CHAPTER – 1

DRIP IRRIGATION

Introduction

Drip irrigation is a type of micro-irrigation system that has the potential to save water
and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either from above
the soil surface or buried below the surface or which gives sufficient moisture to the
roots of the crops to prevent water stress. In this system , water is delivered directly to
the roots of the plants through an emitter or dripper .Drip irrigation systems distribute
water through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters The water near the root
zone spread linearly as well as vertically due to capillary action in the soil.. Drip
irrigation began its development with subsurface irrigation using clay pipe to create
combination irrigation and drainage systems. The research was later expanded
include the application of perforated pipe systems. The usage of plastic to hold and
distribute water in drip irrigation was later developed and Instead of releasing water
through tiny holes easily blocked by tiny particles, water was released through larger
and longer passageways by using velocity to slow water inside a plastic emitter. Drip
irrigation may also use devices called micro-spray heads, which spray water in a small
area, instead of dripping emitters. These are generally used on tree and vine crops
with wider root zones. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) uses permanently or temporarily
buried dripper line or drip tape located at or below the plant roots. It is becoming
popular for row crop irrigation, especially in areas where water supplies are limited, or
recycled water is used for irrigation. Careful study of all the relevant factors like land
topography, soil, water, crop and agro-climatic conditions are needed to determine the
most suitable drip irrigation system and components to be used in a specific
installation. Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping
water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter
plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to
plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted (Figure 60), unlike
surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile. With drip

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irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other
methods and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which
plants can flourish. Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (vegetables, soft fruit),
tree and vine crops where one or more emitters can be provided for each plant.
Generally only high value crops are considered because of the high capital costs of
installing a drip system.

TYPES OF DRIP IRRIGATION

SURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION

Surface drip irrigation is much more common and uses a very large range of drip
emitter devices. Lateral lines, supplied from a field main, are laid on the surface. They
are commonly 10 to 25 mm in diameter and are either perforated or fitted with special
emitters. The latter are designed to drip water on to the soil Manual and Tools for
Promoting SPIS – Stocktaking & Analysis Report 20 at a controlled rate, ranging from
1 to 10 litres per hour per emitter. The operating water pressure is usually in the range
of 0.5 to 2.5 atmospheres. This pressure is dissipated by friction in flow through the
narrow passages or orifices of the emitters, so the water emerges at atmospheric
pressure in the form of drops rather than a jet or spray.

Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral
to the plants. They are usually spaced more than 1 meter apart with one or more
emitters used for a single plant such as a tree. The basis of design is to produce an
emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge that does not vary much with
pressure changes, and does not block easily.

Commercial emitters are either in-line (spliced into the lateral supply tubes), or on-line
(plugged on to the tubes through a hole punched into the tubing wall). Commercial
emitters are usually pre-calibrated to discharge at a constant rate of 2, 4, 8 or 16 litres
per hour. The discharge rate is always affected by changes in pressure, but less so in
the case of pressure-compensated emitters. The frequency and duration of each
irrigation period are controlled by means of a manual valve or a programmable
automatic valve assembly. Metering valves are designed to shut the flow automatically
after a pre-set volume of water is applied.

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SUBSURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION

Sub-surface irrigation (SDI) is a more sophisticated and hence expensive and rare
method, which employs narrow plastic tubes of about 2 cm diameter. These are buried
in the soil at a depth between 20 and 50 cm, deep enough so as not to interfere with
normal tillage or traffic.

The tubes are either porous throughout, or are fitted with regularly spaced emitters or
perforations. If porous, the tubes exude water along their entire length. If fitted with
emitters, they release water only at specific points. The released water then spreads
or diffuses in the soil. The pattern of wetting depends on the properties of the
surrounding soil, as well as on the length of the interval between adjacent emitters and
their discharge rates.

A potential problem with this technology is that the narrow orifices of the emitters may
get clogged by roots, particles, algae or precipitating salts.

Experience in Israel, California and elsewhere has shown that this method of
subsurface irrigation is feasible in plantations of fruit trees and other perennial row
crops. It may also be applicable to annual crops grown in regular beds when high
maintenance intensity can be assured. The employment of modern subsurface drip
irrigation technology in developing countries is seldom and is often not feasible due to
unfavourable framework conditions.

Drip Irrigation Is Suitable Only When

Slopes

Drip irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted
along contour lines and the water supply pipes (laterals) would be laid along the
contour also. This is done to minimize changes in emitter discharge as a result of land
elevation changes.

Soils

Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to
avoid surface water ponding and runoff. On sandy soils higher emitter discharge rates
will be needed to ensure adequate lateral wetting of the soil.

