Professional Documents
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LOlllDO!l,
lL'BmTBJ) U!lDIIB rmB AUTHOBITY Olr HIS MAJESTY'S STATION1llBY OiTICIII
BI' auuusON AND SONS, 45-4'1, ST. M.lRTIN'S Ltxll, w.o.,
PIl.nft'BB8 III OBDIHUY TO HIB IlU'EBTT.
.
"40 [C1'Own Cop,1j1'~qht Resenled, r' '
I War Office
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~CCESSION General
NUMBER,?i-:.l()/, "
·-<a·~test"
LONDON:
PRINTED UNDER THill AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFIOE
By HARRISON AND SONS, 45-47, ST. MARTIN'S LANE, W.O.,
PRINTERS IN O.nDINAltY TO HIS MAJESTY.
,VAR OFFICE,
15th Ma;l/, 1914.
SeCl'etw'Y, Admiralty.
CON'l'ENTS.
PAGE
,CHAPTER I.-OARE Ol' AEIIOPLANES.
Fabric - ,Yoods - Braciug ,Vires - Turnbuckles - '1'yres-
Engincs-Propellers-Bolts and Nuts-Logs 5-7
OHAPTER II.-·OARE OF AEROPLANE SHEDS.
Floors-Benches-Tool Boxes-Trays-Stands for Engines-
Clothing - Spare Parts - Blow Lamps - Fire - Damp -
Notice lloards 8-10
OHAPTER IlL-REPAIR OF AEUOPLANES AND ORqANIZATION
OF W ORESHOPS.
Personnel-Examination and Dismantling of Damaged Aero-
planes 10-12
En<'ineS}
Hull Repair work 12-13
Fabric
Oare of Machinery-Tools-Stores-Storage of Spare Planes-
General Remarks on Organization ... 13-17
OHAPTER IY.-AsSEMBLING, EltEOTING AND TRUEING UP OF
AEUOPLANES.
General Principles-Notes on Trueing up various Types ... 17-42
CHAPTER V.-CAUE AND REPAIR OF INTERNAL-COMBl.'STION
ENGINES.
(1"01' Gnome and Renault Engines, see special Handbook.)
Introductory Remarks-Detailed Description of the Working
of the Petrol Motor-Defects-Their Oauses and Reniedies
-Defects which may occur when certain specific conditions
are obser'vable ... 42-80
~UU5) A2
4 CONTENTS.
OHAFT VI-INSTRUMENTS.
Mel'curialllarometer-Aneloids and Barographs-Anemometers
-Erection of Aeroplane Instrument 13oards-Clinometer-
AirSpeed Indicator (Pitot Tube)-Reyolution Oonnter ... 80-93
CHAPTER VIl.-OOMI'ASSES.
General Description-OOlupass Errors-Aeroplane Oompasses 93-100
'CHAPTER X.-METEOlWLOGY.
Atmospbedc Pressure-'l'he Wind and its connection with
Atmospheric Pressnre-Gustiness of the Wind-Fore-
casting-Oonditions of the Atmosphere affecting Aviation 113-12G
ApPENDICES.
Appendix i.-Table of Gradient Velueities 142-144
" Il.-Beaufort Wind Scale... ". 145
IlL-Table of Changes in Velocity and Direction of
the wind with height... - 14G-148
IV.-Glossary of some Aeronautical TermR 149-162
I'i
(B 12245) A.4
8 . CHAPTER II.
Metal-
(i) There must be no signs of rust or flaws.
(ii) Only bright bolts and nuts should be employed.
(iii) Piano wire should not have been previously bent,
and must be free from kinks.
/
1~ CitAPTER iv.
(iv) Stranded wire or cable should be regularly twisted
and not frayed at any point.
IV) 'l'ubing should be perfectly straight and should not
show signs of having been previously bent and
subsequently straightened.
(vi) The threads of bolts, nuts and screws should be clean,
and not worn or burred.
(vii) Strut sockets and other metal fittings should not be
bent out of their original sha-pe. Such fittings should
also not be used if they show signs of having been
bent and subsequently straightened. In the case
of aluminium sockets, care must be taken that there
are no cracks, especially where the Bockets have
been previously subjected to severe strains. Eye-
plates and eye-bolts should show no signs of wear
or fracture.
Wood~
Trailing edge.
~
1
PLAN.-ILLUSTRA'l'ION OF INTERNAL BRACING OlJ' A PLANE,
DISTINGUISHING THE FLYING AND LANDING WIRES.
c d=Flying Ii_·ires.
'Y.
ELEVA'fION, LOOKIXG AFT.-ILLUSTRATiON OF THE WIRING OF
THE CELLS BETWEEN THE lIiAIN PLANES.
l
ASSEMBLING, ERECTING AND TRUEING UP. 31
/..e/c Hand
"', he Hand
'4
'" X:~rb SC,.u..t;S
'2 'J
,4 13 '5
'8 '7 '6
FIG. 2 (PLAN).
A B
"-
"-
"-
,
, /'
'-
3' 10"
"-
/' '-
"-
"-
C "" '-
D
FIG. 3.
ASSEMBLING, ERECTING AND TRUEING UP. 33
A( B
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5. J
The sunte gauge is used in exactly the same way to true fI
up the outer cells, gauging plates being provided at the inner
end of Sections 5 and neal' the ontside strnt on Section 4.
'rhe planes are trued for angle by the use of an adjustable
level-carrier (Fig. 6). This is placed on the wing close to
the body, and the leg,A adjusted WI bubble is centmJ. The
a:ljustment is then fixed and the bracing between struts
2 and 6, and 3 and 7, adjusted till the gauge shows level
when placed close to these struts. This bracing and also the
inner rear lift and weight bracing may then be tightened uI'.
}i'IG. 6.
ASSEMBLING, ERECTING AND TRU~HNG UP. 35
--
R I ~r5 K S
\ V
R.!lZ; Spzr
----
: Fro'!!; Is;ur _
.2 I ,.,--, - ... -
L ~
--G
I "
The planes are trued up in the usual manner. The spa,rs,
however, are not pallaUel to each other throughout the entire
length of the planes. III the centre section the front and
rear spars are parallel. From the struts G and H the front
(B 12245) B2
36 CHAPTER IV.
spars are swept back towards the outside ends 5 per cent.
from the centre. This should be checked by means of a line
parallel to the front spar of the centre section. The front
spars, from the struts Hand G, are also swept upwards so
that the points JYI and L are 23 mm. and the points Q and
N 43 mm. respectively ahove a line drawn parallel to the
front spar of the centre section.
