CDMA TECHNOLOGY
Hiren Rupeliya.
I.T Department, L.J Engineering College, Gujarat University.
hiren.patidar.123@gmail.com.
Abstract
CDMA is a "spread spectrum" technology, allowing many
users to occupy the same time and frequency allocations in
a given band/space. As its name implies, CDMA assigns
unique codes to each communication to differentiate it
from others in the same spectrum. In a world of finite
spectrum resources, CDMA enables many more people to
share the airwaves at the same time than do alternative
technologies
1. Introduction
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is the ultimate in
inside communications technology. The fastest growing
wireless technology, CDMA already has tens of millions of
users throughout the world. The reasons for this are simple.
CDMA supports current voice and data needs while providing
a quick, cost-efficient evolutionary path to tomorrow’s
systems.
CDMA has greater voice quality and call clarity than other
technologies because it filters out background noise, cross-
talk and interference. CDMA has fewer dropped calls
because it increases voice and date transmission reliability.
CDMA has greater spectral efficiency because it packs more
transmissions into the same space, resulting in fewer cell
sites, which lowers operators' costs. Add to this increased
capacity, enhanced privacy, and improved coverage… why
would you usee for any other wireless technology?
2. There are two type of cdma.
1) cdmaOne, 2) cdma2000
2.1 cdmaone
This is the older version of the CDMA technology and now it
is now known as cdmaOne as well as IS-95.
2.2 cdma2000
We now have cdma2000 and its variants like 1X EV, 1XEV-
DO, and 3X. The refer to variants of usage of a 1.25Mhz
channel. 3X uses a 5 Mhz channel.MC
This first phase of cdma2000 - variously called 1XRTT,
3G1X, or just plain 1X - is designed to double current voice
capacity and support always-on data transmission speeds 10
times faster than typically available today, some 153.6 kbps
on both the forward and reverse links.
2.3 CDMA2000 Technical Detail
Frequency band: Any existing band.
Minimum frequency band required: 1x: 2x1.25MHz, 3x:
2x3.75
Chip rate: 1x: 1.2288, 3x: 3.6864 Mcps
Maximum user data rate: 1x: 14.4 kbps now, 115 kbps in the
future 1xEV-DO: max 307 kbps - 2.4 Mbps, 1xEV-DV:
4.8Mbps.
2.4 WCDMA
Wideband CDMA that forms the basis of 3G networks,
Developed originally by Qualcomm, CDMA is characterized
by high capacity and small cell radius, employing spread-
spectrum technology and a special coding scheme. WCDMA
uses 5 MHz bandwidth.
2.5 CDMA Phones at Glance
 Samsung SCH-N191
 LG RD2030
 LG-Elect-TM910
 LG Electronics TM510
2. Birth of cdma
CDMA is a military technology first used during World War
II by the English allies to foil German attempts at jamming
transmissions. The allies decided to transmit over several
frequencies, instead of one, making it difficult for the
Germans to pick up the complete signal.
II History Of CDMA
Somewhere close to the Second World War, Hollywood
actress-turned-inventor, Hedy Lamarr and co-inventor
George Antheil, co-patented a way for controlling torpedoes
by sending signals over multiple radio frequencies using
random patterns. They called this “frequency hopping”.
After some hue and cry, the US Navy discarded their work as
architecturally unfeasible. In 1957, Sylvania Electronic
System Division, in Buffalo, New York , took up the same
idea. After the expiry of the inventor’s patent, they used the
same technology to secure communications for the US
military.
In the mid-80s, the US military declassified what is now
called CDMA technology, a technique based on spread-
spectrum technology, for use in wireless communication. The
spread-spectrum technology works by digitizing multiple
conversations, attaching a code(known only to the sender and
receiver), and then breaking the signals into bits and
reassembling them.
Qualcomm, which patented CDMA, and other
telecommunication companies, were attrached to the
technology because it enabled many simultaneous
conversations, rather than the limited stop-and-go
transmissions of analogue technology and the previous digital
option.
III SPREAD SPECTRUM AND CDMA
PRICIPLE
If we change our communication topology from point-to-
point to point-to-multipoint, we have hanged the
communication environment from single-link to a multiple-
access link. The multiple-access scheme in a spread-spectrum
system is termed code-division multiple-access (CDMA).
Each access to a common channel needs some form of
orthogonality. For frequency-division multiple-access
(FDMA), we achieve orthogonality in the frequency domain
by selecting nonoverlapping unique frequency bands to each
user. We achieve orthogonality in the time domain by
selection nonoverlapping unique time segments to each user;
this process is referred to as time-division multiple-access
(TDMA). The spread-spectrum form of multiple access
exploits the orthogonality in the code domain and is termed
code-division multiple-access (CDMA).
The multiuser environment in the spread-spectrum case is set
up for each user in assigning each user a unique spreading
sequence out of a family of orthogonal sequences. Each user
in a CDMA network occupies the same channel bandwidth.
A CDMA system is clearly not a collision avoidance system
like FDMA and TDMA. The opposite is true and explains the
differences in the behavior of CDMA systems compared to
FDMA and TDMA. In general, the collisions at the channel is
a disadvantage of CDMA system and can be mitigated by
careful selection of the sequence and power control that is
close to perfect.
CDMA2000 systems are currently being deployed in the 450
MHz, 800 MHz, 1700 MHz, 1900 MHz and 2100 MHz
bands.
IV WORKING OF CDMA
The CDMA uses the spread spectrum technology.The spread
spectrum refers to any system that satisfies the following
conditions :
1. The spread spectrum may be viewed as a kind of
modulation scheme in which the modulated(spread spectrum)
signal bandwidth is much greater than the message(baseband)
signal bandwidth. Thus, spread spectrum is a wideband
scheme.
2.The spectral spreading is performed by a code that is
independent of the message signal. This same ode is also
used at the receiver to despread the received signal in order to
recover the message signal (from spread spectrum signal). In
secure communication, this code is known only to the
preson(s) for whom the message is intended.
The spread spectrum increases the bandwidth of the message
signal by a factor N, called the processing gain. If the
message signal bandwidth is B Hz and the corresponding
spread spectrum signal bandwidth is Bss Hz, then
Processing gain N = Bss / B
Thus, the key to CDMA is to be able to extract the desired
signal while rejecting everything else as random noise. A
somewhat simplified description of CDMA follows:
In CDMA each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals
called chips. Typically, there are 64 or 128 chips per bit, but
in the example given below we will use 8 chips/bit for
simplicity.
Each station is assigned a unique m-bit code or chip
sequence. To transmit a 1 bit, a station sends its chip
sequence. To transmit a 0 bit, it sends the one’s complement
of its chip sequence. No other patterns are permitted. Thus
for m = 8, if a station A is assigned the chip sequence
00011011, it sends a 1 bit by sending 00011011 and 0 bit by
sending 11100100.
If we have 1-MHz band available for 100 stations, with FDM
each one would have 10 kHz and could send at 10 kbps
(assuming 1 bit per Hz). With CDMA, each station uses the
full 1 MHz, so the chip rate is 1 megachip per second. With
fewer than 100 chips per bit, the effective bandwidth per
station is higher for CDMA than FDMA, and the channel
allocation problem is also solved.
It is more convenient to use a bipolar notation, with binary 0
being –1 and binary 1 being +1. We will show chip
sequences in parentheses, so a 1 bit for station A now
becomes (-1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1). In Fig. (a), we show the
binary chip sequence assigned to four example stations. In
Fig. (b), we show them in our bipolar notation. During each bit time, a station can transmit a 1 by sending its
A: 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 A: (-1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1) chip sequence, it can transmit a 0 by sending negative of its
B: 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 B: (-1-1+1-1+1+1+1-1) chip sequence, or it can be silent and