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Irrigation water

One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters
have very small waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can
become blocked if the water is not clean. Thus it is essential for irrigation water to be
free of sediments. If this is not so then filtration of the irrigation water will be needed.

Blockage may also occur if the water contains algae, fertilizer deposits and dissolved
chemicals which precipitate such as calcium and iron. Filtration may remove some of
the materials but the problem may be complex to solve and requires an experienced
engineer or consultation with the equipment dealer.

Drip irrigation is particularly suitable for water of poor quality (saline water). Dripping
water to individual plants also means that the method can be very efficient in water
use. For this reason it is most suitable when water is scarce.

Components Or Layout Of Drip Irrigation System

A typical drip irrigation system is consists of :

PUMP UNIT

The pump unit takes water from the source and provides the right pressure for
delivery into the pipe system.

CONTROL UNIT

The control head consists of valves to control the discharge and pressure In the
entire system. It may also have filters to clear the water. Common types of filter include
screen filters and graded sand filters which remove fine material suspended in the
water. Some control head units contain a fertilizer or nutrient tank. These slowly add
a measured dose of fertilizer into the water during irrigation. This is one of the major
advantages of drip irrigation over other methods.

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MAINLINES, SUB-MAINS AND LATERALS

Mainlines, Sub-mains and Laterals supply water from the control head into the
fields. They are usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose and should be buried
below ground because they easily degrade when exposed to direct solar radiation.
Lateral pipes are usually 13-32 mm diameter.

EMITTERS

Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral
to the plants. They are usually spaced more than 1 metre apart with one or more
emitters used for a single plant such as a tree. For row crops more closely spaced
emitters may be used to wet a strip of soil. Many different emitter designs have been
produced in recent years.

Operating Drip Systems

A drip system is usually permanent. When remaining In place during more than one
season, a system is considered permanent. Thus it can easily be automated. This is
very useful when labour is scarce or expensive to hire. However, automation requires
specialist skills and so this approach is unsuitable if such skills are not available.

Water can be applied frequently (every day if required) with drip irrigation and this
provides very favourable conditions for crop growth. However, if crops are used to
being watered each day they may only develop shallow roots and If the system breaks
down, the crop may begin to suffer very quickly.

Wetting patterns

Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation only wets part of the soil root zone.
This may be as, low as 30% of the volume of soil wetted by the other methods. The
wetting patterns which develop from dripping water onto the soil depend on discharge
and soil type. Figure 64 shows the effect of changes in discharge on two different soil
types, namely sand and clay.

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Wetting patterns for sand and clay soils with high and low discharge rates
(SAND)

Wetting patterns for sand and clay soils with high and low discharge rates
(CLAY)

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Although only part of the root zone is wetted it is still important to meet the full water
needs of the crop. It is sometimes thought that drip irrigation saves water by reducing
the amount used by the crop. This is not true. Crop water use is not changed by the
method of applying water. Crops just require the right amount for good growth.

The water savings that can be made using drip irrigation are the reductions in deep
percolation, in surface runoff and in evaporation from the soil. These savings, it must
be remembered, depend as much on the user of the equipment as on the equipment
itself.

Drip irrigation is not a substitute for other proven methods of irrigation. It is just another
way of applying water. It is best suited to areas where water quality is marginal, land
is s sloping or undulating and of poor quality, where water or labour are expensive, or
where high value crops require frequent water.

Response Of Different Crops To Drift Irrigation System :

Crops Water saving (%) Increase in yield (%)

Banana 45 52

Cauliflower 68 70

Chilly 68 28

Cucumber 56 48

Grapes 48 23

Ground nut 40 152

Pomegranate 45 45

Sugarcane 50 99

Sweet lime 61 50

Tomato 42 60

Watermelon 66 19

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Advantages And Disadvantages Of Drip Irrigation

Advantages of Drip Irrigation are as follows

• Extensive land levelling and binding is not required, drip irrigation can be employed
in all landscapes;
• Irrigation water can be used at a maximum efficiency level and water losses can
be reduced to a minimum;
• Soil conditions can be taken into account to a maximum extent and soil erosion
risk due to irrigation water impact can be reduced to a minimum;
• Fertilizer and nutrients can be used with high efficiency; as water is applied locally
and leaching is reduced, fertilizer/nutrient loss is minimized (reduced risk of
groundwater contamination);
• Weed growth is reduced as water and nutrients are supplied only to the cultivated
plant;
• Positive impact on seed germination and yield development;
• Low operational costs due to reduced labour requirement, in particular energy cost
can be reduced as drip irrigation is operated with lower pressure than other
irrigation methods.

