others, ae Physics and technology (7 Prope coy J nr tre conan apace cra an eer Fe. ait 3 Ss fre uses tr ancient nace, eee pacts cf pyle ad eo Menton Mo WHY STUDY PHYSICS? ‘ways in which they can be used “The answer to this question may be the very important one that you have an examination to pass which will advance ‘your future career, but there are other reasons. Among them are that (@) ican promote a knowledge and understanding of the world around us, making it a more interesting place, for example, by accounting for the fact that @ space capsule ‘can orbit the earth at a constant speed of 8 kms * with its engines switched off, yet to cycle at a very much smaller speed requires the bicycle pedals to be pushed; {b) it ean encourage an appreciation of the importance of physies and its applications in technology and perhaps tenable us 10 use our discoveries and inventions more effec: tively, for example by indicating how cars ean be designed to minimize damage and improve safety in a collision; (c) it can create an awareness of the social, economic and environmental implications of science and hopefully help us to make well-informed judgements on such matters as nuclear power, the impact of computers on employment; ‘and, lastly but not least, (d) if can be a source of enjoyment, satisfaction and intellectual stimulation. 2a) for the boneft, ') tothe detent, ofthe communty. 16.) Wns the greennouse effect so called? B) Find out wnat ii claimed would be some of 1) the climate eects, iy the geographical efects, ef global warming. «e) Suggest woys of reducing ‘greenhouse gas’ emissions. Spreadsheets 17. Construct spreadsheet from the following measurements refaing potent diference (V) and curent (1) ina resistor (Rt Use @ graphing routine to plot Vversus 1. Decide if the raph is consistent wit the relation V'= 1R and evaluate R, 00 41 68 88 116 139 Tames) 012 020 0.26 034 O41 1B. Design a spreadsheet to simulate projectile motion inthe ‘absence of air resistance. Using a graphing routine, lot the ttajectory ofa rocket launched with a vatecty of 50 m's™* at an angle GF 40" tothe horizontal fom te surface ofthe moon, where the ‘coloration of fee fall i 1.67 m 8 Vivo) 00Materials and their uses 8 3. Mechanical properties, 26 5 Thermal properties 62 Structure of materials 14 4 Electrical properties 40 6 Optical properties 76 Plystyrene cystalites viewed twough crossed polarizersMateri. 1 Use of materiats Materials in tension and compression | Metals and alloys USE OF MATERIALS It has been said that a scientific discovery is incomplete and immature until the technologist has found a practical application for it and ‘improved the lot’ of human beings. One of the essential requirements for any technological advance is the avail- ability of the right materials, The importance of this is shown by the use fof names such as Stone Age, Bronze ‘Age and Iron Age for successive cultures in ancient times. (a) Stone Age In this period, dating from the earliest times recorded up to about 2500 nc, tools and weapons were made of stone, Clay was fired to make pottery, while the weaving of plant and animal fibres provided cloth, fishing nets and baskets. When agriculture was developed, the settled existence required for ‘ending crops and animals all the year round encouraged the building of per- manent houses of wood and stone. Villages and towns grew up, requiring roads, drains, bridges and aqueduct ‘The fesulting wealth of some com- munities led’ to envy among others ‘and the need for town dwellers to construct fortifications for protection ‘and 10 develop weapons technology. (b) Bronze Age This era began with the discovery around 2500 ac in eastern Europe that Timber Stone, bricks and concrete Polymers: 1 Other materials copper became harder and tougher ‘when alloyed with tin to make bronze. ‘The consequent advances in techno. logy were, however, small compared ‘with those of the Iron Age. (c) tron Age Although iron farm implements were used in China for centuries before, it ‘was not until about 1000 Bc or so that iron came into widespread use in ‘other parts of the world, Iron is one of the commonest metals in the earth's crust. It is extracted from its ore (iron: bearing rock) by smelting, ‘More recently, in the nineteenth century, steel, (an iron alloy) became the dominant material for making tools, utensils, machinery, bridges, ships, weapons, cars and many other items. (d) Moder era ‘The twentieth century saw the arrival cof plastics (p.10) and composite materials (p.33) which have opened up a whole range of possibilities. MATERIALS IN TENSION AND COMPRESSION Dilferent materials are used for lffer- ent jobs, the choice depending, among other things, on the properties of the material. There are good reasons why concrete is used for constructing large buildings, wood for furniture, glass for windows, aluminium for saucepans, ir uses Beams 1m Bridges | Some other structures plastics for washing-up bowls, cotton and polyester for clothes, and rubber for elastic bands. ‘The use of materials in structures such as buildings and bridges depends fon their mechanical properties. For example, it is essential to know how they behave under tension and compression, Stretching a material puts it in