transmit nothing. For the moment, we assume that all stations

are synchronized in time, so all chip sequence begin at the
C: 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 C: (-1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1) same instant.
D: 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 D: (-1+1-1-1-1-1+1-1)
When two or more station transmit simultaneously, their
Fig. (a)Binary chip,Fig. (b)Bipolar chip sequence bipolar signals add linearly. For example, if in one chip
Sequence for 4 stations period three stations output +1 and one station outputs –1, the
result is +2. One can think of this as adding voltages: three
Six Examples: stations outputting +1 volts and 1 station outputting –1 volts
gives 2 volts.
_ _1_ C S1= ( -1 +1 –1 +1 +1 +1 –1 In Fig.(c), we see six examples of one or more stations
+1 transmitting at the same time. In the first example, C
_ 11_ B+C S2= ( -2 0 0 0 +2 +2 0 -2) transmits a 1 bit, so we just get C’s chip sequence. In the
1 0_ _ A+B S3= ( 0 0 –2 +2 0 -2 0 +2) second example, both B and C transmit 1 bits, so we get the
101_ A+B+C S4= ( -1 +1 –3 +3 –1 –1 –1 sum of their bipolar chip sequences.
+1)
1111 A+B+C+D S5= ( -4 0 -2 0 +2 0 +2 -2) In the third example, station A sends 1 and station B sends a
1101 A+B+C+D S6= ( -2 –2 0 –2 0 –2 +4 0 ) 0. The others are silent. In the fifth example, all four stations
sends 1 bit. Finally, in the last example A, B, and D sends a 1
Fig. (c) Six example of Transmission bit, while C sends a 0 bit. Note that each of the six sequences
S1 through S6 given in Fig. (c) represents only one bit time.