The front sJ!ars of the extensions form a continuation
of the line of the front spars of section (ii) of the top plane.
The rear spars fOI'Ill continuous straight lines throughout
their entire length (including the extensions), i.e., they are
p'lr:111el to the front spars of the centre sections GHIK.
The ribs are all identical throughout the plane, except that
an appropriate amount is cut off their leading end as the
'\"
I
chord becomes smaller towards the wing tip.
The fltruts having been checked for length and their attach-
ments fitted to the planes, the main cell can be erected so
that the bottom plane is horizontal (by levels), both along
the plane and across between its main spars. The best
method of obtaining this is to fix four trestles with their
top edges all level and to place the lower plane on the tops
of the trestlcs, with its front and rear spars resting on the
trestles. The trestles :::hould come directly under the axes
of the struts between the upper and lower planes. }
The centre line of the upper plane is then brought directly ;
over the centre line of the lowcr plane by plumb bob and
the cells between each pail' of front struts and those between
each pair of rear struts, brollght square by making the
diagonal wires between the struts of equal length. The
struts should all now be vertical to the planes. This can be
checked by hanging plumb bobs fro~ the upper plane in. -
line with the axis of e[\ch stru~. .
ASSEMBLING, ERECTING AND TRUEING UP. 37
The incidence wires can now be set. If both the tops and
bottoms of the struts be joined by lines the latter should
form, with the axes of the struts, a rectangle. Adjust the
incidence (or diagonal) wires between the front and rear
struts until they are equal.
Extensions.-These aTe fixed into place and supported by
their upper wiring only. The main cell still being maintained
horizontal (by level), the position of the extensions is fixed
by adjusting their upper wiring till both their front and rear
spars are level throughout their length. The flying wires
to the extensions can then be inserted.
Tail booms.-The lower booms slope upwards, making an
angle of 83* degrees with the main cell struts, bnt the struts
between the top and bottom booms are parallel to those of
the main cell. In order to fix the lower booms, keep the
main cell v-vith its struts vertical (by plumb bob) and then
fix the tail booms into place, packing up their rear ends until
the lower boom has the required upward slope (1 in 9).
One method of checking this slope is to make a wedge of slope
1 in 9 about 1 foot long. If this be placed on one of the lower
tail booms the upper sUl'faee of the wedge should be horizontal.
The junction of the booms, from each side of the main cell,
should lie on the centre line of the main cell produced.
Tail plane.-The tail plane is next fitted into place. Its
front and rear spars should be parallel and at the same time
level, i. e., there should be no incidence or difference of level
between these two spars. As a check the difference of level
between the main spars of the main upper plane and those
of the tail plane should be 30 centimetres, the tail plane
being the higher of the two.
~ In SOBle of the later 1913 Henry Farman machines this angle is
illcreased to 8'1°, Ot· a slope of l'in 9,5.
(B 12245) B 3
38 CHAPTER IV.
J
ASSEMBLING, ERECTINq AND TRUEING UP. 39
and left bottom plane..~, the struts put into place and all nuts
screwed home. In addition, all the cables which have to be
spliced to the top planes should be put into place, viz., long
ends of warp wires to rear struts, tbe flying and landing
wires in front bays and drift wires to fuselage and engine
bearers. Unless data as to the correct length of the flying
and landing wires are available it is not advisable to splice
these wires on to the bottom planes until the top and bottom
planes are fixed. on to the machine. Flying and landing
wires, consisting of piano wire and turnbuokles, should be
inserted temporarily in each bay.
The planes are next fixed to the machine, and the tem-
porary flying and landing wires adjusted to their correct
length. The warp and anti-warp cables must then he fitted,
and the splicing to the lower planes completed so as to give
a temporary adjustment. The temporary wires are then
cut out, except the outer bay flying wire, which should be
left in in addition to the cable.
Wash out.-The angle of incidence at the wing tip is less
than that at the root of the wings, i.e., those portions nearest
to the fuselage. This difference exists so as to minimise the
self-warping effect of the wings.
The wash-out is adjusted as follows :-Stretch two cords
tightly from wing tip to wing tip over the front and rear
spars on top of the top plane. With the control lever central
tighten up the anti-warp wires and at the same time slacken
off the warp wires. l'hen measure the gaps at the centre
between the two cords and the top plane. The gap over the
front spar should be 3 inches, while that over the rear spar
should be 4 inches. A rough test of the setting of the planes
oan be obtained by standing in front of the oentre line of the
42 CHAPTER V.
il
INTERNAL"OOMllUSTION ]'1NGlNES. 45
The cycle is then complete and the engine is ready to repeat it.
2. Detailed description oj the .working 0/ the petrol motor.
(a) Arrangement 0/ the valves.----.!fhe maj ority of motors have two
valves, or ports, for each cylinder-one to admit thc explosiv~
mixture, and one to release the burnt gases afte!' explosion.
The former is termed the" inlet" and the latter the " exhalT~t "
valve or pOft (see page 43). The most comlllon arrangement
(except in rotary enl-dues) is that in which the tops of tho
cylinders' are cast with small extensions. In each of these
ext-ensions is a circular seating on which the head of the
valve rests. The valve itself consists' of a mushroom-shaped
head with a long thin stem, the whole being made in one
piece. The" head" has a bevelled edge which fits closely
on to the seating in the cylinder, being held down by a spring
mounted on the" stem." The bottom of the stem, when the
valve is closed and the engine is warm, should be just clear
of what is termed a "tappet rod." The tappet rod itself is
raised and lowered by means of a cam, and so communicates
its motion to the valve.
From the description of the cycle of operations given
above, it is clear that each valve must open and close once
in every two revolutions of the crank. - It will therefore
be seen that the earns operating the valves must be worked
at half the speed of the engine. This half time speed is
obtained by fixing to the crank shaft, a gear wheel with (say)
16 teeth, and providing the shaft carrying the cams with a .
gear wheel having 32 teeth. Then when these two wheels
are in mesh, and the engine is turning, the earn shaft will
be driven at half the speed of the crank shaft. Valves worked
on this principle are called "mechanically-operated valves."
Exhaust valves are always mechanically' operated.
46 CHAPTER V.
---
/
f.:J
~
I~
r
\~
\ /
45"--'
(0. ~ "",,<>0
~ -----,..
FIG.; 1.
A.-Inlet valve opens at 5°,
B.-Exhaust valve opens .1f,o to 75°,
C.-Inlet closes 40° pmt bottom of st/'ol...
n.-Spark. in 9 OCCU1'S at 26° (vanwle while j'ullning).