tension, Fig.1.1a, while squeezing it puts it in compression, Fig 1.16. A material that is strong in tension can be weak in compression, and vice versa. ta fate -e (2) pusnes cause (a) puts cause Fig. 24 METALS AND ALLOYS (a) Iron and steo! Pure iron is seldom used; it is usually alloyed with other substances t0 form steel. Mild steel is iron containing a very small proportion of carbon. It is strong in Both tension and compres- sion and, being cheap, is used in large quantities for mass-produced goods Like cars, cookers and refrigerators. In «the consiruction industry scaffolding, girders, bridges, power pylons and the forcing for concrete are made of it ‘Two disadvantages of mild steel are first that it is a heavy metal andsecond that it rusts, To counter rusting, an alternative to painting is to coat it with another metal which resists corrosion, such as tin, forming tinplate. Galvanized steel is covered by a thin layer of zinc; corrugated sheets of this are used as roofing for sheds. Chromium-plated steel is pro- tected chiefly by a layer of nickel, on top of which a very thin layer of chromium (a hard, shiny metal) is added by electroplating. Stainless steel contains large pro- portions of chromium and nickel. It is ‘more expensive and dificult to work than mild steel but itis much stronger and harder and very resistant to corro- sion. It is ideal for kitchen sinks and implements in everyday use such as cutlery, Titanium steel has a very high melting-point and is used to make paris of jet engines, rockets, super- sonic aircraft and space-shuttie nose- (b) Aluminium and duratumin Aluminium is the most widely used metal after iron but is much more expensive to extract from its ore (bauxite); recycling of aluminium cans isa significant energy conservation measure. Its density is one-third that of iron and the thin, tough layer of oxide which forms on the surface ‘when exposed to the air makes it very resistant to atmospheric corrosion, ‘The pure metal tends to be weak and brit. Duralumin is made by alloying alu- ‘minium with small amounts of copper, manganese and magnesium, The tensile strength is then as great as that of mild steel and this, combined with its low density, makes it highly suit- able for sircrait bodies. TIMBER ‘There are two main types of wood Softwoods like pine, besides being soft, are usually light’ in both weight and colour. They are used for general carpentry to make doors, window frames, Moors and roof trusses. in hhouse-building, Hardwoods like oak ‘and teak are stiff (see p. 26) and strong and are suitable for making good: ‘quality furniture, A tree grows from the centre out- wards, a ring of wood being produced in the trunk each year, Fig. 12a. ‘These annual rings ‘are the grain marks that are seen when the trunk is cut into Tong planks, Fig, 1.25, In hhardwoods these marks are’ closer than in softwoods, which explains why the former are stiffer and stronger. In tension, the strength along the grain is greater than across it becatise wood consists of long tube like fibres running up and down the tree trunk. Wood is less. strong in compression. on of woo Fig 2.2 New wood contains a great deal of moisture, most of which must be removed’ by seasoning before it is used. This is generally done naturally by stacking the freshly cut planks with spacers between, to allow air to circu- late and dry them out slowly. The operation may take anything from a few weeks to several years. If a piece of wood is not properly seasoned it will gain or lose water unevenly when it is very damp or very dry. Gain of water produces expansion, loss of water causes shrinking and the result is warping. (a) Plywood Thin sheets of wood need less time to season than thick planks. Plywood is made by gluing thin, seasoned sheets together with the grains of alternate sheets at right angles to each other, Fig. 13a. An odd number of sheets is always used to give, for example, 3-ply or S-ply. Ifa crack passes between tha. trains of one sheet it meets the next sheet across the grain, Fig. 13h, and does not. spread. For this reason, plywood is stronger than a piece of solid wood of the same thickness, Since it consists of sheets it is called a laminate, ~ iy ) » Fig.23 Plywood (b) Blockboard ‘This is a sandwich made by filing the space between two thin sheets of ‘wood with strips of solid woods, as in Fig 14. The grain on the outside sheets goes the same way. Like plywood, blockboard should not warp and can be fixed down firmly (e.g. as a ‘worktop) with no fear of it moving. Latin sheet, ofan ‘wood Fig.14 Blockboad (c) Chipboard This is made from wood particles and resin. It can be sawn like wood and, being reasonably strong though heavier than solid wood, it can be used for flooring, furniture, shelves, etc. Itis usually sold with a thin, more attractive sheet (@ veneer) already on fone or both surfaces, Fig. 15. Veneers of plastic with wood grain or colour effects, or of wood itself, are available. Flg.48 ChinboordSTONE, BRICKS AND CONCRETE A variety of materials is used to con struct houses, buildings, bridges, roads and dams, Cost, climate and availabi) ity are often faciors that have to be considered when deciding which to use. (2) Stone Deposits of stone are found in many paris of the world. They