S1C = (1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1)/8 = 1
S2C = (2+0+0+0+2+2+0+2)/8 = 1
S3C = (0+0+2+2+0-2+0-2)/8 = 0 Fig. (d)
Recovery of station
S4C = (1+1+3+3+1-1+1-1)/8 = 1
C’s signal
S5C = (4+0+2+0+2+0-2+2)/8 = 1
S6C = (2-2+0-2+0-2-4+0)/8 = -1
Each station has its own unique chip sequence. Let’s use
symbol S to indicate the m-chip vector for station S , and S
for its negation. All chip sequences are pairwise orthogonal,
by which we mean that the normalized inner product of any
two distinct chip sequences, S and T (ST) is 0. In
mathematical terms,
m
S T = 1/m ∑ Si * Ti = 0
i=1
To recover the bit stream of an individual station, the
receiver must know that station’s chip sequence in advance.
It does the recovery by computing the normalized inner
product of the received chip sequence (the linear sum of all
the stations that transmitted) and the chip sequence of the
station whose bit stream it is trying to recover. If the received
chip sequence is S and the receiver is trying to listen to a
station whose chip sequence is C, it just computes the
normalized inner product, SC.
To see why this works, imagine the two stations, A and C,
both transmit a 1 bit at the same time that B transmit a 0 bit.
The receiver sees the sum: S = A+B+C and computes
SC = AC+ BC+ CC =0+0+1 = 1

in plain, English, as many pairs are same as are different. The first two terms vanish because all pairs of chip sequence
This orthogonality property will prove crucial. Note that if have been carefully chosen to be orthogonal. Now it should
ST = 0 then ST= 0. The normalized inner product of any be clear why this property must be imposed on the chip
chip sequence with itself is 1: sequence.