Disadvantages of Drip Irrigation are as follows

• High initial investment requirements;

• Regular capital requirement for replacement of drip irrigation equipment on the
surface (damage due to movement of equipment, UV-radiation);
• Drip irrigation emitters are vulnerable to clogging and dysfunction (water filters
required, regular flushing of pipe system);
• High skill requirements for irrigation water management in order to achieve optimal
water distribution;
• Soil salinity hazard.

Irrigation water tends to spread sideways and downwards in the soil from
the point where it is dripped. The fraction of the soil’s total volume that is actually
wetted depends on the density of the drip points (the grid) as well as on the rate of
application and the internal water-spreading properties of the soil. The wetted zone,

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and hence the active rooting volume, is usually less than half of what would be the
normal root zone if the entire soil were wetted uniformly.

Under frequent drip, the wetted portion of the soil is maintained in a continuously moist
state, though the soil is unsaturated and therefore well aerated. This creates a
uniquely favourable soil moisture regime. Drip irrigation thus offers a distinct
advantage over flood irrigation and even over less-frequent sprinkler irrigation,
especially for sandy soils of low moisture storage capacity and in arid climates of high
evaporative demand. In contrast to sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation is practically
unaffected by wind conditions. Compared to surface irrigation, it is less affected by soil
texture, topography or surface roughness.

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 CHARPTER - 2

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

Introduction

An Irrigation sprinkler is also known as a water sprinkler or simply a sprinkler .It is

a device used to irrigate agricultural crops, lawns, landscapes, golf courses, and other
areas. They are also used for cooling and for the control of airborne dust. Sprinkler
irrigation is the method of applying water to a controlled manner in that is similar to
rainfall. The water is distributed through a network that may consist of pumps, valves,
pipes, and sprinklers. Irrigation sprinklers can be used for residential, industrial, and
agricultural usage. Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is
similar to natural rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by
pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small
water drops which fall to the ground. The pump supply system, sprinklers and
operating conditions must be designed to enable a uniform application of water. As
water sprays from a sprinkler it breaks up into small drops between 0.5 and 4.0 mm in
size. The small drops fall close to the sprinkler whereas the larger ones fall close to
the edge of the wetted circle. Large drops can damage delicate crops and soils and
so in such conditions it is best to use the smaller sprinklers.

Drop size is also controlled by pressure and nozzle size. When the pressure is low,
drops tend to be much larger as the water jet does not break up easily. So to avoid
crop and soil damage use small diameter nozzles operating at or above the normal
recommended operating pressure.

Types Of Sprinkler Irrigation System

There are two types of Sprinkler Irrigation System which are as follows:

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Industrial
Higher pressure sprinklers that themselves move in a circle are driven by a ball drive,
gear drive, or impact sprinklers. These can be designed to rotate in a full or partial
circle.
Rain guns are similar to impact sprinkler, except that they generally operate at very
high pressures and flows usually with nozzle diameters in the range of 0.5 to
1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). In addition to irrigation, guns are used for industrial
applications such as logging and dust suppression .
Many irrigation sprinklers are buried in the ground along with their supporting
plumbing, although above ground and moving sprinklers are also common. Most
irrigation sprinklers operate through electric and hydraulic technology and are grouped
together in zones that can be collectively turned on and off by actuating a solenoid-
controlled valve.
Residential
An Oscillating Sprinkler is used for water residential lawn .Home lawn sprinklers vary
widely in their size, cost, and complexity. They include impact sprinklers, oscillating
sprinklers, drip sprinklers, underground sprinkler systems, and portable sprinklers.
Permanently installed systems may often operate on timers or other automated
processes. They are occasionally installed with retractable heads for aesthetic and
practical reasons, reducing damage during mowing. These types of systems usually
can be programmed to automatically start on a set time and day each week.

Small portable sprinklers can be temporarily placed on lawns if additional watering is

needed or if no permanent system is in place. These are often attached to an outdoor
water faucet and are placed for a short period of time. Other systems may be
professionally installed permanently in the ground and are attached permanently to a
home's plumbing system. Water pressure ensured that the sprinkler slowly moved
across a lawn.

Sprinkler Irrigation Is Suitable Only When

crops

Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed
over or under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for

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irrigation of delicate crops because the large water drops produced by the sprinklers
may damage the crop.

slopes

Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating.

The lateral pipes supplying water to the sprinklers should always be laid out along the
land contour whenever possible. This will minimize the pressure changes at the
sprinklers and provide a uniform irrigation.

soils

Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour)
vis always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil so that surface
ponding and runoff can be avoided.

Sprinklers are not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If sprinkler irrigation is
the only method available, then light fine sprays should be used. The larger sprinklers
producing larger water droplets are to be avoided.

Irrigation water

A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid

problems of sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with
sediment.