E.-Exhallst valve closes at top of stl"oke.
VALVE SETTINQS.j
48 CHAPTER V.
Pm Fwng Throttle
Lever to Throttle
Spindle
Throttle
-,J,(rc.rtner SprIng
FIG. 2
• A small pipe leads the petrol from the float chamber into
the" jet chamber." Screwed into the end of tllis pilJe is a
vertical jet or nozzle (a set of jets with different sized
orifices can be obtained for use under varying atmosplleric
conditions). When the engine is running, a partial vacuum,
due to the suction effect of the engine, occurs round the
jet, and, as the latter is small, the petrol is emitted in a
fine spray, a condition which makes vaporization easier,
and consequently admits of more perfect mixing with
the air being sucked past the jet. In some carburetters
the vaporization of the petrol is further assisted by
warming the supply of air to the carburetter, or
jacketing the inlet pipe with hot air or water.
An inverted double cone is sometimes fitted round the
jet to increase the speed of the air past it, thereby still
further reducing the pressure at this point. This also
causes the difference of pressure on the petrol in the float
chamber and on the jet orifice to be increased, resulting
in an increased flow of petrol without interfering with the
fineness of the spray.
From the jet chamber the mixture passes along the
induction pipe to the cylinder.
The action of the float can be likened to that of the
automatic water cistern with its ball valve, while the
action of the jet can be compared to that of a scent spray.
(d) 'l'he tkrottle ani/, air valve.-The induction pipe is
provided WIth a tap, called the throttle, by means of
which, the amount of mixture admitted to the cylinders
can be regulated. The more this tap is opened, the greater
will be the quantity of the mixture admitted and the faster
the engine will run. But the faster the engine runs the
52 CHAPTER V.
oil in the well falling too low and causing los\! of suction.
When thi~ occurs more oil should be immediately supplied
to the crank case. It may here be noted that the pressure
shown when the engine is first started will be considerably
above that which may be expected after the engine has been
running long enough to heat the oil.
(f) Silencer.-At the end of the working stroke there is
always a pressure ih the cylinder above that of the atmo,
sphere, and whenthe exhaust valve opens the gases rush
" out into the surrounding air at a high speed and with much
noise. To reduce the noise a silencer is usually fitted, con,
sisting essentially of a large vessel, into which the waste
gases pass direct from the engine. This vessel has a
comparatively small exit hole for the gases to escape through
to the atmosphere; the result is that, instead of rushing
into the air with a series of loud reports, they escape in a
steady stream. Baffle plates are often fitted in the silencer.
The silencer reduces the power of the engine on account
of the obstacles the gases meet on their way to the air; con,
sequently, the piston has to do more work in forcing them out
of the cylinder. In 80me engines it is possible, however,
to fit an exhaust pipe in such a manner that one cylinder's
exhaust assists another cylinder's exhaust.
(g) 19nition.-There are two types of ignition arrangements
-(i) accumulator; and (ii) magneto.
(i) Accumulator ignition.-This system has largely been
superseded by magneto ignition, but owing to the fact that
it gives practically a continuous spark without the assistance
of the engine, it is retained in many motor car engines to
facilitate starting when "the engine is cold.
56 VHAPTER V.
(Accumulator
>< Earth
r
ll~ ( n duction Coil "'SecondaryCoil
Armatu Iron Wire Core
. Primary Coil
£ar<h
Contact
\~ Condenser
. Commutator
Breaker
N'?2Cylinder
" - -Con tact Breaker
. ·6/'
Ol strl u tor N° 3 Cy linder
____ Primary Coil
- - - - Condenser
Secondary
FIG.3.
ACCUMULATOR I GN I TION
FIG 4.
" MAxrMUM POSITION"-
LINES OF FORCE LINES OF FORCE
CUTTING PRIMARY AND PASSING THROUGH
SECONDARY WINDINGS. CORE OF .ARMATiJRE.
Current' Conductor
Fg. V.
FIG. 5.*
Explanation 'of lettering :-
cI-Primary winding. l-Currtnt conductor, with sp,inV
c'J-Secolldary winding. contact .
d-Conde1....r. ..-Rotary distributo,· cal'bon brush.
gI-Bell crank l.v.r. p-Timing lev.r for advancing or
Contact
g'J-Long platinum scr.w. } Ertake>·. retarding ignition.
g3-ShOl·t platinum .crew. rI-Short ci"clliting t.rminal.
k-Safety spark gap. r2-Contact spring for rI.
J
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES. 73
located. Should both fail, remove the 'sparking plugs
and clean them with petrol, replace and try again.
When testing the two ignitions, the sparking plugs can
be short-circuited to the cylinders by means of any steel
tool having a wooden handle to hold it by, e.g., a screwdriver.
If a spark be observed between the end of the screwdriver
and the cylinder it will show that the high tension current
is, at any rate, reaching this point, and the length of this
spark will denote its intensity. This indicates that the
ignition is producing a spark, and hence the fault must
be in either (A) the plug itself, or (B) in the timing of the
magneto, or in it", electrioal connections, or in the accumu-
lators (if fitted).
The test for (A) faulty plugs: The plug should be removed
and tested by passing a high tension current through it in
air under about 100 lbs. pressure per square inch. If a
good spark passes across the plug terminals, and no signs
of " flashing " occur elsewhere in the plug, it may be assumed
to be in working order. It is no use testing the plug
electrically under atmospheric pressure, as the resistance
of the spark-gap under pressure is so much greater than under
atmospheric oonditions that a flaw in the insulation, which
may have sufficient resistance to prevent a short circuit
occurring under these latter conditions, will break down
under the moderate pressures obtained when actually
working.
To test for (B) timing, magneto and distributor: If the
fault is elsewhere than in the plugs, test the timing of the
ignition as follows:-
Turn the engine by hand slowly and note the timing
of the spark in the different cylinders. This may be dOl).e,
74 OH.t\.PTER V.
76 CHAPTER V.
CHAPTER Vr.-INSTRUMENTS.
1. .Mercuriql barometer.-The standard instrument for
measuring the pressure of the atmosphere is the mercury
barometer. In this instrument the pressure of the atmo--
sphere is compared with the pressure at the base of a column
of mercury of known height.
If an exhausted tube be placed with its open end in a
cistern of mercury, the pressure of the atmosphere will
forqe the mercury up the tube until the pressure at the level
of th!l surface of mercury in the cistern, due to the column of
mercury in the tube, is equal to that of the atmosphere
acting downwards on the surface of the mercury in the cis-
tern. The pressure of the atmosphere is conveniently given
INSTRUMENTS. 81
in terms of the length of this column of mercury. (See fig.
below.)
