Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CROSSFIT - The Nature and Prevalence of Injury During CrossFit Training - 2013
CROSSFIT - The Nature and Prevalence of Injury During CrossFit Training - 2013
Training Methods: A
Theoretical Approach
Jenqdong Lin, PhD, CSCS and Tinghao Chen, PhD
Office of Physical Education, Kainan University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
42 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2012 Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
Table 1 If the connective tissues and the
Muscle hypertrophy training profile muscles for stabilizing and balancing
the anatomy structure are weak, the
Training parameters Work result is an unstable musculoskeletal
Objective Exhausting muscle to increase muscle mass system (21). It is analogous to con-
structing a house without first building
Load 70–80% of 1RM a strong firm base and frame (1).
Repetitions 8–12 Strengthening the musculoskeletal
framework is a critical prerequisite for
Exercises 2–5 exercises for each muscle group developing muscle force. Anatomical
Sets of each exercise 3–4 adaptation consists of 5 subareas: (a)
strengthening the connective tissues,
Rest interval (b) building stable joints, (c) developing
Set interval 50–90 s core muscles, (d) balancing the muscle
forces, and (e) developing the stabilizer
Session interval 48–72 h musculature.
Execution speed Moderate
STRENGTHENING THE
Frequency 5–6 d CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Connective tissue includes bones, lig-
Training duration At least 10 wk
aments, fascia, cartilage, and tendons.
1RM, 1 repetition maximum. These units are considered as a single
unit in this article on the basis of their
shared roles as a supporting base,
a series of movements in 1 session twice every 6 days with 1 day of rest.
connection structure, and in the con-
(44,48). The training frequency is a split The 6-1 routine is suggested for
veyance of force. When connective
routine, with 2 examples being the 4-1 advanced individuals (Table 3). To
tissues are stressed (through body
and 6-1 routines (21,44,58). The 4-1 provide variation in training and to
motion or weight bearing), their struc-
routine involves 4 consecutive training accommodate athletes of different
tures and force-bearing capacities are
days and 1 resting day, with the same levels, alternative split routines have
strengthened and serve as a critical
cycle repeated for the next 5 days. For also been proposed (7,48). Regardless
component in the prevention of sports
instance, the first day may be com- of the training regimen followed, each
injuries (47,59). The maximal strength
posed of exercises involving the chest, routine allows for at least 48 hours of
of connective tissues is maintained
biceps, and abdominals, whereas the recovery time for each muscle (48).
well above the voluntary force capa-
quadriceps and calves are trained on
bilities of associated muscles. Concen-
the second day. The latissimus dorsi, ANATOMICAL ADAPTATION tric forces responding to mechanical
triceps, and abdominals are trained Anatomical adaptation emphasizes forces might threaten the condition
again on the third day, and, finally, strengthening all anatomical aspects of of the support structure formed by
exercises for the gluteals/hamstrings the musculoskeletal system. One of the connective tissue if an appropriate
and shoulders are suggested for the aims is the strengthening of connective paradigm of strength training is not
fourth day (Table 2). The preceding tissues. In many cases, programs em- adopted (21).
schedule will allow for a nearly all the phasize muscle mass and ignore the con-
major muscles of the body to be trained The appropriate choice of load
nective tissues, which form the support magnitudes and volume to be applied
within a span of 4 days. structure that muscle is built upon. As for strengthening tissues continue to
Another split routine is the 6-1 style, a result, it is also the region where be debated, with many of the results
designed to train the same muscles injuries most commonly occur (21). being rather controversial (13,11,16,
46,50,49,52,57). Although heavy load
is recommended by Tsuzuku et al. (51),
Table 2
training constantly with high-intensity
Example of a 4-1 split routine
loads may decrease bone mineral
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 density (36). Furthermore, compared
with muscle, the connective tissue
Chest Quadriceps Latissimus dorsi Gluteals/Hamstrings Rest
takes more time to develop force and
Biceps Calves Triceps Shoulders morphological adaptations (10,13,52).