m m To make the decoding process more concrete, let us consider

S S = 1/m ∑ Si * Si = 1/m ∑(+1)²=1
i=1 i=1
This follows because each of the m terms in the inner product
is 1, so the sum is m. Also note that SS = -1.
the six examples of fig.(d) again. Suppose that the receiver is
interested in extracting the bit sent by station C from each of
the six sums S1 through S6. It calculates the bit by summing
the pairwise products of the received S and C vector of Fig.
(b), and then taking 1/8 of the result (since m=8 here). As
shown, each time the correct bit is decoded.
ASSUMPTIONS IN THE ABOVE EXAMPLE
First, we assumed that all the chips are synchronized in time.
In reality, doing so is impossible. What can be done is that
the sender and receiver synchronize by having the sender
transmit a long enough known chip sequence that the receiver
can lock onto. All other (unsynchronized) transmissions are
then seen as random noise.
An implicit assumption in the above example is that the
power levels of all stations are the same as perceived by the
receiver. CDMA is typically used for wireless systems with a
fixed base station and many mobile stations at varying
distances from it. The power levels received at the base
station depends on how far away the transmitters are. A good
heuristic here is for each mobile station to transmit to the
base station at the inverse of the power level it receives from
the base station, so a mobile station receiving a weak signal
from the base will use more power than one getting a strong
signal. The base station can also give explicit commands to
the mobile stations to increase or decrease their transmission
power.
We have also assumed that the receiver knows who the
sender is. In principle, given enough computing capacity, the
receiver can listen to all the senders at once by running the
decoding algorithm for each of them in parallel. In real life,
suffice it to say that this is easier than done.
V. FEATURES OF CDMA
7.1 CDMA AND WLL
For many years now, India has been a GSM subscriber. In
1999, when MTNL decided to provide the CDMA-based
WiLL(Wireless in Local Loop) service in India, quite a few
eyebrows were raised. The biggest reason why mobile
operators opposed the entry of WiLL is that it is uncertain to
allow mobility in the local loop.
CDMA is restricted to a short distance charging area(SDCA).
Currently, there are 2600 SDCAs within the country. A
CDMA-based phone can thus ‘roam’ only within its SDCA.
This is NOT a technological restriction.
In India, Reliance Infocom and Tata Indicom use CDMA
technology to provide WiLL services. In remote rural areas,
where installing cables is diffucult as well as expensive,
CDMA-based WiLL networks can be deployed quickly.
7.2 3G (3rd Generation)
3G, as it is popularly called, refers to the 3 rd generation of
wireless networks. The 3rd generation provides higher
frequency bands (of 2Ghz and more) and a bandwidth of
around 5 MHz. The Bandwidth and frequency is matched by
speeds of 384 Kbps in a mobile environment.
Will CDMA be the path towards 3G” The world seems to be
divided on this. While the standard choosen by Reliance-
CDMA2000 1x-is the 3G avatar of CDMA, the restrictions
imposed by the TRAI(Telecom Regulatory Authoriy of India)
doesn’t let it explore the 3G realms. Plus, some Wide CDMA
supporters(W-CDMA) aren’t helping the situation by
claiming CDMA 1x is not 3G.
Third-generation applications includes WCDMA, 1x and
High Data Rate (HDR).
7.2.1 3G-MIGRATION
CDMA2000 3G offers a viable solution for any existing
cellular and PCS as well as new 3G licensed operator.
CDMA2000 was designed so that any wireless carrier,
regardless of existing air interface, frequency or core network
standards can benefit from its spectrum efficiencies and data
capabilities
7.2.1.1 CCDMA ONE TO CDMA2000 MIGRATION
CDMA2000 is the natural 3G evolution for cdmaOne
operators, requiring only minor upgrades to the network and
small capital investment. CDMA2000 handsets are backward
compatible with the legacy cdmaOne infrastructure. Because
of this, the transition from cdmaOne to CDMA2000 1X is
relatively easy for operators and transparent for consumers
This inherent advantage of cdmaOne gives operators
significant market advantage.
cdmaOne operators lead deployment of 3G across markets in
Asia, the Americas and Europe.
The transition from cdmaOne to CDMA2000 requires
channel card and software upgrades to cdmaOne base stations
(older base stations may require some hardware upgrades)
and introduction of new handsets.
7.2.1.2 TDMA to CDMA2000 Migration
Lacking a technological migration path to enable higher
voice capacity and bandwidth-intense mobile data services,
TDMA has reached its limit. Thus, TDMA operators are
faced with a difficult decision to choose a technology that
will assure their future in the wireless market. CDMA2000 is
an extremely attractive solution for TDMA operators. It
offers them a direct path to3G, preserves their investment in
the existing core network, and allows them flexibility to
migrate to 3G over time, as the market for advanced service
evolves.
Advantages of CDMA2000 as a migration path for TDMA
• Offers a direct path to 3G via a single
evolutionary step rather than two or three
upgrades required for an alternative path
• Reuses IS-41 elements of the existing core
network, providing for substantial cost
savings and enabling service transparency
for end users
• Increases capacity of the existing TDMA
air interface by 4 to 8 times to meet future
demand for voice services
• Requires only a small amount of spectrum
(1.25 MHz) for advanced services while
preserving capacity to service existing
customers
• Does not require new spectrum.
CDMA2000 is designed to operate in all
existing cellular and PCS bands, including
800 MHz and 1900 MHz where TDMA
currently is deployed.
• A wide range of competitively priced
devices are commercially available
• A number of infrastructure manufacturers
offer solutions today
For TDMA operators in Latin America, CDMA2000 also
opens significant roaming markets in the Americas. Because
CDMA2000 is backward compatible with cdmaOne, the
subscribers would be able to roam in 15 countries in South
America, as well as with the U.S. and Canada.
Already a number of TDMA operators have selected
CDMA2000 as a migration path either through cdmaOne or
directly to CDMA2000.
7.2.1.3 GSM1X : GSM TO CDMA 2000 MIGRATION
The CDMA2000 family of standards, including CDMA2000
1x and CDMA2000 1x EV-DO, can also be a 3G solution for
GSM operators. GSM1x, is an overlay solution which enables
the coexistence of CDMA2000 1X radio access networks
with GSM-MAP core service networks in existing or new
spectrum. With GSM1x, GSM operators can seamlessly
leverage their existing GSM core network and services while
enhancing the data capabilities and spectral efficiencies of
their radio access with CDMA2000 infrastructure.
GSM1x Components
A GSM1x network has four primary components:
1. The service core network is a standard
GSM core network. This enables existing
network equipment to be utilized. And
further offers GSM service transparency for
both basic and supplementary service.
2. The radio access network is standard
CDMA2000 radio infrastructure which is
IOS4 compliant. This enables CDMA2000
capacity of 35 calls per sector per 1.25
MHz channel, and peak data rates up to 153
kbps with CDMA2000 1x and 2.4 Mbps
with CDMA2000 1x EVDO
3. The handsets are standard SIM-enabled
CDMA2000 handsets, the same SIM as
GSM handsets.
4. The mobile switching node (MSN)
interfaces with both the unmodified core
network and the radio access network
concurrently, integrating both voice and
data traffic.
GSM1x Overview
GSM1x takes the concept of network convergence to a new
level. It combines the feature-rich services of GSM with the
spectral efficiency of the CDMA2000 family of air interfaces.
GSM1x is a unique solution that takes full advantage of an
operator's investment in its existing GSM core network. It has
also been designed to overlay an existing GSM network with
no impact to current services and features. GSM1x provides a
seamless integration to the GSM core network and services,
by maintaining all existing infrastructure. The GSM1x MSN
(Mobile Switching Node) interfaces with both the unmodified
GSM core network and the CDMA20001x and/or 1x EVDO
radio access networks concurrently, integrating both voice
and data traffic.
By utilizing CDMA2000 radio access to improve efficiency
of existing spectrum (800, 900, 1800, 1900 and 2100 MHz),
GSM1x will increase an operator's voice and data capacity.
And service transparency between the GSM and the GSM1x
network is maintained.
As with CDMA20001x, GSM1x provides peak rates of 307
kbps per sector and peak data rates up to 2.4 Mbps with
1xEV-DO in a 1.25 MHz channel. This allows GSM
operators to offer advanced capabilities, in a cost effective
manner, while maintaining the inherent strength of the core
network. Furthermore, an operator can provide simultaneous
voice and data through the enhanced capacity of this solution.
VII DISADVANTAGE
11.1 COLLISIONS
In general, the collisions at the channel is a disadvantage of
CDMA system and can be mitigated by careful selection of
the sequence and power control that is close to perfect.
11.2 ROAMING
Since most countries have chosen the GSM standard,
“roaming” on CDMA is limited.