P'reSSu,,'e
e:fe~·ted uy
atmosph ere.
A Mercu1'YJ B Vacuum.
82 CHAPTER VI.
\
\
An actual barometer consists essentially of the exhausted
tube dipping into a cistern of mercury as detailed above.
Alongside the glass tube is fixed a . cale over which moves .
a vernier. The vernier is set exactly level with the top of
the mercury.
As mercury rises in the exhausted tube the level of the
mercury in the cistern will fall, so that, if the scale be fixed,
its readings will no longer give the true distance between
the surface of the mercury in the tube and of that in the
cistern. To eliminate this error, one of two methods may
be adopted. In the Fontin barometer the bottom of the
cistern is made of washleather, and can be raised or lowered
by means of a screw, until the surface of the mercury always
just touches a fixed mark. In the Kew pattern barometer
the length of the divisions of the scale on the tube is slightly
altered, so that it always reads the correct height without
adjusting the mercury in the cistern.
Errors and their corrections. (a) Temperat'llre.-The first
thing to be allowed for is the temperatUl'e of the barometer.
If the temperature rises it affects the barometer in two
ways:-
(1) The mercury expands, and therefore rises in the
tube. This is equivalent to an apparent increase
of pressure.
(2) The scale, against which the height of the mercury
is measured, expands, cansing an apparent decrease
of the height of the mercury, or a fall of pressure.
To eliminate effects of change of temperature, the readings
of the barometer are always corrected to what they would
be if the whole barometer were at 32° Fahr. This correction
INSTRUMENTS. 83
CHAPTER VII.-C0l'I1PASSES.
1. General description.-The compass is constructed on
the principle of suspending a magnet (or system of magnets
fixed parallel to each other, and referred to as the" compass
needles") in such a manner that, rcmaining horizontal,
they are free to take up the direction in which the mf1gnetism
of the magnetic pole directs them. This direction is culled
the" magnetic meridian."
A circular, graduated card, called the "compass card,"
is fixed to the compass needles so that one diameter of the
card, the opposite extremities of which are marked North
and South respectively, is in the same line as the direction
of the needles. The puint marked North (distinguished
by a fleur·de.lis, or other special mark) is placed over that end
of the needles which always points to the Northward.
The extremities of that diameter, whkh is at right angles
to the North and South line, are marked East and West,
East being to the right hand when the observer is facing
to the Northward. The compass oard is thus divided into
four quarters of a circle, or quadrants, and the points thus
obtained arc called the "cardinal points."
94 CHAPTER VII.
I (B 12245) D
98 CHAP'l'ER VII.
...
INSTRUCTloN IN FLYING. 103
should use no other until he has thoroughly mastered this
one. Constant practice in flying is necessary, for in aviation,
as in seamanship, good results can only be obtained afte.r
long experience.
The pupil must be warned that, under no ordinary circum·
stances, should any machine be brought down steeplY' with
the engine "full out," for not only is the machine subjected
to excessive stresse.~, but the controls may get so stiff that
difficulty may be fol.lIld in actuating them., ConversE'ly,
if the controls feel "~loppy," it is a sign that the speed is
too slow, in which case the machine ~hould be dipped for a
few seconds with t.he engine running.
Notes on various types of macliines. Ma11rice Farman.-
This machine is peculiar in being almost the only modern
machine to retain the front elevator (in types up to 1914).
The MaUl'ice Farman has a very good gliding angle, but
not quite so good as is commonly supposed, for the reason'
that normally it carries its tail rather low, so that, during the
glide, the machine may in reality be descending compara-
tively steeply, although the tlJ,il does not seem to' be very
high.
Many aeroplanes behave best in gusty weather, when a
high speed is maintained; the Maurice Farman, however, is
found to be most controllable at a speed of something
less than its normal flyiilgspeed. Should bad gusts be met
with at a oertain altitude, and it is desired to come lower,
the engine should be well throttled down on dipping.
Henry Fmman.-The Henry Farman bears little resem-
blance to the Maurice l!'arman, except in.details 01 construc-
tion and that the engine is behind the pilot.
In the air it is very quick in its movements. Whereas tho
Maurice ~'arn.aD may be saiel to wallow when in a wind, the
(n 12245) D 4
104 CHAPTER VIII.
~I
INSTRUCTION IN FLYING. 105
The warping is controlled by lever, the steering by foot bar.
The wings are flexible throughout and the whole of each
wing warps.
The fore and aft control is light, but the lateral control is
inclined to be heavy and apt to tire the pilot during a long
flight in bad weather.
The flying angle of the planes is 3°, but with the warp they
have a maximum angle of 10°.
The greatest efficiency is obtained at 4° or 5°, but the
maohine is flown at the smaller angle of 3°, so that a large
surface is available for getting a big range of speed and rapid
climbing. .
By reduoing the angle of inoidence towards the ends of the
planes the self·warping effeot is reduoed and the pilot haB
to do more side control. The self· warping effect is most
marked when the planes have the same angle of incidence
throughout, but the machine is not so comfortable to fly.
Monuplanes.-Monoplanes generally are similar to handlo
to tractor biplanes. Though the maximum speed in both
cases may be the same, the mono plano, having a smaller
surface, cannot be landed 80 slowly, which is a great disad-
vantage. As a rule head resistance is cut down to a mini-
mum, whioh is also a disadvantage when diving over obstacles
to land in a confined space, since the speed bccome3 excessive.
. A high·powered biplane can fly as fast as any practical
monoplane, and has the enormons advantage of being able
to go much slower. Of course a high-powered monoplane
oan bo constructed to fly faster than a biplane, but it cannot
be uscd except in very open country.
The monoplane is more pleasant to fly, principally because
the controls are lighter to the touch, and beoauso of the
absence of the feeling of being shut in.
106 CHAPTER IX.
$.W.\oJltHJ
CHAPTER X.-METEOROLOGY.·
1. Int1"Oductory remarks.-Although great advances have
in late years been made in the knowledge of the conditions
and changes taking place in the atmosphere, yet a very
large number of quwtions of great interest from an aeronau-
tical standpoint still remain unanswered.
Further, the changes taking place in the atmosphere
are very complicated, so that the problem of forecasting
weather, in detail, is a matter of the greatest difficulty.
Fortunately the wind, which is one of the most important
factors to the aviator, is the most amenable to simple
physical laws.