If heavier loads are adopted, the
Abdominals Abdominals
adaptation rate of muscle force is faster
neuron might select the fast twitch Unlike slow strength training, where lifted into the air with high speed and
motor units to act first. The motor units the intensity of 1 repetition is de- acceleration (38,55). The rate of force
with high activation thresholds are termined by the load, explosive development focuses on fast muscle
activated before the motor units with strength is determined not only by action or the quick start of internal
low activation thresholds. This phe- load but also by velocity. Due to the strength (force). Ballistic training
nomenon is called selective recruit- different combination spectrum of load emphasizes fast acceleration and high
ment (17,23,45). In other words, using and velocity, the formation of a variety movement velocity, explosive strength
heavy load may create adaptation due of training methods is feasible. The with medium load, and highlights
to the size principle, whereas explosive possible training methods include ex- force and velocity simultaneously. It is
strength training may create adaptation plosive method with heavy load, the designed to induce the largest power
due to selective recruitment (21). ballistic method, the explosive method response, promoting the enhancement
From the aspect of muscular coordi- with a medium load, plyometric drills, of power capacity (5,21).
nation, the purpose of heavy load and speed-resisted training (Table 4). So far, the natural patterns of human
training is to explore the capacity of To overcome inertia as soon as possi- body movement have not been em-
a muscle group as much as possible to ble, explosive training with heavy re- phasized. This is the purpose of the
induce maximum force. Known as sistance is designed to speed up the plyometric drills. The plyometric drill
intramuscular coordination, control of rate of force development and shorten uses the stretch-shortening cycle,
the nervous system is coordinated by the action time between the nervous which begins with muscles stretching
reducing the inhibitors to optimal system and its associated contraction and then acting concentrically (32).
coordination between inhibition and muscle. Although movement velocity First, the muscle is stretched to store
excitation within a muscle group. To may not be fast with a heavy load elastic energy and to induce a stretch
accomplish fast and explosive move- (Table 5), the action velocity inside the reflex. Subsequently, the potential en-
ment, explosive strength training neuromuscular system is fast (44,58). ergy and reflex are released to increase
induces the adaptation of conveying
When traditional weight training is force as the muscle is shortened. The
force among muscles smoothly to
practiced, movements must be stopped elastic and reactive properties of the
reach the state of intermuscular co-
at the end of the range of motion. This neuromuscular system are used for
ordination. When the muscles are
uses deceleration, thus negatively af- maximum force production. When
coordinated with one another, they
fecting movement velocity. It appears the stretch phase has a small amplitude
gain the ability to coordinate specific
that the lighter the resistance, the but high velocity and no delay exists
sequences in which various muscles are
greater the deceleration (20). To over- between the stretching and shortening
involved in performing a movement,
come this problem, the ballistic method phases, the enhancement of perfor-
and the athletes learn to relax the
is suggested. When executing the mance due to the stretch-shortening
antagonistic muscle so that unneces-
sary contractions do not affect the movement, immediately before the start cycle is maximized (8,19,42).
force of the prime agonist. Meanwhile, of the movement, the pattern of the Plyometric drills targeting the lower
the force among muscles could be movement is preprogrammed. Potential extremities include jumping in place,
transmitted efficiently, resulting in less energy is then released without hesita- hopping, bounding, box drills, landing,
energy consumed (5). tion, resulting in the implement being and drop jumps, all of which should be
Table 4
Methods of explosive strength training
Table 6
Methods of strength training
9. Chandler J, Kibler B, Stracener E, Ziegler A, 22. Floyd RT. Manual of Structural Kinesiology.
Jenqdong Lin is and Pace B. Shoulder strength, power and Boston, MA: The McGraw-Hill Higher
an assistant pro- endurance in college tennis players. Am J Education, 2009. pp. 109–140.
fessor in the Office Sports Med 20: 455–459, 1992.
23. Garnett R and Stephens JA. Changes in
of Physical Edu- 10. Chilibeck PD, Calder A, Sale DG, and the recruitment threshold of motor units
cation at Kainan Webber CE. Twenty weeks of weight produced by cutaneous stimulation in man.
University. training lean tissue mass but not bone J Physiol 311: 463–473, 1981.
mineral mass or density in healthy, active
24. Grimby L. Firing properties of single motor
young women. Can J Physiol Pharmacol
units during locomotion. J Physiol 346:
74: 1180–1185, 1996.
195–202, 1984.
Tinghao Chen 11. Conroy BP and Earle RW. Bone, muscle and
25. Hakkinen K, Alen M, and Komi PV.
connective tissue adaptation to physical
is an assistant Neuromuscular, anaerobic and aerobic
activity. In: Essentials of Strength Training and
professor in the Conditioning. Baechle TR, ed. Champaign,
performance characteristics of elite power
Office of Physical athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 53: 97–105,
IL: Human Kinetics, 1994. pp. 51–66.
1984.
Education at 12. Conroy BP and Earle RW. Bone, muscle
Kainan and connective tissue adaptation to
26. Hamilton N, Weimar W, and Luttgens K.
University. Kinesiology—Scientific Basis of Human
physical activity. In: Essentials of Strength
Motion (7th ed). Boston, MA: The
Training and Conditioning (2nd ed).
McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2008. pp.
Baechle TR, ed. Champaign, IL: Human
20–253.
Kinetics. 2000. pp. 57–72.
27. Hedrick A. Training for hypertrophy.
13. Conroy BP, Kraemer WJ, Maresh CM, and
Strength Cond J 17: 22–29, 1995.
REFERENCES Dalsky GP. Adaptive response of bone to
1. Aaberg E. Muscle Mechanics (2nd ed). physical activity. Med Exerc Nutr Health 1: 28. Henneman E and Olson CB. Relations
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2006. pp. 64–74, 1992. between structure and function in the
19–35. design of skeletal muscles. J Neurophysiol
14. Cook G. Athletic Body in Balance.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2003. pp. 28: 581–598, 1965.
2. Allerheiligen B, Edgerton VR, Hayman B,
Kuc J, Lambert M, MacDougall JD, 61–87. 29. Hoff J, Gran A, and Helgerud J. Maximal
15. Cronn JB, Mcnair PJ, and Marshall RN. strength training improves work economy
Pedemonte J, O’Bryant H, Sale D, Tesch P,
Strength and power predictors of sports in female cross-country skiers. Med Sci
Vermeil A, and Westcott WW. Determining
speed. J Strength Cond Res 19: 349–357, Sports Exerc 31: 870–877, 1999.
factors of strength roundtable. Strength
Cond J 15: 9–31, 1993. 2005. 30. Jung AP. The impact of resistance training
16. Daslky GP, Stocke KS, Ehsani AA, on distance running performance. Sports
3. Baechle TR, Earle RW, and Wathen D.
Slatoplsky E, Lee WC, and Birge SJ. Med 33: 539–552, 2003.
Resistance training. In: Essentials of
Weight-bearing exercise training and 31. Kato M, Murakami S, and Yasuda K.
Strength Training and Conditioning (3th
lumbar bone mineral content in Behaviour of single motor units of tibialis
ed). Baechle TR and Earle RW, eds.
postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med anterior during shortening contraction
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. pp. 108: 824–828, 1998. under constant load torque. Exp Neurol 90:
381–412.
17. Datta AK and Stephens JA. The effect of 238–253, 1985.
4. Bender J, Pierson J, Kaplan H, and Johnson digital nerve stimulation on the firing of motor 32. Komi PV. Physiological and biomechanical
A. Factors affecting the occurrence of knee units in human first dorsal interosseous correlates of muscle function: Effects of
injuries. J Assoc Phys Ment Rehabil 18: muscle. J Physiol 318: 501–510, 1981. muscle structure and stretch-shortening
130–134, 1964. 18. Desmedt JE and Godaux E. Ballistic cycle on force and speed. Exerc Sport Sci
5. Bompa TO. Periodization Training for contraction in man: Characteristic Rev 12: 81–121, 1984.
Sports: Programs for Peak Strength in 35 recruitment pattern of single motor units of 33. Kubo K, Kanehisa H, Ito M, and
Sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, the tibialis muscle. J Physiol 264: Fukunage T. Effects of isometric training
1999. pp. 83–120. 673–694, 1977. on the elasticity of human tendon
19. Edman KA, Elzinga G, and Noble MI. structure in vivo. J Appl Physiol 91:
6. Bompa TO and Haff GG. Periodization,
Enhancement of mechanical performance 26–32, 2001.
Theory and Methodology of Training (5th
by stretch during titanic contractions of 34. Kubo K, Kanehisa H, Ito M, and Fukunage
ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2009.
vertebrate skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol T. Effects of resistance and stretching
pp. 3–30.
281: 139–155, 1978. training programmes on the viscoelastic
7. Bompa TO, Pasquale MD, and Comacchia
20. Elliot BC, Wilson GJ, and Kerr GK. A properties of human tendon structures
L. Serious Strength Training: Periodization in vivo. J Appl Physiol 538: 219–226,
biomechanical analysis of sticking region in
for Building Muscle Power and Mass. the bench press. Med Sci Sports Exerc 21: 2002.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2003. pp. 450–462, 1989. 35. Loucks AB. Osteoporosis prevention
3–29.
21. Fleck SJ and Kraemer WJ. Designing begins in childhood. In: Competitive Sports
8. Cavagna GA. Storage and utilization of Resistance Training Programs (3rd ed). for Children and Youth. Brown EW and
elastic energy in skeletal muscle. Exerc Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2004. pp. Branta CF, eds. Champaign, IL: Human
Sport Sci Rev 5: 89–129, 1997. 209–240. Kinetics, 1988. pp. 213–223.