11.3 M-COMMERCE
GSM1x uses a standard CDMA2000 handset with a CDMA A CDMA doesn’t have a SIM card, which makes m-
SIM interface and a software upgrade to accept GSM SIM commerce difficult.
cards. Dual-mode, single-mode, and dual-band handsets will
be available, to meet the diverse needs of subscribers.
In conclusion, GSM1x provides a unique combination of both VIII CONCLUSION
technical and economic advantages to the carrier using
existing GSM technology (please see below). GSM1x further
enables new profitable service models such as landline
replacement, high-speed VPN, and dispatch services. By
utilizing this dynamic and revolutionary technology, carriers  Where CDMA scores
will be able to grow their business with minimal outlay of
additional capital.  Where CDMA needs to scores

VI ADVANTAGES OF CDMA 12.1 WHERE CDMA SCORES

♦No SIM card is required.

♦Improved call quality: CDMA provides better and more
consistent sound quality than systems based
on other technologies.
♦Enhanced privacy when compared to systems using other
technologies.
♦Increased talk time and standby time for mobiles.
♦They are difficult to intercept for an unauthorized
person.
♦They are easily hidden. For an unauthorized person, it is
difficult to ever detect their presence in many cases.
♦They are resistant to jamming.
♦Capacity increases of 8 to 10 times that of an
AMPS Analog system, and 4 to 5 times GSM ,
because of CDMA’s unique spread spectrum
technology.
♦Many users can share the same carrier frequency,
and without time-sharing. This means that mobile
phone Service providers can handle more customers
on a CDMA network than on a GSM network.
 Voice Quality
 CDMA reduces background noise
and cross talk, ensuring better voice quality, which is
further enhanced by the microprocessors inside the
phones.
 Call Security
 By design, CDMA is more secure
against evasdropping.
 Talk Time
 CDMA phone consumes very
little power, and has a longer talk time.
 Bandwidth
 CDMA 2000 1x offers 144kbps,
which makes it capable for multimedia tasks.
 Weight
 DDMA phones due to their low-
power requirements can do with smaller-sized batteries,
which decrease the overall weight of a CDMA phone.
12.2 WHERE CDMA NEEDS TO SCORE
 Roaming
 • Since most countries have chosen the GSM standard,
“roaming” on CDMA is limited.
 M-commerce
• A CDMA doesn’t have a SIM card, which
makes m-commerce difficult.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1) CRESPO, P.M., HONIG, M.L.,and SALEHI, J.A. :

“Spread-Time Code-Division Multiple Access” IEEE Trans.
On Commun., vol 43, pp. 2139-2148, June 1995.
COMPUTER NETWORKS, 3rd Ed. - By Andrew S.
Tanenbaum

2) VITERBI, A.J.: CDMA Principle of Spread Spectrum

Communications, Reading ,MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995.