2. At11Wspheric pres8ure.-Tbe pressure of the air-which
will be seen later to be a variable quantity, and its changes
to be of great use in forecasting weathcr-is due to the
weight of air above the place where the pressure is
exorted. It will be readily seen that the longer the vertioal
114 CHAPTER X.
column of air, and the greater the density ot the air. the
greater also will be the pressure exerted at, the bottom of
the column. Hence at two places, one above the other,
the pressure at the lower place will be equal to the pressure
at the upper plus the pl'eRSure due to the weight of air
between the two. This difference in pressure will not be
constant, but will depend on the density of the air, which
in turn varies with the temperature and pressure.
The difference of pressllre at two places one above the
other may be found as follows : -
Let B be the pre3sure at,the lower place;
Let b be the pressure at the upper place;
Let h be the difference)n height in feet;
Let t be the mean temperature of the air between the
places in degrees Fahrenheit;
7!
Then log B - log b = 60369 (1 + '00204 [t - 32]).
Or the difference in height may be found from-
/
MOTOR- TRANSEORT. 139
The illustration 1I1;IOWsfour pieces of double prllof canvas
resting on' a, piece of.single proof. , , ',
Top lit!!er.
[ ",
I
. The pieces ()f old canvas which have been removed Bhou~4
_ be usedas templates to cut the pieces of double proof canv~
to. A final piece of single, proof canvas is, cut to cover o;er
aU, and should be about the length of the mandrel, aud WIde
enough to reach to within t in; of the beads. Now proceeq.
with the application of several coats of vulcanizing .fluX
cement, allowing each coat to dry separately until a film
of rubber is formed on the canvas. When the tyre is perfectly
dry the canvas should be placed in position, each layer being
damped with naphtha to make the sID'face adhesive. If
there are any crevices; hollows,' or unevensudaces exposed
before the first layer of ,canvas is applied, they must b~
filled in with compound so as to make a solid and even
140 CHAPTER XI.
~
GRADIENT VELOCITIES.·
Gradient wind
'Beaufort
number.
velocity
(miles per Distance apart in nautical miles of n in. Isobars.
bour).
I I I
tIn. OF. In. OF. In. OF. In. OF.) In. OF. In. I of.) In. of.
31 28 31 44 31 60 31 77 - - - - - -
30 13 30 27 30 43 30 60 30 78 SO 97 - -
- - 29 11 29 26 29 43 29 60 29 79 29 99
- - -
- 28 25 28 28 10 28 42 60 28 79
Cui. Nos .... ... '"
---------------
1 2 3 4
I
5 -6-1- 7-
~
."
....
....
~
144 APl'EN:b1:lC 1.
APPENDIX II.
BEAUFORT WIND SCALE.
0 0 0 0 0
1 0'01 2 1
2
3
4
}Light breeze
} Moderate
{ 0'08
0·28
0'67
5
10
15
2
3
4
5 breeze { 1'31 21 5
6 2'3 27 6
7
}Strong wind { 3'6 35 7
8 5'4 42 8
9 } Gale forces { 7'7 50 !l
10 10'5 59 10
11 } Storm forces { 14·0 68 11
above above
12 Hurricane 17·0 75 12
.....
~
APPENDIX III. *
VARIATION OF VELOCITY OF THE WIND WITH HEIGHT
DURING THE DAY TIME.
* These tables are averages obtained by experiment at Upavon. 'l'he actual figures will
vary at different places, but the general tendency remains the same.
~
VARIATION OF VELOCITY DURING THE NIGHT, LATE EVENING,
AND EARLY MORNING.
!~
Wind veers with increasing height, i.e., upper wind blows from a point to the ...,...,...
right (or in a clockwise direction) of that from which the surface wind blows.
The amount of the deviation from the direction of ~ the surface' wind is given
below:-
- Surface. I 500 ft. 1,000 ft. 2,000 ft 3,000 ft 4,000 ft. I 5,000 ft.
i ---
Deviation to
right iD
degrees ... 0 5 10 16 19 20 21 ....,.
I I I ~
Hence the following surface winds may be expected to change with height ....
to the winds shown in the following table ;- t;
Surface. 500 ft. 1,000 ft. 2,000 ft. '3,000 ft. 4,000 ft. I 5,000 ft.
I
N. N.1 E. N.byE. N. byE.tE. N. byE.ilE. N.N.E. N.N.E.
E. E.~ S. E. by S. E. by S. t S. E. by S.iI S. E.S.E. E.S.E.
8. S.fW. 8.byW. 8.byW.:tW. 8.byW.JlW. 8.S.W. 8.8.W.
W. W:?;N. W.byN. W.byN.!N. W.byN.JlN. W.N:W. W.N.W.
1,.11"1 1 ..
~
- ----
~
M
...
....
...
A.PPENDIX IV. 149
APPENDIX IV.
Glossary of SOIne Aeronautical TerIns.
A.
Airsorew See" Screw."
Altimeter An instrument used for measuring
height.
Anemometer An instrument for measuring the speed
of the wind, and also, in some cases,
for recording the direotion of the
wind.
Angle, dihedral In geometry, the angle between two
planes. In an aeroplane, the angle
between two wings-usually given as
the small angle a.
.B.
1
APPENDIX IV. 151
Body Of an aeroplane--the main frame, ita
fairings and ooverings; that part
.whioh usually contains the engine,
orew, tanks, &c., and to which the
wings and other organs are attaohed.
The Erench word "fuselage" is
sometimes used for body.
Bracing , A system of struta and ties, to transfer
a force from one point to another.
Braoing, drift The system of bracing used to transfer
the drag or head resistance of the
wings to the body of an aeroplane.'
Burble point That point on the lift curve of a wing
which is reached when the angle of
incidence has become so great that
the stream lines ohange from 11
steady to a fluotuating and eddying
state, oausing the lift to fall and the
drag to inorease.
c.
Cabane A Frenoh word to denote the arrange·
ment of struts projeoting from the
body to which landing wires, anti.
warp or warp wires of a monoplane
, are attached.
Cabre . The' attitude of an aeroplane which is
flown at a large angle of attack on
the air. In sailors' parlance, " down
by the stern."
152
Camber
APPENDIX IV.
D.
Directional stability See under" Stability."
Dihedral angle See under" Angle."
Dive To descend steeply. Sometimes the
expression" vol pique" is used in
i
English for a steep glide or descent.
[
,
, Dope, to
APPENDIX IV. 153
E.
Elevator A flat or slightly curved structure,
set in a horizontal plane and hinged
on an athwartships line. It is
used for steering and balancing in
the up and down directions.
F.
Fairing A piece added to any structure to
improve its fairness and shape, and
incidentally to reduce its head
resistance or drag.