occur as granite which is hard and long-lasting, marble which is hard and attractive but does not last as long, and sand- stone which is soft, easy to work and fairly long-lasting. Stone is strong in ‘compression but weak in tension. In cities where there is atmospheric pollution, stone buildings need clean- ing periodically if they are to retain their appearance, (0) Bricks ‘These are a cheap alternative to stone and have a convenient size. They are made by mixing clay with water and are then moulded into shape before being baked in ovens at a high temper- ature, The colour and hardness of the brick produced depends on the clay used and the baking temperature Bricks, like stone, are weak in tension and strong in compression, (6) Coment and mortar Cement is a cream-coloured powder, made by heating a mixture of clay and lime to a high temperature. If mixed with sand and water, cement becomes a thick paste called mortar. Mortar is used to hold bricks or stones together since it becomes a hard, stone-like ‘material when it dries (d) Concrete ‘This is now used more than any other material for building and construction work. It is made by mixing cement, sand and gravel (called ‘aggregate’} with water. A typical mix is 1 part cement, 2 paris sand and 4 parts aggregate, but this is varied for differ- ent purposes. If allowed to dry in a ‘mould, any shape can be obtained and it sets as a hard, white stone. Concrete weathers well and is strong in compression but weak in tension owing to the large number of smal] cracks it inevitably contains. AS 4 result, it is brittle and unsuitable when large tensile strength is required. In reinforced concrete the strength of concrete in tension is improved by inserting wires or rods of steel through the wet concrete, Fig. 16. As the conerete dries it sticks to the steel, giving a combination which is strong in both compression and tension. / Seatrao Oe Fig. 4.6. Reinforced concrete In prestressed conerete even greater tensile strength is obtained, as, explained in chapter 3. (p.32). In lightweight concrete cinders are used as the aggregate POLYMERS ‘The properties of some of the com- moner synthetic polymers are outlined here; (a) to () are thermoplastics, (2) and (h) are thermosets (see chapter 2, 9-25, where the molecular structure of Dolymers is. discussed). The mech nical properties of rubber, @ natural polymer, are considered in detail in Chapter 3 (p36) (a) Polythene ‘This is tough (Le. not brittle) but flex- ible, and resistant to water and most solvents, It can be rolled into thin sheets and moulded into complex shapes. It is a very good electrical insulator. (b) Polystyrene ‘This is more brittle than some plastics ‘but its stifiness is taken advantage of for making small containers and toys Expanded polystyrene is a solid foam containing a large number of air bubbles. lis very low density and ease of moulding to almost any shape make it good packaging material. tis also good heat insulator, (c) PVC (polyvinyl chloride) ‘This is strong, tough, flexible and waterproof, which makes it suitable for protective sheeting and floor cov- rings. Being a good electrical insu- lator itis used to cover electric cables, (A) Perspex ‘This is stiff and transparent but not so hhard and brittle as glass, for which it is sometimes used as a substitute. It is easily cut and drilled, but scratches (e) PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylone) or Teflon ‘This has a much higher melting-point than most plastics and also has ‘non- stick’ properties. These make it useful for coating the insides of saucepans and other cooking containers and for making bearings that do not need lubricating, (f) Nylon Nylon fibres are used to make strong ropes and hard-wearing fabrics. Bein water-resistant, clothing made from it dries quickly and requires no ironing However, nylon shiris and blouses often feel damp to wear in hot weather because they do not absorb sweat. Polyester is an alternative fibre used in the textile industry. (g) Bakelite ‘This is hard and brittle, but is much strengthened by the addition of, for example, sawdust. Its cheapness, low density and resistance to corrosion hhave made it popular for electrical fit- tings. (h) Formica and melamine ‘These are two other thermosets with hhard, smooth surfaces which make “them suitable veneers for worktops and other surfaces.OTHER MATERIALS (2) Fibre-reinforced materials ‘The properties of composite materials using fibres of glass or carbon in a plastic resin (GRP and CFRP) will be ‘considered in chapter 3 (pp. 35-35). (b) Laminated glass ‘This is sometimes called “bullet-proof lass, and is even stronger than tough. ened (prestressed) glass (p. 32). It is made by fixing together layers of toughened glass with a transparent adhesive. More layers give greater strength. It is used for aircraft wind- screens. If a erack gets through one layer of glass, it gets ‘blunted’ on ing a layer of adhesive and is tunable to penetrate the next layer, Fig 1.7a. So when struck, it cracks but does not break into lots of small fragments; Fig, 1.7b shows the effect. (c) Ceramics ‘These are made by mixing cl sand and water into a paste which is shaped as required and fired at a high temperature. Very fine clay (e.g, china