Components Or Layout Of Sprinkler Irrigation System

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components

Pump Unit

The pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump which takes water from the source and
provides adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe system.

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Mainline and Sub mainlines

The mainline - and sub mainlines - are pipes which deliver water from the pump to
the laterals. In some cases these pipelines are permanent and are laid on the soil
surface or buried below ground. In other cases they are temporary, and can be moved
from field to field. The main pipe materials used include asbestos cement, plastic or
aluminium alloy.

Laterals

The laterals deliver water from the mainlines or sub mainlines to the sprinklers. They
can be permanent but more often they are portable and made of aluminium alloy or
plastic so that they can be moved easily. It consists of a system of lightweight
aluminium or plastic pipes which are moved by hand. The rotary sprinklers are usually
spaced 9-24 m apart along the lateral which is normally 5-12.5 cm in diameter. This is
so it can be carried easily. The lateral pipe is located in the field until the irrigation is
complete. The pump is then switched off and the lateral is disconnected from the
mainline and moved to the next location .It is re-assembled and connected to the
mainline and the irrigation begins again. The lateral can be moved one to four times a
day. It is gradually moved around the field until the whole field is irrigated. This is the
simplest of all systems. Some use more than one lateral to irrigate larger areas.

Operating Sprinkler System

The main objective of a sprinkler system is to apply water as uniformly as possible to

fill the root zone of the crop with water.

Wetting patterns

The wetting pattern from a single rotary sprinkler is not very uniform . Normally the
area wetted is circular . The heaviest wetting is close to the sprinkler. For good
uniformity several sprinklers must be operated close together so that their patterns
overlap . For good uniformity the overlap should be at least 65% of the wetted
diameter. This determines the maximum spacing between sprinklers.

The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by wind and water pressure.

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Spray from sprinklers is easily blown about by even a gentle breeze and this can
seriously reduce uniformity. To reduce the effects of wind the sprinklers can be
positioned more closely together.

Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (TOP VIEW)

Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (SIDE VIEW)

Sprinkler will only work well at the right operating pressure recommended by the
manufacturer. If the pressure is above or below this then the distribution will be
affected. The most common problem is when the pressure is too low. This happens
when pumps and pipes wear. Friction increases and so pressure at the sprinkler
reduces. The result is that the water jet does not break up and all the water tends to

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fall in one area towards the outside of the wetted circle. If the pressure is too high then
the distribution will also be poor. A fine spray develops which falls close to the
sprinkler.

Sprinkler irrigation technology can support farmers to adapt to climate change by

making more efficient use of their water supply. This is particularly appropriate where
there is (or is expected to be) limited or irregular water supply for agricultural use. The
sprinkler technology uses less water than irrigation by gravity, and provides a more
even application of water to the cultivated plot. Additionally, sprinkler irrigation can
reduce the risk of crops freezing due to colder than usual temperatures. More frequent
and intense frosts are already impacting on crops as a result of climate change. During
the night, the motion of the sprinklers and the application of rain-like water droplets
can reduce the stress on crops caused by a sharp decrease in temperature .

Responsible Of Different Crops To Sprinkler Irrigation System

Water saving % Yield increase %

Barley 56 16

Cabbage 40 3

Cauliflower 35 12

Chillies 33 24

Cotton 36 50

Groundnut 20 40

Maize 41 36

Onion 33 23

Potato 46 4

Wheat 35 24

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Advantages And Disadvantages Of Sprinkler Irrigation System

Advantages

The main advantages of sprinkler irrigation,

• Expansive land levelling is not required.

• Water saving irrigation intensity can be changed in accordance with the
infiltration capacity of soil.
• High efficiency due to uniform water distribution.
• No special skills trained personal can operate the system reasonably well.
• Ease and uniform application of fertilizers and pesticides through irrigation
system.
• Possibility of applying minute quantity of water for germination and other
irrigation systems.
• Frequent and light irrigation possible giving better response from the crops.
• Increase in yield and quality, early ripening, water conservation and
alternative value of specific period saving of labour, machinery, fertilizer and
pesticides.
• Soil moisture is maintained at optimum level by sprinkler irrigation and 20
higher yields are obtained of crops and the quality of other crops is also good.

Disadvantages

• High and continuous energy requirement for operation.

• High initial cost.
• Under high wind condition and high temperature distribution and application
efficiency is poor.
• Highly saline water 7mm hoes/cm causes leaf burning when temperature
higher than 95 When lands have been already levelled and developed for
surface or other irrigation methods.
• Sprinkler irrigation is not so economical.
• Loss of water due to evaporation from the area during irrigation.
• Above canopy sprinkling may cause washing of spray, materials and aggravate
the incidence of pests and diseases.

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