154
N.
Natural stability See under" Stability."
Normal Perpen~oular to the direction of
flight, or of an air stream.
P.
Pitoh The distanoe forward that a screw
propeller or traotor would travel in
one oomplete revolution if there
were no slip, i.e., if it were moving
in a ,thread out in a. solid.
t
I
Pitoh, to T9 plunge in the longitudinal direction
(nose up or nose down).
I
I
156 APPENDIX IV.
R.
Rib ... Of a wing-a light fore and aft member
which carries the fabric and givcs it
the proper cross section.
Roll, to To turn about the longitudinal axis.
Rudder A fiat, or slightly curved, thin structure
hinged to a craft so that it can be
turned to one side or the other ath-
wartships-used for steering in the
horizontal plane.
Rudder post The post to whioh the rudder is hinged.
15
S.
On an aeroplane-besides its iIBe as a
part holding other parts together,
this word is used for the screw-
shaped part, which, when turned by
the engine, forces the machine
through the air. Such screws are
used either to pull or push an air-
craft and are respectively known all
tractor screws or propeller screws,
the word screw being omitted for
brevity.
Side drift ... See under" Drift."
Side slip, to To mOve fully or partially sideways
with respect to the air.
Skid A piece of timber serving as a support
or inclined plane.
Skid, to To slip or slide forwards or backwardll
on the ground.
Slip ... The difference between the actual
progress of a screw propeller or
tractor in one revolution and its
pitch.
Span The full extent from end to end. The
distance from wing tip to wing tip.
Spar A long piece of timber. In a wing,
either of the beams which run ath·
wartships and transfer the lift from
the ribs to the frame and bracing.
~ Stability, direction Exists when the aeroplane tends to
head up into the wind.
,to
T.
I
~--
160 APPENDIX IV.
w.
Warp, to Of wood, to bend, generally across the
grain. Of a wing,. to bend so that
the outer end or the whole of the
back spar moves up or down.
Weather Towards the wind-in the expression
" the weather side."
Wing flaps ... Balancing flapllhinged to the trailing
edge of the wings. Thc French word
" ailerons" is sometimes used in
English for this.
Wings The main supporting organs of an
aeroplane. A. monoplane has two
wings, a biplane four.
Wires, anti·drift ... Wires pulling in the contrary direction
to the drag wires to keep them taut,
and to keep the wing in shape when
the aeroplane is on the ground.
Wires, landing Wires used to take the weight of the
wings when the aeroplane is stand-
ing on the ground. SometimeB
oalled anti-lift wires.
Wirep, anti-warp ... Wires used to take the weight of the
baok wing spar on the grouud. They
must be oonneoted across from wing
to wing so as to allow the wings to
warp. Sometimes oalled oompeneat-
ing wll'es.
(B 12245) F
162 APPENDIX IV.
Y.
Yaw, to To turn the longitudinal axis of the
airoraft away from the direction of
the air oourse followed, i.e., with
respeot to the air alone, sinoe the
land has nothing to do with it.
·~
INDEX.
A
PAGB
Accumulators 55,56,127
Aeroplanes.-
Assembling, erecting and trueing up of 17-42
Avro, erection and trueing up of ... 30-35
A vro, flying of ... 104
B.E. 2'8, erection and trueing up of... 40-42
B.E. flying of .. . 104,105
• Care of... .. . 0-8
Dismantling of for overhaul or l'epair 11,12
Fitting of accessory parts 19-21
Genel'al principles in erecting 17-29
Henry Farman, erecting aud trueing up of 35-38
Henry Farman, flying of 103,104
Inspection of 5,6'
Instruments used in ... 80-93
Maurice Farman, erecting aud trueing up of 38-40
Maurice Farman, flying of 103
Ailerons, adjusting of... 27
Air speed indioator 83-91
Anemometers 86--88
Aneroids and Barographs 84-86
AnticY~lone • 1<!0,121
A vro BIplane.-
Erection and trueing up of 30-35
Flying of... . .. 104
Planes, covering of 24
CB 12245) F 2
164 INDEX.
B
PAGB
Backfire ...... 77,78
Balance, adjustment of fore and aft 27,28
Barograph and aneroid 84-86
Barometer, mercurial ... 80-82,110
Batteries.-
Priwary ... 56
Secondary 56
B.E. Biplanes.-
Erecting and il'u~ing up of 40-4'2
Flying of... 104,105
Planes, covel'ing of 23
Bolts and nuts, securing of 21
c
Carburation 69-71, 77-s()
Carburetter, the 50-5'2
Clinometer ... 89
Clothing 9-
Commutator, the ... 57
Compasses.-
-Clift aeroplane ... 97,98
Enol's subject to 94-97
Kelvin and White aeroplane ... 98
Naval and military aeroplane 98-100
Compression.-
Defective piston l'ings and loss of 71
Leaky valves and loss of 72
Condenser.-
Defective 75
Functions of 57,62
Contact breaker 57,61,62,74,75,76·
Controls.-
Switches and throttles fitting of 20
Wires fitting clips 0'1 ... 20 .'
W ires fitting of ... 19
I'
,,
Oooling.-
Air
N eeessUy for
Water ...