clay or kaolin) when fired at a sufti- ciently high temperature forms por- celain. Ordinary clay is unable to withstand such high temperatures and is used to make earthenware or pottery. Porcelain is usually ‘glazed’ by adding a layer of glass. High-tech ceramics made from powders containing metal oxides, nitrides, carbides or borides, combine extreme hardness with a resistance to corrosion and ability to withstand hhigh temperatures, which has seen them used in an increasing number of applications from artificial hip joints to engine rotors and cutting tools (see Figs 2.2 and 21.18), Fig. 2.70 Laminates glass cracks bul does nat shatter BEAMS Boams or ‘girders’ form parts of larger structures such as bridges. (a) Simple beams You can see what happens when a beam is loaded by drawing lines on a piece of foam rubber, Fig 1.84, and then pushing down on its top surface. The lines at the top become shorter while those at the bottom become longer. The length of the central line is unchanged, Fig 1.80. Therefore, when a beam is loaded and bends, the top is in compression (squeezed), the bottom is in tension (stretched), and the centre, called the neutral layer, is neither squeezed nor stretched. [ Eoneresson foam ubber tenbion a) © Fig .8 In a solid beam, most of the mater- jal in the central'region (the neutral layer) is not needed. It is wasted mate- rial whose weight simply acts as. an cextra load that has to be supported. If this material is removed, the muck used I-beam is obtained, Fig. 19, which is as strong as a solid beam but much lighter. The top and bottom flanges withstand the compression and tension forces produced when the beam is loaded. Other common types of girder are L- and T-shaped. Tubes use the same idea, the removal of unstressed material giving similar advantages. Circular tubes are ‘most common, being equally strong in all directions ‘at right angles 10 the V6 tbe iy 7 Fig. 2.9. Common types of giver (b) Teussed beams A simple beam can be strengthened if a truss is joined to itas in Fig, 1.10. If, for example, the structure is a bridge, the weight of a car on it makes CBD bend down. AB moves down too, but AC and AD hold it back so CBD does not bend so much. Loading the trussed beam therefore tends to stretch AB and puts it under tension, ‘Abeam in tension is called a tie Fig. 4.10 Trusses beamOn the other hand, AC and AD ate under compression. and are. called struts, They are put inthis state by AB pushing down on them at A and by the bridge supports pushing up on them at C and D. The latter forces arise because the truss transfers the load to the supports. BRIDGES In its simplest form a bridge consists fof a beam, called the bridge-deck, supported at the ends, Fig. 1.11 Bridge-decks must be made of ‘materials which can withstand both compressive and tensile stresses. They ‘must also be fire- and water-resistant. Other important factors are cost and the amount of maintenance required. ‘ep surace in ie ec Sinpresion Se Fig. 1.14 Simple beam idge Early bridges were built of stone, then came steel; today reinforced, pre- stressed and lightweight conerete are ‘most common, Where steel and con- cerete or stone are used, the design is such that steel bars are in parts under tension, while the stone or concrete is arranged to experience compression, Cables (of steel) are only used for paris in tension. If steel is to be under compression it is usually in the form of I- or T-shaped girders. There are ‘many different types of bridge. (@) Beam and pier ‘As well as having supports at both ends, this type has one or more pillars or piers in the middle, Fig. 1.12. The piers stop the bridge-deck from ending too much and make the bridge much stronger. A load on the bridge puts the piers under compres- sion but, being made of stone, brick or conerete, they can withstand this. Fig. 4.12 Beam and pier bridge (b) Arch In an arch bridge the bridge-deck is supported by an atch either from above, as in Fig, 1.15a, ot from below as in Fig, 1.136. The arch may be of reinforced conerete or of steel girders. wid tec ) stone ach in Compression © Fig. 1.13 Aven beages ‘A load on the bridge-deck causes slight compression of the arch, whether itis above or below the de ‘The material of the arch should there. fore be strong in compression. Stone or brick bridges often have arches below the bridge-deck, Fig. 1.15¢. Fig. 1.16 The Forth oad bridge (suspension) and ralvay bridge (cantilever) (6) Suspension Most of the worl’s largest bridges use this construction, Fig. 1.14. They are jn. effect beams supported by steel cables, all of which are in tension. The main ‘cables hang from tall towers (pylons) at each end, which must be built on rocks that can withstand the Targe downward forces exerted by the towers, gieleuiein enon ridge Fig. 4.14 Suspension bicge ‘The Forth road bridge in Scotland, in the foreground of Fig.1.16, is of this type. (d) Cantilever A cantilever is @ beam which is sup- ported only at one end, Fig, 1.15. The top is in tension while the bottom is in compression. The Forth railway bridge, built in 1890, part of which is visible in the background of Fig. 1.16, uses the can- tilever principle top sutace in teteion = cantioner owe ue | compression Fig. 1.15 Cantilever beam