INDEX. 165
P..I.GD
64,65
62,63
63,64
Oyolone 118-120
D
Defects.-
Backfiring 77
Oompression 71,72
General in engines 68-80
Ignition ... ...72-74,75,76,7
In mixtnre 69-71
Missfiring 78,79
Overheating 80
Pre-ignition 79,80
Smoky exlJaust ... 80
Definitions ... 149-162
Depressions, secondal'Y 121,122
Deviation ... 95,96
Distributor ... 58,62,75
Dope ... 6,13,22-23
E
Elevator, adjustment of 27
Engines.-
Oarburation in 69-71
Oal'buretter 50-52
Oare of .. . 7
Oooling .. . 62-65
Oycle of .. , 44,45
Defects in 68-80
Dismantling and assembling of ... 12,13,17
Efficiency of . 65-68
Ignition, arrangements for 55-62
Ignition, defects in '/2-80
Lubrication of ... 52-55,80
Piston, the 49
,
166 INDEX.
Engines-continued. PAGB
Principle of working of 42-45
Stands for 9
Throttle ... 51,52
Trays for parts of ... ... ... 9,12
Valves, 3l'l'angement and settings of .. .43,45-49
F
Fabric.-
Covering planes with ... 1<1,22-24
Patching ... 6
Protection of 6
Selection of 18
Farman, Henry, aeroplanes ... 35-38, 103,104
Farman, Maurioe, aeroplanes, 38-40,103
Fire, precautions against 9
Fittings, aeroplane accessory 19-21
Selection of 17,18
Flying.-
Avro 104
B.E. 1M,105
Cross-country 106-113
Hem'Y Farman ... 103,104
Instruction in ... 100-103
MaUl'ice Farman 103
Monoplanes 105
Fog 12ll
Fuselage, checking alignment of 28
H
Henry Farman aeroplanes ... 35-38, 103, 104
I
Ignition.-
Accumulator 55-58
defects in ... 72-74
au hstitute for 56
Magn'~to ... 58-62
defects in n-77
, I
N
Navigation.-
Compasses used in ... 93-100
Connection of time with 111
Effect of wind on 110,111
1!'orced landings ... 109
General principles ... 106
Height for cross-country 112
Instrnments used in ... ... 112,113
Selection of objects as guides in 107-109
Use of maps in... ... ... 106,107
Notice boards 10
Nuts and bolts, securing of 21
o
Overheating.~
Causes of... 80
Effects of ... 63
p
:Piping, fitting of ... 20,21
Piston, function of ... 42, 43, 49
Rings 49,171
Pitot tube.-
Erection of 89-91
Principle of the ... 88
l'lanes.-
Covering aud doping 22 23
Avro '24
B.E. 23
Maurice Farman 23,24
Erection ~f A vro 30-35
B.E.2 40-42
Henry Farman 35-38
Maurice Fal'man 38-40
y;,
INDEX. 169
Planes-continued. PAGE
Fitting ailel'Ons to 27
Fitting main 24
Fitting tail 27,28
Storage of spare 15
Trueing up bays 25,26
Trueing up of .. . 22
Plugs, sparking .. . ...72-74,79
Preignition ... 79
Propellers.-
Protection of, from damp 7
Torque, counter action of 28,29
R
Remous 125,1~6
Repair work-Organisation 10-17
Revolution counters 91-93
Rolling-instruction in ... 101,102
s
Scarfing-notes on 29
Sheds, care of 8-10
Silencer, the 55
Smoking, prohibition of 17
Spares.-
Oustody and preservation of, and accounting for ... 9, H, 16
Planes, storage of 15
Strut.-
Sockets, examination of, before fitting 18
Sockets, fitting of 25
Switches.-
Defect in circuits of 76
Mounting of 20
Object of ... 62
Squalls, line ... 1'122, 123
170 INDEX.
T
Tail planes.- PA.GE,
Adjustment of 27, is
Avro 32-35,
R.E.2 ... 42
Henry Farman 37
Maurice Farman 39
Tools, ca~~ of 8,
Transport, meohanical.-
Oleaning and washing ... 130,131
Olutch, care of ... 128,129
Examination of hearings 126
Gears 129,130-
Ignition... ... 127
Oil caps, care of... 128
Routine examination 127,12&
Tyres, care of ... 131,132
Tyres, removing and replacing 132--134
Tyres, vulcanizing of ... 134-141
Tubing.-
Fitting of long lengths of unsupported, to be avoided 20,21
Seleotion of, steel... ... ... ... ... 1&
Turnbuokles.-
Fitting of 7,19
Protection of 7
Securing of 21
Tyres.-
'Aeroplanes, care of 7
Transport, care of 127,128,131,132
Transport, removal and replacing of ... 132-134
repair of, by vulcanizing ... '134-141
v
Valves.-
Arrangement of ... 45,46-
Leaky 72
Leaky, effect on compression ... 71
Object of... ' 43
Settings of 46-49
INDEX. 171
PAGB
Variation 94,95,107
Vulcanizing.-
Cover repairs ... 137-140
Inner tube repairs 134-137
Judgment of ... 140,141
w
Wind.-
Effect of, on navigation ... 110,111
Gradient, the ... 115-117
Gustiness of 117
Measurement of ... 146
Strength'of ... 124-126
Variation of 11Ii-117,147-149
Wires.-
Fitting control ... 19,20,27
Flying, doubling of 22,26
Incidence ... 26,37,38
Painting and greasing of 6,7,19
Selection of 18
Trueing up of ... 19,25
Warp and anti-warp in B.E. 2 41
OFFICIAL COPY.
Issued with AI'my ai'del's, dated 1st Janual'Y' 1915.
87 .[Crown copYlight l'esel'ved,
aua1
TRAINING MANUAL, ROYAL
FLYING CORPS.
PART I.-AMENDMENTS.
For Appendix IV. Bubstit1tte-
APPENDIX IV.
GJoBSary of some Aeronautical Terms.
A.
Aerofoil A structure, analogous to the wing or
tail of a bird, designed to obtain a
reaction from the air approximately·
at right angles to the direction of
its motion.
Aileron See" Balancing Flaps."
Airscrew Used as a generic term to include both
a propeller and a tractor screw.
See" Screw."
LONDON:
PllINTED UNDER TilE AUTHORrry OF IDS MAJESTY'S STATIONIiIRY OFFIOIi:
By HARnISON AND SONS, 4.5-47, S.T. MA.RTIN'S LAKB, W.O.,
PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY.
(Reprinted 1916,)
Price One Penny.
2
1
3
B.
:Back, to Of the wind, to change direction
counter-sunwise (counter-clockwise).
Balancing flaps Aerofoils used for causing an aeroplane
to roll about its longitudinal axis
for the purpose of balaneing.
Ballonet A word taken from the French,
meaning "a little balloon," and
exclusively limited to an interior
bag containg air, within the envelope
of an airship.
Bank, to To heel for the purpose of turning.
:Barograph ... A recording barometer, the charts of
which can be calibrated for showing
pressure or height.
:Barometer ... An instrument used for measuring
the pressure of the atmosphere.
Body Of an aeroplane-that part which
usually contains the engine, crew,
tanks, &c., and to which the wings,
carriage and other organs are
attached.
Bracing A system of struts and ties to transfer
a force from one point to another. .
:Burble point That point on the lift curve of a wing
which is ,rea.ched, when the angle of
incidence has become so great that
the stream lilies change from a
steady to a fluctuatinB: and eddying
state, causing the hft to fall and
the drag to increase.
(1600) A2
4
c.
Cabane A French word to denote the mast
structure projecting above the body
to which the top load wires of Ii
monoplane are attached.
Cabre Tail down.
Camber (of a wing The convexity of a wing section. The
section). camber is usually measured (as a
fraction of the chord) by the maxi-
mum height above the chord.
Camber, top snrface The camber of the upper surface of a
wing.
Camber, under Bur- The camber of the under surface of a
face. wing.
Cant, to To tilt; to take any inclined position.
Carriage That part of the aircraft beneath the
body intended for its support on
land or water and to absorb the
shock of alighting.
Chassis See" Carriage."
Chord The straight line (taken convention-
ally fore and aft unless otherwise
specified) touching the under surface
of an aerofoil at or near the leadi~g
and trailing edges. The length of
the chord is the projected length of
the section on the chord.
Ulinometer ... See" Inclinometer."
Control lever -0.1On an aeroplane, a lever by means of
which the principal controls ar&
worked. It usually controls pitching
and rolling.
5
Cross section (of an The section cut by a fore and aft plane
aerofoil). llormal to the surface (commonly the
under surface).
D.
F.
Fairing A piece added to any structure to
reduce its head resistance or drag.
Fins ... Subsidiary aerofoils set parallel to the
normal direction of motion of an
aircraft.
Fins, stabilising Fins used Qll an airship to prevent her
from yawing and turning side on to
her direction of motion, and also to
prevent her from pitching.
Flaps, balancing See "Balancing."
Flaps, wing See "Balancing."
Fuselage See "Body."
G.
Gap ... The distance between the upper and
lower wings of a biplane. For
specific purposes the points between
which it is measured should be
indicated. I
Glide, to To fly, usually on a descending path,
when the aircraft is not under
t
engine power. I,
Gliding angle See" Angle."
I
7
I.
Incidence, angle of•.. See" Angle."
Inclinometer An instrument for measuring the
angle of slope of an aircraft, referred
to the horizontal.
K.
King post ... A strut "s" in connection with two
ties "t," to strengthen a wing spar
on either beam.
L.
Lateral stability See" Stability."
Leading edge Of a wing-the forward edge.
Lee, leeward Away from the wind. .
Leeway Lateral drift to leeward.
Lift, to To give an upward direction. To
force in an upward direction.
Lift ... The force exerted by the ail' on an
aerofoil in a direction perpen-
dicularlyor nearly so to the motion.
Usually upward in ordinary flight.
Lift bracing See" Bracing."
Loading The weight carried per unit area of
sustaining surface.
Longeron See" Longitudinal."
-------
8
Pitch
this with" Roll."
The distance forward that an airscrew
would travel in one complete revolu-
I'
tion if there were no slip, i.e., if it
were moving in a thread cut in a
solid.
Pitot tube A tube with open end facing the
wind, which, combined with a static
pressure or suction tube, is used in
conjunction with a gauge to measure
fluid pressure or velocities.
Pressure head A combination of pitot tube and static
pressure or suction tube, which, in
Pressure tube,
conjunction with a gauge, is used to
measure fluid pressures or velocities.
A tube (usually with holes in its side
1
statio. past which the fluid flows) so
designed that the pressure inside it I)
equals the pressure exerted by the
fluid on any body at rest in the
fluid. Used as part of a pressure head.
9
R.
Rib ... Of a wing, a light fore and aft member
which carries the fabric for the
purpose of giving the desired cross
section to the wing.
Rib, compression A rib designed to act as a strut
between front and rear spars of a
wing.
Roll, to To turn about the fore and aft axis.
Rudder A snbsidiary aerofoil (in an aeroplane
more or less perpendicular to the
main snpporting E\urfaces) by means
of which an aircraft is turned to
right or left.
Rudder bar The foot-bar, by means of which the
rudder of an aeroplane is worked.
Rudder post The main post of a rudder.
s.
Screw, air An aerofoil so shaped that its rotation
about an axis produces a force along
that axis for driving an aircraft.
Side drift ... See" Drift."
10
J
11
Stagger, of wings ...When the wings of a biplane are set
with the upper one slightly ahead
of, 01' abaft of, the other, they are
said to be staggered. The stagger
is measured by the angle made by
the line joining the leading edges
with the normal to the fore and aft
axis of the aeroplane. It is con-
venient to call the stagger positive
if the llpper wing is ahead of the.
lower.
Static pressure tube See" Pressure tube, .static."
Statoscope ... An instrument to detect the existence
of a small rate of ascent or
<-
descent.
Steer To guide by helm in a specified
direction.
Strainer An appliance bearing a suitable mesh
for straining impurities from petrol
and other fluids. Also compare
" Turnbuckle."
Stream-line The path of a small portion of a fluid.
supposed continuous, moving rela-
tively to a solid body. The term is
commonly used only of such paths
as are not eddying, but the distinc-
tion should be made clear by the
context.
Strut A structural member intended t(}
resist compresflion in the direction
of its length.
12
T.
Tail ... The after part of an aircraft, usually
carrying certain controlling organs.
Tail, lifting A tail in which a horizontal plane is
set to carry a proportion of the
weight of the aeroplane.
'.rail, non-lifting ... A tail in which a horizontal plane is
. set edge on to the direction of
motion so that it carries none of the
weight of the aeroplane.
Tail plane A flat or slightly curved structure,
set on the tail nearly in the
horizontal plane. It is usually
fixed, and by receiving wind
pressure on its upper or lower
surface is intended to provide a
righting moment. The French word
" empennage" is sometimes used.
It means tail plane and elevator, but
is a vague term alluding to the
feathering of an arrow, and includes
any vertical tail fin as well as
horizontal plane.
Tie .. ; A structural member intended to
resist tension.
Top surface camber See" Camber, top surface."
Top load wires See " Wires."
Top warp wires See" Wires."
Torque, propeller ... The tendency of an air screw to turn
an aeroplane about its longitudinal
axis in a direction opposite to that
in which the air screw is revolving.
13
Tractor An air screw mounted in front of the
main supporting surfaces. .
Tractor machine An aeroplane with air screw mounted
in front of the maiD supporting
surfaces.
Trailing edge, of a The after edge.
wing.
Turnbuckle A form of wire tightener.
U.
Under-carriage See" Carriage."
Under <- - surface See" Camber, nnder-surface."
camber.
v.
Veer, of the wind ... To change direction sunwise (clock-
wise). ,
Velocity of side slip The speed with which the craft moves
broadside on with respect to the air.
Distinguish from" drift," q.v.
w.
Warp, to Of a wing, to bend so that the outer
end of. the back spar moves up or
down. It is convenient to call the
warp positive when the movement
is downwards.
Weather Towards the wind, in the expression
"the weather side."
. 14
y
Yaw, to An aircraft is said" to yaw" when its
fore and aft axis turns to right or
left out of the line of flight. The
angle of yaw is the angle between
the fore and aft axis of the aircraft
and the instantaneous line of flight.